18 SHEET METAL WORK pUuCTION a BT work is generally regarded as the working of metal from 16 gett mem to 30 gauge, with hand tools and simple machines into various by cutting, forming _into shape, and joining. It has its own ificance aS @ useful trade in engineering works and also for-our day-to- * quirement ‘Common examples of sheet metal ‘work are hoppers, MH iges, guards, COVEFS, pipes, hoods, funnels, bends, boxes, etc. Such yes are found less expensive, lighter in weight, and at many places they aly eplace the use of the castings or forgings. In sheet metal work the knowledge of geometry, mensuration and sties of metal is most essential since nearly all patterns come from the delopment of the surfaces ‘of a number of geometrical models such as oladr, prism, cone, and pyramid: A good pattern properly drawn means suing of time and money. lla. METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK Itsheet metal work, the sheet metal used is black iron, galvanised iron, Xinless steel, copper, brass, zinc, aluminium, tin plate and ead. The sheets "sxcified by standard gauge numbers. Each gauge designates 2 definite te ‘ness. The larger the gauge number, the lesser the thickness. Most of metals being described in Chapters 4 and 5, the metals that are sively used for this work are reviewed here again- Tack RON ; anne sheet metal is black iron, which is sheet iron ana bed tat thickness, annealed by placing in a furnace unt ed nt and en Meg 1° O01 gradually. It has blush-black appearance A the weg 88 uncoated sheet. Since itis uncoated, eonnt enameled taj tiS metal is limited to articles that are (© pai nks, pans, stove pipes, etc:id 592 ELEWENTS OF WoRKSHOP TECHNOLOGY er ry GALVANISED IRON sn shect iron is obtainable, _— 1 —— iron is ome “galvanised ion”. This SOR see she inwig this metal Nas a very bright sy pulasly known as GI sheet. The zine coating resist rust, iment i in the making of 2 appear | i in the making ot topesrance ofthe metal and permis tobe wekeed with gree’ eo NSP OS EES 08 rie aye f but welding is not so easy a zinc gives toxic fumes and residues go": (mae a itis coated with zinc, galvanised sheet iron withstand cones eee | and exponie to weather Aries such span buckets teeth ae Ea, Me es, ean gute are mde ily from Gl see ne est ws 2 Be once i Ws Leal ey wt ‘pea ‘Without the us i STAINLESS STEEL iethanical device rae ‘This i alloy of stel with nickel, chromium, and traces of other has good corrosive resistance and can be welded easily. The cas 133. SHEET METAL HAND TOOLs The cost of stainless steel is very high. Stainless steel used in the sheet m tetal shop can fairly large number of hand tool 'be worked as galvanised iron sheets, but is tougher than Gl sheets, Th, Der tg oe 7 eed by sheet metal woes Sec ced pony Sut ge ever oem omnony wet i citchenwares, etc. _ | TABLE 18.3 BASIC TOOLS USED IN SHEET METAL WoRK ¢ COPPER - i Copper sheets are available either as cold-rolled or hot-rolled sheets. Colt Lae eawerine ve tee | rolled sheets being worked easily are commonly used in sheet metal shop, eee fl as | eee Saas noon een ® folingnie 7 Rah i" ‘metals. Copper being a costly metal, cost of copper sheets is higher in La aS oes ‘comparison to GI sheets. Gutters, expansion joints, roof flashing and hoods 8 aac Yo. Siprerdean i srotone of ee coamoe enrepoedhempe nat o Meme, te § ALUMINIUM She me roe q Aluminium cannot be used in pure form, but is used with a very small 2, Straight edge 14 Rivetset lt amount of copper, silicon, manganese and iron. It is highly resistant to 3. Steel amare 15, Soldering ine corrosion and abrasion, whitish in colour and light in weight. It is 10 RN ee ‘widely used in the manufacture of a number of articles such as house pliances, refrigerator trays, lighting fixtures, windows, inthe construction of aitplanes, in the fitting and fixtures used in doors, window and building requirements, and in many electrical and transport industis TIN PLATE capes Since mast of them are described and ils survey of the tools is made in he low og MEASURING TOOLS en 0c Steel rule. This is particu a 08 agod Sal work. 1 can be measure ih oA Folding rule. iis act 8 the accuracy being 0. This © Steet circumference of a cylinder Tin plate is sheet iron coated withthe tin to protect it against rust THs 8 used for nearly all soldered work, as it is the easiest metal to joit *Y soldering. The size and thickness of tn plates are denoted by special "= not by gauge numbers, and can be very confusing to the uninitiats larger or heavier sheets of tinned iron are required, the material US", known as “tinned steel”, and this. may be obtained in all sizes and 6%SHEET METALWORK 595, inch is sometimes used for making holes with a ; 7 Pied im the tool when a large number of holes ae to orsHO?TECHNOLOS ctor. Tis is used FOr marking and measuring ‘594 LEMENTSOF ‘wing blade a, is is used for measuring dimensions upto 9, iD MMERS ily used in sheet metal work for cutting ven ater cH i eet wt ot ai Cen ee sed to measure the thickness of cise Cand chipping operations. A good nurber of cold cise ‘Micrometer caliper. Ths 5 mes bo 5 oP nose illustrated in chapter 18, The lt ‘mm (Fig. 16.18), siso called slip gauge and is used jo arts during assembly (Fig. 16.51) ickness of sheets sheets accurately upto 0.01 se chisel (Fig. 149) are most widely used in ‘Thickness Gauge. This is ‘measure the clearance between the i ‘Sheet metal gange. This is used to measure the one sed for forming shapes by hollowing, irs, Hammers are u zs a (Fig. 1652) omching oF throwing sf ‘There are many types of hammers, but i ly use STRAIGHT EDGE AND STEEL SQUARE comet ao 'Senight edge. This is flat graduated bar of steel with one Sgr A sig Jongitudinal edge bevelled. This bar comes in a variety of lengths ranging ised for wa etal from 1 to 3 meter. Its useful for scribing long straight lines. 1 specially u Steel square. It is a L-shaped piece of hardened steel with marks gg down the edge when graduated on the edges for measuring. The narrow arm of the square is MMM Myig', double seams and ( Called tongue and the wide partis known as the body. It is used for marking ‘hammer used for forming Sere weafat sheet of metal into a ned or hollow shape such 38 @ oar, bowl, tray OF Spoon. These are illustrated in Fig, 18.1 Mallet. These are soft ‘SCRIBER, DIVIDER AND TRAMMEL POINTS ‘Seriber. This is sometimes called the metal worker’s pencil. It is « long wire of steel with its one end sharply pointed and hardened to scratch lines on sheet metal in laying out patterns. Figure 18.1 Hammers for sheet ‘metal work ide, ‘Dividers. Dividers are used for drawing circles or ares on sheet baners, and made of raw hide, used to strike a soft and Ce ae essere eds eine, cope, brs, ead or mony of wou. =? divide lines into equal parts (Refer Fig. 16.9). ipitblow on the metal. ‘Trammel points. The trammel points consists of a bar with two movable heads. Iti used to draw large circles or ares that are beyond the SNIPS OR SHEARS ea like a pair of sis 1° limit ofthe dividers, Asip, also called a hand shear (Fig. 182) is w PUNCHES ‘SM thin, soft metal. It should be ‘A punch is used in sheet metal work it en eS SS cove. mots pemanet maar Tae her Sr giens eM Wrradectrar tenis ig eZ inane. Two. pe of pu sip in sexe en) pk pinch, (2) ete punch (ig 1428. Te prick ao et S pik puch tare sa ine ‘on lay out lines in order to make the being stra ght snips a vom pinch mat mgr whi he centre pach sae ony o mate Sed ten rick markers larger at the centres of holes that are to be drilled. mi igure 182 Ab The straight snip have a blades for straight line ae NB while curved or bent snips Both these ‘snips "ee curved blades for making cl » there ate solid and hollow punches very similar to other ‘WO punches the inner and outer faces of the punch meeting at an angle of 40°. ‘These are used for making small holes from 2.5 mm to 10 mm.SHEET METAL Won, 596 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY on SOLDERING ron Ndering irons are wed fo IR, work and consis ofa frges light and can be easily handled by only one hand. These are also do, cutting shear, squaring shear, ring shear and circular shear seq fy, Particular requirements as the name indicates. The heavier cl emp ich a a se a wooden witha known as bench shears and block shears where one handle may'be hely solder nde: These ae ato eaeg in'ice or bench pate while the other hale is moved up and down yy, ae CREST ea the cutting Fig. 186 S288 a8 shown in oo STAKES Stakes are the sheet metal worker's anvils used for bending, seaming op forming, using a hammer ot mallet. They actually work as supporting tog, as well as forming tools. They also help in bending operation. They are made in different shapes and sizes to suit the requirements of the work, ‘Some useful forms are shown in Fig. 183. The double seaming stake ig used to make the double seam. The beathorn stake is used for riveting. sented i Se5 ey a band groove OF Oo forming around and surfaces, bending, stniaty Fer i16 Comma ‘edges, and making comers. The Figure 185 A rivet set of soldering iron bevel edge square stake is used to form comers and edges. The hatchet stake is used to make straight, sharp bends and for folding and bending edges. Small tubes and pipes. are performed on the needle case stake. Cone-shaped articles may ‘be formed on the blow-horn stake. Hollow mandrel stake Figure 183 Common forms of stakes US¢4 for riveting, seaming and A SHEET METAL OPERATIONS ‘pe practical art of sheet metal lies in the making of diferent stapes by doping different operations. The major types of operations ar sen ‘ew (See also Chapter 7). 1. Shearing. 3. Drawing, 2. Bending 4, Squeezing. SHEARING atin ase forming. Shear ‘a general name for most sheet-metal cuting DT is PLIERS ‘ee designates a cu n'a stright line 605 2250 9 ry Plier are used for holding, cuting and bending work. Flat nose plirs att TA teestreeavex a clean edge on the ice of SSS used for forming and holding work while round nose pliers are used for Shear ion has three basic stages: F holding and forming various shape and pattems. ee a iment ‘cue, and shear, When the metal se Pan ss HC GROOVERS AND RIVET SETS Of the shear and pres PT gl 5 ene Hand groover. This is used for groove and flaiten a seam as shows satis cen nt the ites cost in Fig. 184. This is avallabein many stages . AS continued pres . Rivet set. This hardened steel tool with a hollow in one end * shown in Fig. 18.5. It is used to shape the end of a rivet into a rounds blade. TH {tack stan at the cuting edge Of 2. pints o,f se ‘smooth head. the cutting edge of each blade, eetraion As the blade Jeet ‘eta is then sheared. The 8°|598 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY, die are used. The quality ofthe cut surface is greatly influenced by 4. clearance between the two shearing edges. ‘However, the basic shearing operations are iMUStated in Fig, yg ‘and described in the following lines. ‘Cutting. off. This means severing 2 piece from a stip with a gy along a single line. Parting. Parting signifies that scrap is removed between the’ ty pieces to part them, Blanking. This means cutting a whole piece from sheet metal jst ‘enough scrap is left all around the opening to assure that the punch hay ‘metal to cut along its entire edge. 0974 GH Op ‘Shean Cuting of rd Pacing eee eS Neiching iting Laneing—_Nbbing ~ eacesite Une oto Figure 18.7 Common sheet metal cutting operations Punchning. Punching isthe operation of producing circular holes on a sheet metal by a punch and die. The material punched out is removed ‘as waste. Piercing, on the other hand, is the process of producing holes of any desired shape Notching. This is a from the side or edge of a Process of removing metal to the desired shape sheet or strip. Slitting. When shearing is conaucted between rotary blades, the rocessis referred to as slitting, I cuts the sheet metal lengthwise. Lancing. This makes a cut part way across a strip Nibbing. Nibbing is an operation of cutting any shape from sheet metal without special tools tis done on a nibbling machine. Trimming. Trimming is the operation of cutting away excess metal ina flange or flash from a piece, SHEET WETALWORK go ing are sometimes thought to be synonymous eo form Swine fF ate apd soc 10, bending oof metal into a right angle, and forming cama When codind 2 Pr vars are shaped. 9 ge ite Ort bends, the metal is stressed beyond the elastic limit in Ab pall metyside and in compression on the inside of the bend There 907 tothe neutral line which retains its orginal length, The i me Oe ‘of 0.31 to Ot (where t is the thickness of the Higa) 188 6 side of the bend in most cases. Ths is depicted in Fig. from the the metal on the outside makes the stock thinner, 9 hing of tHE 5 st Bending incorporates angle bending, roll bending, roll forming (see Art. 7.11) and seaming. A special variety of bending is spinning a rotationally symmeticl part, The staring blank is held against a male die (fom) which in ‘tum is rotated by some mechanism such as a lathe spindle as described in AM. 7.12 However, some common kinds of sheet_metal bends are gure 188 Bending in sheet metal illustrated in Fig. 189.(600 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY DRAWING Drawing is the operation of producing thin-walled Nolow oF Vessel shape part from sheet metal (sce Chapter 7). The drawing process can be q “pown in Fig. 18.11 OS gas. Most iv into two categories, deep drawing and shallow drawing. In deep dress! sin the length of the object to be drawn is deeper than its width, white ® | one Sy shallow, or box drawing the length of the object to be drawn is less than yh nt thar Se ee eae So ee eS ee Te etm i Sc te Cee eererer rer ‘The drawing operations ig ety in pe iby means of soldering. ee roger ing them By a8 wre single seam is join a bottom 10 blank shown Fig. 18.10. The lubricants which are extremely important provide a film between the work piece and die facilitating forming and reducing friction and wear on blank, Figure 18.10 The way a cup is drawn punch and die. 10 single seam with ia cet its formed cdge is bent upward against abd. ‘The dovetail seam is iasiar to dovetail joint in capeiry and is used to j sata’ ‘SQUEEZING Squeezing is a quick and widely used way of forming ductile metal. The ‘squeezing operations of sizing, coining, hobbing, ironing, rveting, etc. ‘mostly used on sheet metals are described in Art. 7.16 and illustrated in Fig. 715. ‘The burred bottom or {finged seam is used to join. ‘he bottom of a.container tor is body, The. flange. on 185 SHEET METAL JOINTS: HEMS AND SEAMS "aw flange is known as burring. _ Sheet metal working incorporates a wide variety of hems and seams. ‘A hem is an edge or border made by folding. It stiffens the sheet of metal and does away with the sharp edge. A seam is a joint made by fastening two edges together. Different kinds of hems and seams are show? in Fig. 18.11. ‘Hem. Three common types of hems are : (1) single hemi, (2) double hem, and (3) wired edge. ‘The single hem is made by folding the edges of the sheet metal over to make it smooth and stiff. 4S SHEET METAL ALLOWANCE ‘tin following criteria : }. Correct size of finishing Pat 2. Better strength at joints o! gabe hem 8 a8 BY Fling te edges oer qe double Peony edge is smooth and very stron, ‘important consideration which calls patio Mis 10 be given for making joints: TH SEETHETALWORK oy — tomate it ' Step by step process of common 1pes of Seams ar: ap seam.) sane me scam, (2) double Seam, (6) veal seam, ae om te type of seam, of count, is deteminedy ue pears! the purpose for which the object isto be usce me am sea iste simples ype of seam an an be prepared as seam is made by hooking two single hems logter nd ea et? of various a 2 metal blank over a stationary dig [ym yetcal bodies ‘Srgetam Onsen and * exerting a calcula pressure from punch againorne go” The double seam is & Sept Sms oped anger en oe 5 TiSery apo 5 gi supitane on sings oe fa pale to a cylindrical MN Ga fe Joos Leni Figure 18.71 Hems and seams of making ® ‘indica jobs. is often. referred to as a burr andthe POSS ston stb awe owns ae 57 fall eenFEELIN gy (602 _ELEMENTS0F WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY an foLD Ft d for bending and folding the ed % i wns ‘at the seam. This is used for aoe etal sheets fp ine i ‘etal sheets into 3. To avoid cracking or warping. 4. Smooth finish. val bee i ai Due allowance must be provided for preparation of edges : seams, and an extra metal called ab as shown in Fig. 18.12 is proviggin’ it the same. In the making of the various types of hems and sect?! it "of he Edges ofthe bot fora allowance is necessary for thinner sheets of 26 gauge or more ans," fH on he end of @ cylinder. The making of such fe urs isthe first step While vs double seam with a double seaming machin certain allowance is necessary for thicker and heavier sheets. The w. Practice is to provide an additional metal equal 10 25 10 3 times®! thickness of the sheet for wired edges, and 3 times the thick, objectives. General allowance for hem is 6 to 9 mm. 7 ntl soot times the MACHINE 88 for seam er tothe butting machine but produces» unde ego eations, bodies of cylinders and for double scamap 18.7 SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINES ad MACHINE Wee is placed into the rounded edge which is then tammeed oe vrei mallet. The edge of the metal may then be completly pesed im pe wire with a wiring machine, When a large number of jobs are made, particularly in heavier types of sheets, hand operation like shearing, punching, bending, etc. is diffcat time consuming and uneconomical. To cope with this problem, both hand and power operated machines have been developed. These machines are designed and perform a wide variety operation, such as forming, bending, edging, grooving, setting down, burring, wming, cutting, punching, drilling, and many others required in a sheet metal shop. Smaller machines are usually referred as to as “bench machine” while the others as “loot machines” which are particularly useful in mass production of identical parts. The various machines commonly used to perform differeat operation are listed as follows : ING DOWN MACHINE Ate the burt have been made on a burting machine the seams are closed test down on a setting down machine. Ths facilitates the operation of ‘ube seaming to doa better seaming job. * FORMING MACHINE ns ate 0 aah ‘Stove pipes, cans, etc. are formed out of flat sheet metal on + ‘uchines thas three rolls which can beset at diferent ances pu ad |. Shearing machine. se a ‘ is yr making pipes. a perenne soap lontecaen, ‘eveen which the curves are made. This i indispensible for msi 3. Burring machine. 7. Forming machine. 4. Turing machine. Brake. BAKE tl. A bar fer Abate is a’ machine for bending and folding she MOTT fold ‘rly bends or folds the metal near the ed8*s' et fem oe a {tenetal any distance from the edge. TH Pa" te two types of brakes generally available ™ LAYING OUT.A PATTERN sel snouidbe doce Meiore metal 2 patter 5 nothing Ot stan ject in sheet 3 pte the “outline of the job. Almost # ‘SHEARING MACHINE ‘Shearing machines are used to cut or shear metal sheets in very many W2¥S ‘The particular method chosen depends on several factors such as the Si¢ and shape of the parts required and the numbers needed. ‘There are a large number of machines available for shearing sheet ‘metal but the common ones may be placed into one of two main groups ‘machines: (a) those using flat blades for the cutting and (b) those usiné rotary cutters. The most commonly used of all the machines using blades are, of course, the guillotine. eee, |ae metrical solids, such 4g bjects ae formed into three Pipending, of forming © predetermined pater sechout i 10 determine the 7 eithat is necessary to fabricate the ject tobe fabricated may be drwy may be Iaid out directly on woe pattem is developed and eut from or asa template from which the actual ng. of 3. Triangulation method. PARALLEL LINE METHOD Panlleine development derives. its mame from the parallel Hines sed inthe onstruction of stcichouts. ‘This is used for strechouts or patterns of ¥ shapes, T shapes, and elbows. It is also used for seat where pipes. intersects fat surface at an ange The following steps may be followed in laying out 4 pater of streichout for a ‘ylnder connector as shown Fig 18.12. 1, Draw the plan and cleration of the ‘connector pipe. Divide the plan into 12 number of equal parts and project ‘them in the elevation, Figure 18.12 Paralieltine development (@) procedure, (b) stretchost LUNE Hoe srl ie pokes of @ oe of nas 41, or any: other SHEET METALWORK — G05 pout ine equal tthe circumference ofthe ce 10 the plan. Frou ine in 12 equal arc lengths of he plan fines from each division of the stretchout top and bottom points of these lines by nding points from the elevation. vreeaher by sketching fechand from point to te the sechout oF 2 pater shown in Fig > METHOD gy deve ini es ts i el from a point known 25 cen: oF aX 8 SUNGS. The bases may be round, square, hexagel regular polygons(606 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY The following steps may be followed in laying outa pater of 4 right cone cut by an inclined plane. TT ptm be evan oh co an on he bs Ii 1,7 deci the semi-circle representing the half perimeter of the cone base, 2. Divide the semicircle into six equal parts at point 1, 2,3, 4,5 6, 77 and from each point produce vertical lines t0 intersect base of ‘one cone. From each point of intersection on the base draw the radial lines oF the apex. Using the cone apex, describe an arc of radius equal to the slant side AB and on it mark off twelve division equal to these in the perimeter 1,2,3, 4-1. Join these points tothe apex. In the elevation, transfer the points 2, 3,4, 5, and 6 on the slant side of the cone for the true distances on the respective lines in the sector. ‘Transfer these point on the respécive lines in the development, 6. Join these points together to obtain the pattem as shown in 18.130). ‘TRIANGULATION METHOD Triangulation method is used to develop articles which cannot be ‘developed exactly as inthe case of transition piece. A transition piece is a connecting piece which connects openings of different shapes and sizes. ‘These pieces are used in ventilating, heating and similar pipes. Necessarily the surfaces are made of planes, cylindrical and conical surfaces. The Principle of this method is to divide an object into a series of triangles, 10 find the true lengths ofthe sides. and then to place the triangles in their true Position in the pattern, ‘The following steps may be followed in laying out a pattern for a hood as shown in Fig. 18.14. 1. Draw the plane and elevation ofthe hood. 2. Draw in the plan, four triangles ABCD and four part-oblique cones uv, and x. The vertex of each triangle is point on @ circular and its base isthe side of the square. The base of the part-oblique cone is equal to one-fourth of the cieular end and the apex is at one comer of the square end 3. Divide the circular ends into a numberof equal parts 1,2,3,4-1 as shown in the plan. Draw tines from comers of the square 10 the division to represent elements ofthe cone and draw elevation ‘of these elements. 4. Find out the true length of all the sides of the triangles and ‘SHEET METALWORK gQ7 fof the cones from the corresponding plan and eet clevstiOM aiggram al is the plan of one side of the triangle 4 eres ‘are the two elements of the cone, So 01, 02,03, and 2 wi ength of these lines. are the trent as vertex and draw triangle A in its true size by 5, Toke pore length of all the sides. rer taking one comer of the triangle as centre and raise ¢, Deaw om rue length of the elements connecting the point 2. Draw wo with the vertex as centre and the length between the notte 2 as radius. Repeat the same process to get oer ptt through these points and obtain the pattem, 1. a abe pat shown in Fg 181, hehe bl will be exactly. the same.608 —_ ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY REVIEW QUESTIONS ~ Name the metals commonly used in sheet metal work. . Give a detail list of hand tools used in sheet metal work. . What do you mean by stakes ? Name the different types of the Stakes with sketches giving their uses. - Why snips:are used ? Give a description of some of them with ‘sketches, - What are punches and shears used for ? Name the common sheet metal working machines giving their uses, '. Describe the common sheet metal operatior:s or processes with Suitable sketches. . Sketch and describe the joints used in sheet metal work stating their uses. 8. What are (a) hems and (b) seams ? Give the uses of some of them with neat sketches ? 10. What do you mean ‘lay out a pattern’ ? Why allowances are Provided on the lay outs prepared and how they vary ? 11-State briefly the various methods used in laying out a pattern with their uses. enn Noose