MCE5C01: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Course Content
Environmental Chemistry - Chemical Equilibria and kinetics
fundamentals – Chemical thermodynamics; Acid Base Equilibria -
Equilibrium Diagrams - Alkalinity and Acidity, Carbonic Acid System,
Buffer and buffer intensity; Gas Laws; Solubility Equilibria- Removal of
Heavy Metals from Complex Water and Wastewater Systems;
Oxidation Reduction Equlilibria - Stability Diagrams - Application of
Redox Chemistry; Water Stabilization- Langelier Saturation Index -
Caldwell Lawrence Diagrams – Water Softening and Neutralization -
Chemical Precipitation.
Microbiological concepts – classification and structure of
microorganisms – Microbial metabolism - respiration and energy
generation- microbial growth-enzyme kinetics – bio kinetics – control
of microbes - Microbiology of water and wastewater treatment –
Industrial microbiology – economic importance.
 CYTOLOGY
Study of form and structure of cells and their organelles (parts), as
seen under microscope.

CELL
Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of living beings
inhibited by a small mass of protoplasm (material that is basis of
life in living beings) having a nucleus and is delimited from its
surroundings by a selectively permeable membrane which
exchanges energy and materials, and is capable of independent
existence (growth, metabolism and reproduction) in a suitable
medium free of other living systems.
The cells of all organisms have some common features, such as :
- The cells take non-living matter, and convert it into living
matter (i.e. protoplasm).
- The cells have the ability to divide and form replicates.
- They utilize energy to organise macromolecules.
- They have a similar method of energy transfers and
conversion of chemical energy into work.
- They have a mechanism to regulate exchange of materials
between their interior and external environment.
- They have coded genetic information, which is replicated
with each division.
- For regulating their own metabolism, they utilize hereditary
information in the synthesis of proteins and enzymes.
 TYPES OF CELLULAR ORGANISATION

There are two types of cellular organisations ; viz.

- one- envelope-system of organisation, and
- two-envelope-system of organisation.

One-envelope-system of organisation
In one-envelope system of organisation, the cells lack
membrane bound organelles (parts) and, therefore, have only one
membrane that surrounds the whole cell. The organisms which
possess single membrane or one envelope- system of organisation
are called ‘Prokaryotes’ or unicellular organisms.
Prokaryotes are placed in a super-kingdom
called ‘prokaryota’.
It contains three types of organisms, viz.
blue-green algae or cynobacteria ;

bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli); and

pleuropneumonia like organisms or PPLO’s .

PPLOs are also called ‘mycoplasmas’ ; and
they are the smallest and simplest
of all the organisms.
The cells of prokaryotes are called ‘prokaryotic cells’.
Two-envelope-system of Organisation
In two-envelope-system of organisation, not only the whole
cell is surrounded by a membrane but many of cell organelles are
also covered by their own membranes. Some of the organelles
have double membranes too. The organisms having double
membrane or two-envelope-system of organisation are called
‘Eukaryotes’ or multicellular organisms.
Eukaryotes are placed in a super-kingdom called
‘eukaryota’. Eukaryota includes all animals, plants, fungi and algae
(except blue-green ones). The cells of eukaryotes are called
‘eukaryotic cells.’
 Unicellular organisms
(Prokaryotes)
Acellular & no division of labour
exists.
Easily killed & damaged by death
of the cell.
Single cell is directly exposed to
the environment on all sides.
All functions of the body occurs in
a single cell, so every possibility of
interfering of one function with
another function.
Sensitive to the external stimuli to
a moderate level.
Not efficient in saving energy &
storing materials.
Have shorter life span.
Multicellular organisms
(Eukaryotes)
Formed of large no. of similar and
dissimilar cells, and division of
labour occurs b/n cells.
Death of few cells does not create
any serious consequences.
Only outermost cells are exposed
to environment & not all the cells.
Different functions are performed
by different specialized cells.
Highly sensitive to the external
stimuli.
Highly efficient in saving energy &
storing materials.
Have longer life span.
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
That cell which does not possess an organised
nucleus & is devoid of
membrane bound organelles (parts).
Example: PPLO, Bacterial cell,
Blue-green algae (cynobacteria)

Bacterial cell as well as

cynobacteria consists of
a cell wall & protoplast;
but PPLO lacks cell wall.

Protoplast denotes the whole of

the protoplasm in a cell.
Protoplast is differentiated into –
plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleoid (nuclear body) and Structure of a bacterial cell
vacuole. (prokaryotic cell)
Structure of a bacterial cell
(prokaryotic cell)
 Organelles of Prokaryotic Cells
Briefly be described as:
Cell wall: Provides rigidity, shape & protection to the cell. A sheath
of ‘mucilage’ lies on the outside of the cell wall. Both bacteria and
blue-green algae possess cell wall; while PPLOs lack cell wall.
Flagella/cilia: Some bacteria possess flagella which are small &
single stranded. They provide mobility to the cell.
Plasma membrane or Plasmalemma: A selective membrane that
surrounds the whole cell. It regulates the entering or leaving of
substances in a cell.
Mesosome & Lamellasome: A coiled tubular and membranous
ingrowth attached to the plasma membrane is called mesosome in
bacteria, and lamellasome in blue-green algae. Helps in replication
of DNA & formation of new wall or ‘septum’. In PPLOs, replicating
disc is found for helping in DNA’s replication.
Nucleoid: Prokaryotic cell is devoid of organised nucleus. DNA or
Genetic material is naked & lies variously coiled in the cytoplasm. It
is called genphore, nucleoid or nuclear body.
Ribosome: Ribosomes of 70S type are present in prokaryotic cells.
They occur free in the cytoplasm, and carry out protein synthesis.

Thylakoid: Blue-green algae and some bacteria are photoautotrophic.

They possess photosynthetic thylakoid. The thylakoids lie freely in the
cytoplasm. They are not organised into chloroplasts. Photosynthetic
pigments are located on the membranes of the thylakoids. Bacteria
have bacteriochlorophyll and chlorobium chlorophyll, while blue-
green algae possess chlorophyll-a (like other algae and higher plants).

Respiratory enzymes: Usually lies in contact with the cell membrane.

Protein granules & fat/lipid globules: Food is reserved in the form

which resembles glycogen. Protein granules and fat/lipid globules
occur freely in the cytoplasm.
Gas vacuoles or pseudovacuoles: Provides buoyancy regulation,
protection against radiations & pressure of overlaying column of
water.
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
That cell which has a well organised nucleus covered by a double membrane
envelope for separating the contained DNA from the cytoplasm.
Example: Animals, plants, fungi and algae, except Blue-green algae (cynobacteria)

Structure of animal cell

EUKARYOTIC CELL

Structure of a plant cell

 Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Cell wall: It provide shape, rigidity and protection to cell.

The cell wall, in eukaryotic cell, does not contain muramic acid.
Cell wall is absent in animal cells.
Flagella/cilia: may or may not be present in different eukaryotic cells.
Plasma membrane: A differentially permeable outermost
membranous boundary of the cytoplasm.
It separates the protoplasm of a cell from its external environment.
Endoplasmic reticulum: It forms an inter-connected 3-dimensional
system of membrane lined channels.
Nucleus:
Golgi apparatus:
Mitochondria:
Ribosomes:
Lysosomes:
Plastids:
Sphaerosomes:
CELL WALL
It is usually considered to be a non-
living secretion of the protoplasm
but actually is metabolically active
and is capable of growth.
Thickness: 0.1 to 10 micro meter.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE (Plasmalemma or Cell Membrane)
 It separates the protoplasm of a cell from its external environment.
 It is a thin, elastic and somewhat solidified partition.
 Differentially permeable: It can be permeable to one substance at
one time and impermeable to it another time.
 Selective permeability: It allows entry of a substance but does not
allow its exit.
 Tonoplast: A similar membrane which separates the cytoplasm of a
cell from its vacuole.
 Biomembranes found inside the protoplast include the ones
present around nucleous, mitochondria, plastids, golgi apparatus
and microbodies.
 MITOCHONDRIA
 These are the cell organelles
of aerobic eukaryotes which
take part in aerobic
respiration.
 Power House of the Cells as
they are the major centres
of release of energy in the
aerobic respiration.
 Absent in prokaryotes and
anaerobic eukaryotes.
 These are the cell organelles of aerobic eukaryotes which take
part in aerobic respiration.
 Power House of the Cells as they are the major centres of
release of energy in the aerobic respiration.
 Absent in prokaryotes and anaerobic eukaryotes.
 Number varies from 1 (some algae) to 1000 (liver cell) to 1.5
lacs (eggs of sea urchin) and more.
 Green plant cells generally contain less nos. of mitochondria
as compared to non-green plant cells and animal cells.
Functions of Mitochondria
The functions performed by the mitochondria are :
 Mitochondria are the miniature biochemical factories where
food stuffs or respiratory substrates are completely oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water.
The energy liberated in the process is initially stored in the
form of reduced coenzymes or prosthetic groups. The latter
soon undergo oxidation and form energy rich ATP.
ATP comes out of mitochondria and helps perform various
energy requiring processes of the cell.
Because of the formation of ATP, the mitochondria are
known as power houses of the cell.
 Mitochondria provide important intermediates for the synthesis
of several biochemicals like chlorophyll, cytochrome,
pyrimidines, steroids etc.
 Synthesis of many amino acids occurs in the mitochondria.
 Chloroplast
Plastids: on the basis of colour-
1. Leucoplast: colourless – occur near the nucleus of non-green cells.
2. Chromplasts: yellow to reddish – provide colour to flowers & fruits.
3. Chloroplasts:
 These are green plastids which take part in the synthesis of
organic food from inorganic raw materials in the presence of
light.
 Plastids (chloroplast) are restricted to plants only (except few
protozoans).
 Absent in prokaryotes and anaerobic eukaryotes.
 Starch or carbohydrates can be stored temporarily or
permanently.
 No. of chloroplasts per cell is usually fixed for a species.
 Ribosome
• They are minute nucleoprotein protoplasmic structures which are
the sites for protein synthesis.
• Spherical bodies devoid of covering membrane.
• Consists of two unequal sub-units.
• The smaller subunit fits over the larger subunit at one end like a
cap leaving a tunnel between the two for the passage of mRNA.

Two types: depending upon the place of their occurrence-

1. Cytoplasmic ribosomes
2. Organelle ribosomes (in plastids/chloroplasts and
mitochondria)

Types: on the basis of size-

1. 80S (Eukaryotes: cytoplasmic) Subunits: 60S and 40S
2. 70S (Prokaryotes: cytoplasmic; and organelle) Subunits: 50S and
30S.
3. 55S (Mammalian mitochondria)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• ER is a 3-dimensional complicated and interconnected system of
membrane-lined channels that run through the cytoplasm.
• They are quite extensive in metabolically active cells (pancreas, liver, etc)
• Quite simple in storage cells (adipose cells)
• Absent in eggs, embryonic cells, resting cells, prokaryotic cells etc.
Three types: on the basis of nature of its membranes -
Smooth ER Rough ER Annulate ER
 Golgi Apparatus
• It is a complex protoplasmic structure made up of smooth
membrane, a network of tubules and vacuoles.
• It takes part in membrane transformation, secretion and
production of complex biochemicals.
• Absent in prokaryotic cells.
• Present in eukaryotic cells except few cells (RBC of mammals, sieve
tubes of plants, etc).
• Shape and size: Not fixed. Depend upon physiological state of cell.
 Lysosomes
• These are small vesicles bounded by a single membrane.
• There are about 40 enzymes present in different sets in different
lysosomes.
• Also called Suicide Bags because of a large number of digestive
enzymes or acid hydrolases in them.
 Flagellum
• It is surrounded by a sheath that is derived from the plasma
membrane of the cell.
• About 150 micro meter in length and 0.5 micr meter in dia.
• It contains ATP-ase.
• It provides support to basal body.
 Nucleus
• It is a specialised double-membrane bound protoplasmic body.
• It contains all the genetic information for controlling metabolism
and transmission to the posterity.
• Present in all Eukaryotic cells (except mature sieve cells of vascular
plants and RBC of mammals).
• Commonly situated in the geometric centre of the cell.
• In plant cell, it is pushed to peripheral position on one side due to
development of large central vacuole.
• Generally rounded in outline. Appear oval in plant cells.
• Chemical composition:
DNA – 9 to 12 %; RNA – 5 %; Lipids – 3 %; Basic proteins – 15 %;
Acid proteins, neutral proteins & enzymes – 65 %;
Trace minerals – Ca, Mg, K, Na, P, etc.
• Four parts:
1. Nuclear envelope 2. Nucleoplasm
3. Chromatin 4. Nucleolus