9 WELDING AND RELATED PROCESSES g4_ INTRODUCTION Gyelding is a process of joining similar metals by application of heat with or without application of pressure and addition of filler material. The result js a continuity of homogeneous material, of the composition and characteristics of two parts which are being joined together.) The Jication of welding are so varied and extensive that it would be no exaggeration to say that there is no metal industry and no branch of «engineering that does not make use of welding in one form or another. In fact, the future of any new metal may depend on how far it would lend iiself to fabrication by welding. 92 WELDABILITY ‘The term “weldability” has been defined as the capacity of being welded into inseparable joints having specified properties such as definite weld strength, proper structure, etc. This means, of ourse, that if a particular metal is to have good weldability, it must be welded readily so’ as to perform satisfactorily in. the fabricated structure. However, the real titeion in deciding on the weldability of a metal is the weld quality and the ease with which it can be obtained. Weldability depends on one or more of five major factors : (1) melting point, (2) thermal conductivity, (3) thermal expansion, (4) surface condition, and (5) change in microstructure. If these metallurgical, chemical, physical and thermal characteristics of a metal are considered undesirable with respect to weldability » they may be corrected by proper shielding atmosphere, proper fluxing ‘material, proper filler metal, Propet welding procedure, and jn some cases by proper heat treatment of the metal before and after deposition.212 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 9.3 TYPES OF WELDING vethods of welding may be classified under two broad nen cn ing i hg (euFig and nonpressure welding. respectively Sir, In the plastic welding or pressure welding. the pieces of mea, joined are heated to a plastic state and then forced together by presaxe. This procedure is wsed in forge welding, resistance ya “thermit” welding, and gas welding, in which pressure is requireg ne, In the fon welding or nonpresure welding, the material gy, Joins heated oa molten sate and allowed to solidi. This incu welding, arc welding, “thermit” welding, etc. is Is sen. therfore. tha except in cold-welding heat is usd, bring about a plastic or molten state at the surface of the metal 0 joined, In old-welding the joints are produced without the application heat, but by applying pressure which results in intersurface’ mo fusion of dhe pans to be jined. This process is mainly used for welding nonferrous sheet metal. particularly aluminium and its alloys = ARC WELDING Are welding is the mos extensively Pt Hee ae ote ance NEM method of ji ae column is gone Pale of de (direct uments od °e¥CER an anode, whichis the positive “S*PPly and the cathode, the negative Poe 15 metal WELDING AND RELATED PROCESSES 225 two conductors of an electric citcuit are b when ee ‘2 small distance (2 0 4 mm) such that the eter ser ugh a path offnized partite (gaseous medium) called plasm ™ circ are is formed. This ionized gas column ats a a high-resistance sa diet that enables MOTe ions 10 flow from the anode tothe cathode, condi generated as the ions strike the cathode. This ion theory does not, of Heat mpletely €xplain the ae column.,Pethaps the elcton theory of coum Sich is Beyond the Scope ofthis book, explains what happens tre fully. However, electrical energy is converted to heat energy iipoximately 1 kWh of elctcty wil create 250 calves (1000, the pomerature at the centre of the are being 6000 t0 700°C. The temPirature of an electric arc, of course, depends upon the type of uprodes between Which itis struck, ee he heat of the arc raises the temperature of the parent metal which is melted forming a pool of molten metal. The electrode meal (n metal are sstting) or welding rod (in carbon-arc welding is also melted and is Mesferred into the metal in the form of globules of molten metal. The Sepositd metal serves to fill and bond the joint orto Fuse and buildup the parent metal surface. Two-thirds of the heat s developed ner the positive fate while the remaining one-third is developed near the negative pole. As result, an electrode that is connected to the positive pole will bum away ‘pproximately 50 per cent faster than when itis connected tothe negative is helpful in obtaining the desired penetration ofthe base metal. ‘The blast of the arc forces-the molten metal out of the pool, thus forming a sma" depression in the parent metal, around which molten metal ispiled up. This is known as the arc crater (Fig. 99. The distance through the centre of the are from the tip ofthe electrode to the bottom of the are crater is tefmed arc length, Arc length is a vital variable in a welding process and should be 3 to 4 mm. An important reason for this is that the globules of molten electrode metal in the process of deposition should \ hhave the smallest possible chance t cof coming in contact with the ambient ai and should absorb as ‘ Figure 9.9 A welding arc ttle oxygen from it as possible, arent metal, 2. deposited metal, pecause oxygen has an adverse 3.crater, 4. electrode effect on the mechanical opetes of the weld metal It is obvious tat witha shorter athe time of Dreeson of welding226 LEWENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY coniact will be shiter than with @FOMBeT aC. TRE AC is oxy f widening the arc sufficiently. "Buishe f sfer rte Is steady and the RELATED Process 9.7. METAL TRANSFER IN ARC WELDING a the final ob wit have sete mi 1 ‘The three transfer rethods are * mechanical Meu is tansfered in arc-welding'in three ways, They are ; a shown in Fig. 919, f tansfer, 2) by fe drop (arge drop) transfer, and (3) by oom iy 98 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT drop) transfer . (at In dip transfer a globul of molten metal is formed atthe ‘The most commonly used equipment f electrode during arcing in the fit stage. Subsequently q°% Of, J fallowing 1" ate welding consists of the tlongates touches the molten pool and separates from the slectoge process does not free the globules immediately from the lee 5 1, acorde machine, formation and as such a temporary short circuit occurs, The ree teri 2, Electrode 3 Earhing clan sever times to complete welding. 3. Electrode holder . Wir bruh i in fey spe free, 5. Cable lug. Boggles., St0p trans, 6. Chipping hammer, 1g Meigen TOP of me! ‘Aron, sleves te ‘Metal which ARC WELDING MACHINE, , Slightly smaller ig Both direct current and alternating current are u diameter than the tes ina 4 ised for electric are wel cach having its particular applications; in some cies oun, ding, ji 2 ces ithe | Sit gap hese sling supply i usualy chai! om seacnceea eee 1. Dp warster from the eleinge MR motor or if no electricity is available by uta combaion pie os end se i temporarily (ot Partial) ston circuiting te | electrode with te molten pool of 2. Free dop tanster ‘metal on the jb. Spry of small drop trans is the best among the three. In ths method ' transfer a in the for an tee or tay drops ‘much smaller! ‘Metal transfer in are welding dameee = toa eat) which mate fe Night fom the eect wo hc on pos se welding supply, transformers are predominantly used fr simost are welding where mains electricity supply is avaiable. They have to step doven the usual supply’ voltage (2002400 vols to th noma open nna welding voltage (50-90 volts). A 100 to 200 A machine is small but portable and satisfactory for light manual welding. A 300 or 400 size is suitable for manual welding of average work. Automatic welding reguies ‘capacities between 800 and 3000 4 ether in single unit ora numberof small units in parallel. Some machines have an arc booster tat provides a momentary surge of current to give an area goo stat when i i tc For ac machine usually 60 He (her) is norma. Thee are many Indian make arc welding machines in vse in industry today, A an illastatve fzample, a. short description of Indian Oxygen’s INDARC 400 (5) transformer welding set follows TW consis af ¢secanglr al unk mowed ove the front wheel swivelling and steerable By means oes wety mo el eo ‘eins voltage to-a welding voltage ofS AS aid by oatng 8 in the tee tank, Te output ofthe masfomes nF hand wheel which alters the air gap i HE EME OT Ay A, The welding of the current between 50 am Figure 9.10228 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY rent sting can be directly read at the window on the to ube conaeedia on inert AG volts, 3-phase 50 eye it requires about 109 litres of Class B transformer oil ae diagram of the set is illustrated in Fig.9.11. ARC WELDING WITH D.C. AND A.C ‘The advantages of de welding lie in the hi igher arc stabitity and to which the work is heated. the ezie With ditect oy, Sreater heat is genes ™™ the Positive pole of the axe aa hetal-are welding, it haiti ~ the general practice tg conn, Ihe Work tothe positive the de generator and hee Tod to the negative : order to melt the metal in the base maren the other hand, certain types * modem electrodes due to ine Coating and material properica are connected advantageously, the positive pole of | ihe generator. Whilst direét current has the advantage of allowing 1 desired heat distribution in the are, alternating. current welding is at present gain considerable ground. ae efficiency of ac wel re gLettection diagram og cieney varies from 03 10 an AC, welding set (Indian make) 0.85 while ac outfits have 29 - efficiency from 0.3 to 0.6. TH clecttic energy consumption Per kg of deposited metal in ac welding i from 3 10 4 kWh while for de Welding it is as high as 6 to 10 kWh. Ore ARC WELDING CURRENT any yoy Open voltage (0 load voigg® er than the are voage f rect current then while with alternating curene srl vllage tally ranges i 78 iseublshed. The voltage sere be * FC in meabare ge ae he are sound 40V for an on! 8 minimum yr aie Melng megane oan be coca SPU are. Foren 719 sain an 2 range will be about 20 per ce nt higher era ‘plication the vol maintenance depends upos i necessary for, Proper are competion oy cating the pe of ese bat the man, ise hs Strode, or Bb ants 15 10 25V win ne ye SMBH the a trodes, fom 20 to 40V with he wate OE wih some special electrodes, mia, ARLES coMPanson orc anon Pr Reg Wr a converter} (ivanformer) Novload voltage Low (higher safeyy Freq to gh up ‘vet TOV. Thats wy the ‘se limited. Dangctous low (svamagens) Notoadrequiremnets Very high Law (atmo) Etcieney Lowsconsequenty high High advantages) ost of electrical reay ime cost Twoorthrestimes Low compared to tht of transformer gtr Connected load Normal eat nee (Cross-sectional areas cose (unfavourable). Fconductors & fuse) “Additional welding cen eu ted) Oalycone, tat Bectrodes Both bare (ponte) eden and thas cheap eects pense rose canbe used available). Watdag of Suiuble Riterous meat tal are usually ranges, for manual operation of the met ‘The current for mancence ones Te. ‘aor aoa operation, fom 75 to 6004, Thy, from 301 5004 and cute for machines used i ate welgn’ sual ae permissible intensities of current, "8 any peumvey of ent corel apie 96 USUAL VOLTAGES are blow. (MS, \4aCHINES USED IN ARC WELDINe proces “Sound the area # Oo sy come “Beas said which tend ~upio 19 100 15 Sages ls whic Eee This IS, gyer 10010250 20 zen cd, sr 20010250 2s se eld intensity ner 250 10380 30 is directly proportional t0 the aqare of the curent, ore 508 as ‘over 500 40 doubling the current will teen Goi ade oe masnebe fied four times. The presence of are blow causes the at» eee eratc, unsable, and in general, undesirable for good-qualty welds. > TABLE97 USUAL WELDING CURRENTS FOR MANUALLY OPERATED SINGLE ELECTRODES: Tana Galas Wear cre gy am ‘electrode mn? total _Per mm(Almm’) Se 2s on DM 325 8.29 105 127 4 1256 140 id s 1963 180 94 ¢ 2327 235 83 se 8 POLARITY IN ARC-WELDING With 2c, because pila een oo feversal of the current, the heat generated at each fle te sme and he chngig over th comnectns tte te as a great boston aso ts Perfomance. On the other hand, POI of ae ca bearing on electrode performance, The conductor from Wi i its amet Pe in teas dsgnated as the postive 1 a8 the negative terminal. The heat generated PY LONG MO RELATED Processes 231 uent i pi 0190 pas, nthe ratio 66 “ percent atthe postive 1 F855 pe cet a he ERAN pole I ight cetd ee pe te poste ple ay Neos ee ng tome i heh he eho te ae Se eesti etna me re el val Ts a pis he en sty wet ot ul fr mot ah ess ih ee aie te ee sper ry ncavy_mateiaL the clecode Pp we ing rs aibonate—waling_whcte_ctbon ml eee at ether are several ways of denoting the connection to the electrode Ze welding with de. When the electrode is connected to the postive wet pe orm glectrode pois is employed. This sometimes refered o sa pola, Simla. when the cide cones ae Cae am electrode Negave Te eployed- Tiss sometimes SLECTRODES FOR ARC WELDING nts nonconsumable and consumable electrodes are used for are welding, ‘Nonconsumable electrodes may be made of carbon, graphite or tungsten which do not consume during the welding operation, Consumable erodes may be made of Various metals depending upon thet purpose id the chemical composition of the metals 10 be welded. These Consumable electrodes may be classed into bare and coated. in using the plain or bare electrodes, as the globules of the meta ass from the electrode to the work, they (globules) are exposed 10 the Tnygen and nitrogen in the surrounding ai. Tis causes the formation of sane nonmetall¢ constituents which are traped inthe rapidly solving weld metal and thereby decreases the strength and ductility ofthe met Coated electrodes, on te other hand, serve several purposes (1 fectte te ctablishment and maintenance of the ae @) 1 PRES the Aen al Rone the oxygen and nitrogen o tary poise? Se ide the formation of slag 0 of gas around the arc and weld poo! ; (3) 10 Pr” a 8 to protect the welding seam from rapid ‘cooling ; and (4) to provide & eas of introducing alloying elements not contained in 610 vie Coated electrodes can be divided into 0 general groups : ( » Ty nt eos ee aes wih cig ET Se nilmtre thick and 2) beaily coated ste (Fi. 9.42 ) wih "vey thick high quality covering apie it #396" of 1403 mm.232 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GS WELOING, AN ofthe molten metal. TSATEO Processes 233 In downhand (flat) weg; t ing, ‘ 20°, the erate is kept molten too ima of sight coating i to nerease are stabitiy, Then ealedoming comings, Fo this reason, lightly coated clan me only Be used or welding non-sentljobs. The Welds prada eng mechanical properties due to the lack of protection of the molten © Po: Hei cones electrodes, sometimes refered 1 8 shielded aye” Mo sere al te four purposes described above, and are used to gpg, meal of high quality, comparable with, and even superior et wa meal in tems of mechanical prperis. Heavy coatings Pa composed of ionising (halk), deoxdsing (aluminium, fore gt! te 3) senting larch), segforming Canin, allying ange materials PRECAUTIONS IN ARC-WELDING Because of the intensity of heat coloured glass should be used to protect he face, he xz welding shoul be screened off fom ihe maar te See safeguard other workmen from he glare ot hens aes 940 ARC WELDING METHODS = ‘The main types of arc welding are : ° —e Catbon-are, ate Metal arc, Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG). Gas-tungsten-are (TIG). Atomic hydrogen arc. Figure 9.12 Shielded arc welding 1 sag layer, 2. Weld reinforcement,3. penetration, 4. wled deposit, 5, base metal heat afected zone, 6. uneffected base metal. . Plasma-are. . Submerged-are, Both bare and coated electrodes , for hand are welding are made i 5. srigg-corod aie the shape of rods unto 12 mm in diameter and. 450° ain long. Semi- mi . Electro-slag, welding. comuartic and automatic welding use electrode wire in coils, Soft sel wit Prenat 0.1 to 0.18 per cent carbon, and 0.0025. t0 0.04 per cx Phosphorus and sulphur is used for electrodes in welding carbon ste: Electrodes for alloy steel are made of low.. taining upto iar Imade of lowalloy stel wire containing ‘These are described hereunder inthe order oftheir frequency of use, CARBON-ARC WELDING fe and the work q 'n this method, a rod of carbon is used as negat necens aeekciea being welded as positive. The arc produced betwe = This is about 3200°C onthe asthe meal to the meling tempenive. Thi abo PT Seatve electrode, and 3,900°C onthe psi Sears Te Eo \s earbon rod as negative eecrode ha I ot one ‘he electrode tip than that at the rennet ‘so happens the resultant weld Will not fuse and mix up withthe jo If this In gas-metal-arc welding, the welding May ceramic oF is water-cooled, areais flooded wate.” ® iim and eae Me at ay ' ith juminium and its alloys, stains = ion wel / inn gm which wil nt combine wih the metal. The a beke) dork ee marmlbent eel, my wsion welding of fn safe Kep oxygen ofthe air away fom the ge HOW a a eee weP Sub we oy nice ae while welding is being done. Carbon dioxide (CO,) ig sed f tal Surface ate emt sora a a TG weldin with eel, as GMA is a clean, faster method for weldine’ ° Works seme buick saree isnot cnitecing, and he : fig: Mecanse ee 8 steal, citing im thick, an MIG welding fork Plate over 6.4 dioxide is used principally ecase it is inexpensive, Roy C The torch Used in ths welding ort es anda aluminium or copper, argon or argon-helium mixtures. arg. yaa tt siras shielding ga8 and welding power rg’ HOU the ceca a Stainless-stcel, MIG welding is done with either TgOn-oxygen or led With speci get P0t welds cn ae copper-nickel and high-nickel alloys use argon-helium mixture, “4 the 5 depending on the Some advantages of this process are = tn general an 46 Power source is best for TIG ‘welding sonterous slop except deoxidized copper, For feos sly oar Power so, 1. No flux required, vith stmight polarities (electrode negative) is warns 225 tungsten are 2. High welding speed. sere r,t areally reduces the volometic as Ge Tigers | 3. Increased corrosion resistance. 2 TIG torch which has a rating of 2504 : a en sed i 4. Easily automated welding, mi sigh Polarity (desp) mus be deated to 1510 25 A when eens & {elds all metals including aluminum and stainless steel, sevesed polarity (derp-electrode postive). F 6 - High economy. ‘Some of the advantages of TIG weldin, quality welds in nonferrous metals, necessary, and (3) the arc and weld 1g are : (1) it produces high- Q) practically no weld cleaning is Poo! are clearly visible tothe welder. ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (ete stomic-hydrogen are-welding process, an scare is maintsined aneen the ‘wo nonconsumable tungsenclectodes wile a sam of hydrogen gas under a pressure of about 0.5 kgflem? (50 kN’ i pased through the arc and around the electrodes (Fig. 9.15) ae we Sut Producing better shielding at lower flow rate. Tie When hydrogen molecule is baken dove ino aon fom. shielding gas displaces the air surrounding the are sal ward ro TOM ig, ren tbo neat tener ee oe nnn the ain = Comamination ofthe weld metal by the oxygen and nitrogen i en ieee eae meee nase me a ‘drogen process. As the molecules of Fe a as. ‘eyhey ae changed into the atomic sate and Scan fount ‘of energy. But when the atoms of hydiogs means Molecules just outside the are a large amount i, provers a temperature of "added to the intense heat of the arc itself, ody te coinatin Morte 4000, a compared 2007 pen i wl ‘normal hy and oxygen. This ure melted into th Whe eionl met seed, ier 053 ™inet Oi Principal benefits or hey Process is that 4 [ excludes Me hyde This process of is employed in welding 4 steel. It is Successfully gpa}? Figure 915 Atomic-hydrogen-are welding for welding sinless sel. Most nonferous metals can wag a aa welded ceesfly PLASMA ARC WELDING Plssma is hightemperature ionized (its atoms lose ‘cours in any electric arc between two electrodes. The lars, Bets hotter by resistance heating from the current Passing through it. If the ars Constrained by an orifice, the proportion of ioniset B38 increases ang Plaems-arc welding is created (Fig. 9.14). which comes an intense source pareensPtimatily due to multiple colsions of the cine within the . and provides greater arc stability. enor consumable tungsten electrode within a water-cooled nozzle forced past an electric are through « lectrons) gas any ionized gas p "O90 10 Rea work can be done without filler ‘Metal, - mara metal SUPPLY is needey, Aan, "any ke material canbe meg and thus becomes gue welainn "2P Orne, by ive times a fast as THO welding wih sat Rest ae 2h gutomatic contro and is nog {vBMEROED-ARCWELDINg Someta weg feel thks ee Pinay re. bare wei - Sct in ther set ig es sma nh raters ea depositing suriace, under a layer of gece Mineral pouger vous He te Hux Or melt, Which can als he el ator? ms Joint ahead ofthe welding wire ana wince welding mane sage tn rw ita Pa aren nln re - Shonen ae ma rt fain postion, nd gen in Sse in Fg .26 heb maf, elo misery se ted ogster and hen Crane Proper size. Another group offence sade of similar material “bonded” and formed ingnact” Direction of welding i ee sre ‘Depth of penetration ays ent, Siete 1. Electrode, 2. Envelope of fux, 3. ier Tkmugh the gan oF le. The operator can move it slowly, *‘ a and then set the proper feed rate on the contfol box, wy, 240 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY. alloy for seo, stainless sel, copper, tc. is available neg cic! rey to 6 mm. Vollnge used is from 25 10 40¥. Cag’ net fe considerably on workpiece thickness. Normally de jg employed {Peng te 10004 current for welding alloy and stainless steel, althon brsfeble parca for low-carbon steel. The eure woeRh aed 2,0004. 5 usa ‘The advantages of submerged-are welding are listed below, 1 Panly because it is often automated, it ig much {Reular arc welding. Speeds up 0 3806 mm/mr” ate poscp, 3 mm thick steel at 100 per ent efficiency, Possibi 2. Deep penetration with hi; especially when automated, 4 The operator can work more easily without safety equipment FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING Iineinner-core-type welding isan “inside-out” wi tubular electrode. The equi ig block at the . Flux poured around the electrode the slag. The welding fies and new metal is fed or le wi Pmocesses The Consumable Wir lectode a m1 oral ofthe shielding is providea ty an ago 2 contd ug i the gap. The ea is tunaheg te tn hn Murine electrode and metal pool. Fig 9.17 sh the pre Steal ate be mike Fillr metal RESISTANCE WELDING {,sistance welding the metal pans to be joined are heated oa plac in over @ limited area by their resistance tothe flow ofan electric cunen ical pressure is used to complete the weld. Recently, with sir maarYGrulic systems for applying pressure athe cores ime and in to jaunt through electronic controls, resistance welding hs been a {this process, preferably two copper electrodes ae bemppen f fauit Of low resistance andthe metals to be welded are Ciena at ft clectrodes. The circuit is thus completed and the cat start Se joint of the metals to be welded is 0 high, a ee oe Mite sircuit, that if the current is heavy enough t ed in the weld may Wilde produced directly atthe joint. The heat gener be expressed by H=PRT 4 the hea, 1 the current he? ri ime oF duration of current flow. 4 ce of the join “sat isin proportion tothe electrical242 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY The electrical pressure or voltage from ither 1 Tedved down from 4 t0 12 vols, depending on the cgia% 24 thickness, etc, of ths metal being welded. The amount of, era the weld sully ranges from about 6 10 18 LW for ener pi Aerating crent has ben found most convenient for this yc ™ possible to obtain any desired combination of cui a suitable transformer. A diagram of the electrical cieuit fora resistance we in Fig. 9.18. The’ machine used for makin transformer, a clamping device for holding the piece, ang'°* °OMing® mes for fig the iss together to comple the we hh which are operated continuously, the electrodes are cooled tins Circulating through hollow electrodes. Y Wate ea and vohape ws e, eines eli, [Pree Resistance welding, which is used with sheet metal from 0°32 predaick and with sel pipe and tubing, is employed mainly for mass cease tOn. because ofthe type of equipment required for ite applicatc. high resistance, such as stec!, stainless steel, mon! easy to weld. "8 can be subdivided into several proces PB + (1) butt, 2) spot, (3) seam, (4) projection: S) percussion, welding srt WELDING Bir are WO tyPes of But welding In making of upset butt sxe clamped edge to edge in sci fn lett resstance, whe cue OM Of mt Toms sn bea tte pressure applied upsets or forges ye’ lity wed principally on nonfernoct thing, formed pans ec, Usmuth and their alloys, andthe copper alloys in ay SMO RATE oceans “ pee and ny lash, ne (Fig. 9.) sai conc ote gs tly 0 heat the the pars rosa In the Mash but welding proces es eri night contact Aw 20) es a tee snticny Sd commen Sh tr bron rate is reached. The wane? tee whe bythe flashing. The fone ret et tell met is then sound and feof xe eel eth, Te et sfx, or other materials are unnecessary thie Melting rods, fatsals and combinations canbe fash but wench May ifort alloys other than cast iron are probably the moat tls and the ferous the Pans advance maetals that cannot be flash butt sly weed. Tse welded are lead, i E present in large per centage. The flash butt welding extensively in automobile construcio and other parts. ee eS — 2 ]5— bes Figure 9.19 Upset butt welding Figure 920 Flash batt welding SPOT WELDING or plates of Welding is employed to join ovepring ss, has o pes of ees at small areas (Fig.9.20). The ore aoe cal ® thermal wehich must posses high | en tw etgctrates244° ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY conductivity and retain the required strength at hi are made of pure copper for a limited amo copper or tungsten, or copper and chromium for continuous working. When the current is tumed on, the pieces are heated at their areas of contact to a welding temperature, and with the aid of ‘mechanical pressure the electrodes. are forced against the metal to be welded ‘The pressure may be developed by a foot lever or by air pressure or by hydraut ©ylinders. This may be used to weld steel and other metal ih tem nt of serviog a sens ct cog nn : Theme pat ny set wale gt int ad about 200 kglem? 20,009 02 hick ne Sea Soren fs oh ore oem PROJECTION WELDING Projection welding is @ moditiation " of Spot wen miniupne en tried peton oneness aca se i thickness of 12 mm of tes projections eae 8% esse ge cme hasan Practically “all combination of Las PISSSUTEreutin god weidg a Palau ot Guetile metals and alloys can be’ spot oe Pinte hak goa welded. The spot welding method ig soot cat be spt wend bt et PY ee cana that | for fabricating all typ Fig design must be strong enough f 10 support the projection, ‘Secwedes i Annular, oF ring. projections I are often used ‘on seme ; machine parts such as bosses and studs which are to be t welded (0 sheets up to sheets pew beer f 4 to approximately 3mm i ‘thick. For thicker sheets a i dome type Figwe 923 Pi will i | ‘seems to work out better. a “ Only clean, scale free surfaces shouldbe wea projection welding ' A ity substance will cause much variation inthe rtance betwoen es ing Fas being joined, with resulting variation in current flow and weld continuous joint between 1 i strength, i. ee tween tw Line projection welds are recommended over point welds when for makin : atts ‘ections are subject to heavy static or dynamic lads. ss “ rection for welding is mde 0 het ml ct ome o nin round Pans. A variation is called su welding. A st eee ‘Dunded is held in one electrode and pressed soa Say oe trent flows to heat the weld. The effect of projector i into a gill. the Ove. wcted On: Then ‘ith crossed wires, such as might be welded ogether io ag of the metal ICY orn eng surtn ait reed togethe Fi Sea they are heated. 4 shee co eprWizai, 2. PERCUSSION WELDING hone part held in stationary bor andthe ° "© Operation is performed with ont246 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY in a clamp mounted on a side whichis backed Up againg me any oo In the welding operation, the movabje clagete released rapidly carrying the part forward. When the ‘v0 pan spproximately 15 mm apart, a sudden discharge of electries} energy released, causing an intense arc between the two surfaces. ‘To compe? takes about 0.1 second. No upset oF lash occurs at the weld, This mit ‘of welding is limited to small areas of 144 mm? maximum. tho Percussion welding is a fast method and it can handle aa, i metals. This is highly suitable for welding small wires to lect components. al 912 THERMIT WELDING TPemit welding is primarily a fusion-welding process in which the wety effected by pouring superheated liquid thermit steel around the parts 1g he Seite cae of thermit pressure welding, only the neat of the “thermit” reaction is utilized to bring the surface of Metal to be wei Plastic tate and mechanical pressure is then applied The thermit process for welding met +7. Workpiece, 8, Riser. During the reaction, the oxygen i Qn leaves the iron oxide and combines ing aluminium Oxide, or slag, and superheated mit steel. the ‘The thermit is a mixte the ratio by weight bein f cd wie ood ignited wit ‘ iGhly inflamma "y-tined cricib barium peroxide. The temperature road py St SMPs largely of approximately 3,000°C or About twice the temperatun, emit feaction is ofstecl. “Sof the meting point In making Pressure Welds bythe then shaped around the parts to be weldeq (Fig.9, 124) wars & Pater Of wax is sound the wax pattern and the spac between the seein box is placed ‘and rammed with sand, Pate Pouring and heat ™ and box is filed sand and a flame is directed into the poe 28% 2d riser, “oem, op Fly i eee thee petit a noi ‘The thermit pressure welding is used toa of pipes, cables, conductors, rails, shafts and by rebuilding of large gears, ete ea extent in the welding roken machinery Frames and SOLID STATE WELDING Interatomic bonds may be established by Degg ams fo ars a lose enough proximity to assure adhesion, Relative movement Surfaces under pressure and controlled roughness are ip a behing through surface films. While theoretically no pressure meals pe {or bonding, in practice a certain normal rea eey ea conformity with the contacting surfaces. In masel Seer materia can be bonded and solid state bonding is \echnique fails. 913 SOLID STATE WELDING METHODS ituson, ction, (2) utrasaic, nd G) i Sold state welding includes : (1) fition, (2 ult214g eLevenTs oF woRNSHOP TECHNOLOGY welding, These ae briefly explained hereunder, DIFFUSION WELDING i ‘ea process that does not necessarily neeg Ditsion welding 1 ‘pater it cas two kinds of surfaces that cot prostate contact under pressure. This pressure is applied fora pergg aon this process although heating snot essential, if the tempera wa te difeion rate wil be cut suTiciently. It might take many jo, tarionm a enain bonding, but with heat the time element ean be cuts imate of hour of minutes 2 “The goldsmith has for centuries made filled gold by placing ‘weight on top ofa sandwich composed of silver or copper core with goig Jee sees When this is held in a furnace for a prolonged time ‘permanent bond is obtained. That is what is done in diffusion bonding principle. fusion ‘This process makes it posible to join metal to meta, meti ceramic, ind metal to metal with intermediate bonding "materials ‘Temperatures that approach is approximately 900°C. This extreme temperature limits diffusion bonding of steel. Diffusion bonding incorporates three basic techniques practically having the same principle as explained. These are : gas-pressure bonding, vacuum fusion bonding , and eutectic fusion bonding. ULTRASONIC WELDING lease welding wil join similar or isi metals bythe itoducon of high-frequency vibratory energy (equency being 20,000 to 60,000 #2) in ovetaping metal ino te ata tobe joined. No flux or filer mets Settee caren pases though the weld metal and wy ‘The pants to be joined are ct i 4 A lamped together between a welding oe eee ing member under low-static pressure. High-frequenc) itor energy is then trnsmited into the weld area fora bie inte ‘his process produces a sound bond without an arc oF melting weld me inthe absence of filer etal or aes ile ee. welding process can be utilized in spot weldin6: ive ling, etc. The maximum thickness by these process® rasonically may vary frim 0.38 to 2.5 mm depending upon the metal- FRICTION WELDING ‘The frictional energy generated when two bodies sy oer transformed into heat ; when the rate of Movement is ea hhigh and the heat #* ‘WELDING AND RELATED PROCESSES. 249 anc in arrow zone, Wel seu, in the practical form of friction welding, one pant is Maton of axial presure: The lempentre res, pail formed eg spots ate sheared, surface films are dinped, andthe rain is weasiy aeested when the entire surface is welded, Some ofthe softened ses squeezed Out a lsh, ut tis ot lly clear whether meng es place- ; takes Prrye heated zone being very thin, dissimilar metals are easily joined, for example, mild steel shanks can be fastened to high-peedte too ents. EXPLOSIVE WELDING Ext plosive welding, srong metallurgical bonds can be produced between vesal combinations which cannot be welded by other methods ot For example, tantalum can be explosively welded to steel MMpough the welding point of tantalum is higher than the vaporization temperature of steel. Explosive welding is carried out by bringing together property peired metal surfaces with high lative velocity a high pressure and 2 Mroper orientation to each other so that a large amount of plastic interaction Prears between the surfaces. The work piece, held fixed is called the target plate and the other called flyer plate. While a verety of procedures have teen successfully employed, the major techniques of explosive welding can be divided into contact techniques and impact techniques. In critical space and nuclear application, explosive welding poms fabrication of structures that cannot be made by any other means + and, in some commercial applications, explosive joining i the Teast cosy mets: Detonator tbe wad ara ye Pa fH. Target Pate a Tagen 3 ¢ SanttTdsaree welding, icity ofthe proces, “Tee major advantage ofthis welding ines SIT comple tad the extromaty ange surface thal 8° OE pevir pai Mates ean be bonded, and thi foi om P*0 crac vss em 19.25 shows the PES NEWE! Fe 1g WELDING METHODS sad ewan TYPES OF WELDING ae called “oewer since eS rot in use for many man, Jae ant nve ee St cently. The types are : (1) rte devel yeh welding and 2) ser-beaTE ‘welding. ‘jetron beam seeding uizes the ‘energy from a fast moving beam electrons ing sporipiece. The electrons strike the metal cite which gives up kinetic enetl almost ‘completely into heat. The beam me arsine high vacuum (10™ 10 10" mm HE). Tithe work in done ia wc, ‘vacuum, nO Muses, or filler metals can contaminate it, and oe sl top an a at ge me roe ‘op and will also produce and focus a stable Figure 9.27 Laser bear In all types of electon weldin Serves aa cathode emits beam machines, a tungsten fil ich sed io a 025 a mass of el igsten filament whi electron that are accelerated and + 1mm diamet ler bear im of high energy density upto 05 welding WELDING AND RELATED PROCESSES 251 2 The heat generated is about 250°C. This is sufficient to 1p 10 KW ize the workpiece ‘material and thus fills a narrow weld gap er rod (although filler rods may be used) fe eam sleped ufo one-al ote the aang it though a high-voltage electronic Gl An wight by Ps speed OF Mreic Lens is employed “obtain correct focusing of the beam. electra zero pressure is Necessary for the formation of the beam. The car 720 Prag a pressure 10 10 mm Hg. Welding Pegs 3 is gees, Known as nonvaccum electra beam welding is SF pro use today. This means that mary ‘welds can now be into ory arrangement required for vacuum cesron bear) pate vacuum chamber in wich the beam is rele ® inn fower pressure, In situation Whee contamination of the ted 10 be eld to a minimum, the eam should be passed through a the chamber high vacuum, it takes about 59 50 seer eve iescpending on the size of the chamber. A mesitn® im flecron beam welder Pera below 60 KV. The welding head or the ste Ps moved by numerical contol © ‘by hand. smiiay aurornobile, aiplane, aerospace, pment including ball-bearing over 100 mm Sipetron beam process m bet antages of EBW are that the welds fr lean, with 0 porosity since there is no airs 50 piclding gas is needed ; and as the eNerBY at iz in a narrow, concentrated DEA distortion is almost eliminated. inpeispeed may be as fast as 2500 mani and it will weld or cut any re ee geramic, diamond, sometimes a hick 3 150 mm. helium. To m jcuate the farm and other types of are being welded by the LASER-BEAM WELDING Haare devices which are capable of senering very intense beam of optical radiation. The word ‘laser is an eepnym of Light Amplification By the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. "an even more concentrated bear) |S produced, but at lower over efficiency, with the laser beam ( ig.9.27). A COs laser ‘pumped with 500 W emits far-infrared light (206m wavelength) and ‘develops a peak energy density of 80 kW/mm » yet the heat affected zone is only 0.05 to 0.1 mim wide, Oxygen blown on the sUrisce Sf the metals reduces the heat teflection and increases material removal rates bY ‘oxidation ; inert gas increases heat transfer for nonmetal, ; ‘The laser has the advantage that vacuum is not necessary and it is finding limited but growing application particularly for thin gauge metals.‘252 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY Lasers sing for work such as welding very small wines 4g devices and similar work i called mcroweldng, Welding tle, 2500 mm/min is achieved on steel sheet 1.5 mm thick. eed of oe In practice, numerical control is used to mo ve the wor laser's use in heavy production work is still limited, KDiece vag A very important applic Ing processes fu SSB epposte function. Workplaces of varying shape arc StS Wi shect plate, and even very heavy sections. The heat requireg foe fam saa a Ptovided by an electric are, a high energy beam or aang ing ices eae. Cutting processes are readily automated, and. eet be tracer,mechanisms oF numerical control various sheet blanking operations, In addition to cutting proc esses other relat brazing, soldering and hard facing a led processes ; ind many others. » facta 918 OXYGEN CUTTING °C before cutting. which cannot be Zitat moto te shout 1200°C while ignition temperance about 1350°C ; high-alloy Shromium and chrome-nickel secls, ne the elements present in them, if chromium, nickel, ete. retard the forms of oxides, and non-ferro¥s : L000 M0 ne re ce Og point ory MOE. 285 athe base metals, OT hi xidesshgher thy Gre Stn spams yy i equipment except that the welding yy is ope oTdinary pas welding hich detives the 838 mixture for pete ®, BED wy 2 cutting torch eags errounc kt inerchange at aE Br egeh ee Heingssuroundng «lng onan tle en — ssed, Svinte of oxy-acciyene part fied gens yeahs ri eas cists ast on a ine ca ot he edge oes StS Dc. Te pet sof teed ae eet ey at cate ah cal he surtace pera Pte he rt of ca eee Areca is supplied tough ere’) Peed Then cutting the metal. A uniforms, wide slot, called jaca Meet called the kris at y the se onygen. The faster the rte of Dot aps behind ‘called he drag and is, eins of curved lines on the sides of the kerf. ty, 1 ieee ig wa i sion of eel Wu ype ce Sue rae ves wih meal hac ur ne once and OxyBe0 purity. When oxygen presu i inuttsee Brogtss of culing slowed down say une oc ne teu andthe oxygen je ils toca heath us ce eee When oxygen pressure is t00 high, t 100 much oxygen is consumed, the ‘neal in the path ofthe cutting jet is cooled and the progress of cuting is “Torch tp likewise slowed dowa or foreuting hhampered altogether. In recton addition the cuting_ jet ae diverges, and the cutting eo ‘edges appear mughly and rT wl. Opin psu for euting oxygen inthe Ker case of sel 3 10 300 mm eygen et thick vais from 3 10 14 Sienna samt ‘atm (300 to 1400 kN’) moten wen sue. Figure 928 Principles of lame cutting CUTTING MACHINES. matic and automa hve wow beet ial any he rice rch raved by rious cutting machines, emiautoma ‘developed for the flame cutting of sel ot pei ‘In semiautomatic oxygen cuting234 ELEMENTS OF WoRKSHOP TECHNOLOGY Power but is guided by hand with the aid of various devic, guide bars, templates. disks, et.). Such machines are vin ey industry and castruction . Y sg in automatic machines, not only is cutting torch travel mp, Dut the direction of the cutis controlled automatically, Station, cating machines can make straight or regular cuts to produes The ae [EFrnces, shape. They incorporate mechanisms which either provide eavieg transverse movements of the working units or are ney esi ARCCUTTING ‘swiveling linkage. The cutting torches of these a signed, ‘bated on melt 3 a cuttings bese on melting the me athe et by ie tinclag? 2 ner ttes repradue ‘atic are and blowing melten mel bye fadokk mover f « maze acing let which flows the ee wee ees tempat, ths ating ot spar of the shape suticiengye sop eliminate subsequent machining in many - Jt Th i onimaly se y J (lecttode holder), along the electrode and ae eae y cases, js supplied from the side. Both carbon an On certain special machines cutting is performed tothe conto i template by a magnetic tracer head and to drawing or layout ieee ‘of a hand-guided head. / Machines have been developed which follow the lines of a drawing remote-controlled machines, ito theca. In some aches sit Ml metal eectoes are employe jnthe arc cutting of metals. Tie ‘A-more recent addition is theory electodes. By this method, a jet of ‘with photo-clectric traci 3 machines, for cutting and machines in whic reduces the size ofthe sh are cating process using carbon BEN is pase on the mon meta ei 3¢ distance from the arc, andthe oxygen ray onde the neal ond choke ace tes om ui ee ly an ad ch Pantograph in, JB siilar to that of gas cutting except that he prebeat i supled by am ae ME Cu Out in relaiog, JE intead of a flame. A plasma-are operation without the sadton of ier ‘metals an effective means of cutting metal. The cureat is supp! by welding generator. arrears OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING A ating is info ofan cating hh nity al of QizEED lance cutting is a process by which holes are pierced in ean cating. Tis is only resoned to when pe gered any Blocks of metal by a jet of oxygen passing through a stee! pipe when the citieal, of when for some —- efor tara ook ‘ad is raised to kindling temperature and is placed against the surface of be ‘Applications for arc cutting inclu: Seale! eve to be. nonferrous metals, as well as demolition and scarp ria ee Aloe For the most pat, good wrfice ish an see ae tb ce ting, and the method is not as widely used as fame ay one wih welding ach, gait Bom dation cating, adhe me sat i on arc or by using the heat generated when current is passed from a weldg ate nea nice os anne cy poo source through a carbon plate clamped between the lance and The wos sm sites steel, which “After the lance is raised tothe required temperature, oxYB2 nm reat lee under a gauge pressure of 1 or? am (100 sn TAS ding processes is hard a it ee lance ipa the ated spt on he wo a imporant nonlin aplication of aos wong mee § Nt ‘The oxygen pressure is raised to 5 ot 6 atm (500 to 600 kNim’), {Important steength but tough body isco ie but also lance is advanced into the workpiece. From this moment on, the ct ee er canine Mineo! ses orig snd i8 ‘Speration is sustained by the heat liberated by the oxidization of the / ‘ut sometimes bet mie kl ‘The slag formed during the operation flows out of the hole throug! application equing We! SHOES gg mata clearance between the ~~ ‘used for hard facing (A lance cut is started by raising the tip ofthe pip, called the ln. +o kindling temperatureaur wor TECM.ONY 256 MENTS tration a jghallying-tement, concen vd shy ter bv aha en teeta ic co 8 Msie tabular Tods, and the alloy i gp inthe Mux coating oF ‘as oxy-acetylene welding win eit Arc as well a8 oxyacel ing my, the welding process, ay be seni oings dept fom a plana ae OF With ag wwder is shot onto the a atonatan ann tv net, te poe is SHOE onto ie Surface ie veer (sufi by detonating an acetyene-o8YBen mint, 9.17 BRONZE WELDING pling abo called braze welding, iS PrOCESS Whi Bra stwcen ve welding and te braving. In brazing a a pea not mad nas ting alloy i nodes ee re Ja nt produced by adhesion. In welding, the edgesse apa nd wget joints made of (wo similar metal In bronze welding, the edges of surfaces of the materials to be ind ae tnly eed toa temperature which corresponds tothe meting ver ofthe ene ing od used. The flr rod used for bronze welding ‘sually contain 60 per cent copper and 40 per cent zinc, a combination fiving high tense seagh and doctlity. Additional elements are silicon tnd which acts done, The process consists of cleaning the surfaces to be joined, heating em se eigen hat depends on te compostin a the filer rod, and applying a flux for the purpose of removing any oxide ps Usa he su fh tony ene fe, aah nz wig ay in with ary wile sore f Maa wi tg meting is uh al cation coper bast indus wl The min avrg of boas welding rule eof the operation. Les heat i needed and a joint can be tae fae hanby fasion wen Disimlar meta that cannot be one by lay isd by bom: Wling een sir nm eli ins art sats for sve a ver bo iyamic nto 100g per en (100000 Nav me. 918 SOLDERING fy Such as Soldering isa method of uniting to or foie yor ean M8 or pices of metal by means 8 applied in the molten state, Soldering 6 AHO RELATED PROCESSES 257 “gad into two classifications: sof and hard, sive ‘soldering i used extensively in sheet-metal work for joining jaar mot exposed othe action of high temperatures and re nt ots aj to encesive lads and forces, of soldering i also employed for stents and small parts. The solder, which is mostly a ond thas a melting range af 15010 250°C. A win sof soldering functions preven oxo of he uric to Hed oF 0 issove oxides tha sete on the metal surfaces ding the resold aces. Although cofosve, zinc chloride isthe most common bari ‘hux. Rosin is non-corrosive, but it does not have the cleaning Fink Jaf zine chloride. A blow torch or soldering ion conttues the rope for heating the base metals end melting the solder and the flux. aoe soldering employs solders which melt thigh emperatures sare onger than those use in ot olering Ste sldering is hard amtring method, and silver alloyed with tin is used as solder. The solenfures of the various hard solders vary from about 600 to 900°C. warps are most in paste frm andar appli tothe on with brash re eating In ard soldering, blow torch consis the equipment ‘There ate a number of soldering techniques, but in each and every cae the pats to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned, For small ight Whe heat may be supplied by a soldering iron which must be large Pap to cary enough heat to heat up the pars to jut above the ming print ofthe solder. This consss of topper bit blumly posted tone end wed riveted to a steel shaft at the other, the steel shaft terminating in a ‘wooden handle. Any source of clean heat i satisfactory for heating the bit ‘nally, the bit is heated in gas or coke fire, cleaned, dipped in fux, and tten rubbed on the solder to “tn” the bit. This coats the bit with solder and teables it to pick up molten solder and deposit it as required onthe joint. For larger parts, the surfaces may be tinned fist by cleaning, eating, dipping in flux, and then by applying solder witha soldering iron or by dipping the parts in molten solder. The arts may then be assembled tad heated together until the solder melts, The different compositions of ‘ver for different purposes are as follows le flux is always 1. Soft solder = Jead 37 pet cet tn 63 perce. 2. Medium solder - lead 50 percent, tin SO per cen 3. Plumber's solder - lead 70 percent tin 30 per c= 4. Bleeticin’s solder - lead 58 percet tin 42 Percent258. ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 9.19 BRAZING Brazing is essentially similar to soldering, but it gives a my . Wh song i FELON No ce is the us thon, but as han soldering. The principal difference is the use of g YORE some carbo highly x material commercial Known 4 spel, which fuses at tem Be Steels containiog eased above red heat, but below the melting temperature of the = 'B Proportion f cays Pats to he ate shout 400°C to produce reasonabiy eit the prehen ae , we in Filler metas used in this process may be divided into two classe ® an but steels with a carbon content gt 0.25 wp and ty encking base alloys, and siver-bas alloys. There are a numberof differs ak without preheating, provided that 1. er cach class, but biasses (copper and zinc), sometimes upto 29 uns a Sem aM be welded on It should also be noted that apign® Made pee 4 id coat are mostly used mainly for brazing the ferrous metals. Silver oP Eg a rie fea. SYNE to cane MSS the weld eta and ener erste taeperand ss having a melting hide °F i, from chilling effets pone qs wash m a 850°C ar suitable for brazing any metals capable of being tga ® ane 10. sees ot teh apa parle sive a clean finish anda strong ductile joint : acl Th tpt me: tte esata Li aaint; fhe pans to be joined by bearing. ace caret ‘A neutral flame is used in gas wena teal seme ‘aned, the flux applied, and the parts clamped in position for joining electrodes are required for diferat sete Ba iterates rods Borax is widely used flux, but many proprietary brands are avalon always used except is the case of mild steel Ken Seel A fla is | are then heated toa temperature above the melting point ofthe spelteiot, comparatively greater amount of icon sag ate he pac of | Sd En molten spel is allowed to flow by capillary action att deoxidisers and serve to protect the meu nese which ek 1 space between the parts and to cool slowly. The actual eating may be done ing is done by & boy Particularly in controled duction heating is useful 1, Must be avoided. Resistance ‘tom being oxidized ano’ seeks. Ths eroup of se comin sal amet fsck capmium, roolyenem or other elemeats, la adnee ne tot frbeting is always aviable when weling mc er ey is essential if brite or cracked welds arto be avoded Tee of conet ‘eling rod relative to the composition ofthese! is al visly apne Parts in production. Immersion brazing s Stainless steel. For stainless steels which harden on heating aod wes in larBe-scale production. The parts are cleaned and fluxed, clanied cooling, the best method is clectic butt welding, followed by pont é ‘opether and then immersed into a tank of molten spelter. annealing. at 750 to 800°C. They can also be welded by oxy-aceilene, and 3 ‘etal-arc welding methods. In all cases, oxidation must be reel a 920 WELDING OF VARIOUS METALS wthen oxy-acetylene welding sanless sel avery sight aceylne spl was tone faa" wena i isi risation produces brite wel Some welding methods as applied to differen ill now be deserted having an oxidising flame, although carburization ps = briefly. erie eater acl fa ‘The filler rod is usually fluxed before the for protection operation of th Carbon steel, Carbon steels can be readily welded by fore welding. resistance welding, arc welding and gas welding. Te chil rouble likely to be encountered when welding carbon stecls by an) fv welding method is cracking, due weld, i in metakare welding A wide range of clerodes is svi, in tba wig ‘Suitable for welding stainless steel of various oan Contin sodium, tianm,colambim, which reve he rene Of the defect known as weld decey, whic is wot ard whe Weg this material, Careful cleaning ofthe edges t be weed 0 After each run are essential for cbnning Be en ‘wo forms. Cast trom. Carbon | may be pest Oo as irom base, both combined or fre. During the formation af wed ia ig fee and combined carbon go into thes sig ofthe malted ‘he removal of the welding hea, there is @