Week 1

Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
© Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer by M. Calì , P. Leone, Politecnico di Torino.
Engineering Thermodynamics
• Introduction to Thermodynamics
• Basic concepts and definitions
• Temperature, Heat and Work
• Pure
P re substances
s bstances and constitutive
constit ti e equations
eq ations
• Control volume systems
• The fundamental laws
• Gas engines
• Properties of liquid‐vapour mixtures
• Steam engines
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
• Gas mixtures and psychrometric principles
© Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer by M. Calì , P. Leone, Politecnico di Torino.
Introduction to Thermodynamics
 Aims of thermodynamics
 A brief history of energy and thermodynamics
© Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer by M. Calì. Review by Pierluigi Leone, Politecnico di Torino.
Aims of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
 It is the chapter of physics in which we study

 pphenomena in which the concepts
p of heat and temperature
p have
particular relevance
 the problems of energy conversion from one form to another
 We will formulate
 laws of general validity
In classical thermodynamics
 We do not consider concepts of microscopic and statistical

thermodynamics and of relativistic and quantum physics
 Matter is represented as a continuous model
 We will formulate
 phenomenological or constitutive laws that represent the behavior
of various materials
 It develops the study of technical applications
In engineering thermodynamics
 The theory is presented in a simple mathematical form

 In the formulation of laws and study of technical
applications we will use the hypothesis of spatial
homogeneity of bodies
 With this hypothesis it is assumed that the properties of
each
h body
b d can change
h over time,
ti b t do
but d nott change
h
between a point and another of the same body
A brief historyy of energy

gy and thermodynamics
y
Thermodynamics and energy
 Concern with studies applied to machines and

technology,
gy, thermodynamics
y is the science of energy
gy
 Perhaps, it was the greek philosopher Aristotle which
first used the word "energéia"
energéia (ένεργέία) with the
meaning of action, strength, effectiveness, activity, skills
in action
 Literally meaning is
 en (έν)= inside and ergòs = (εργέος) = work
What is energy?
 It is a property of matter which can move from one body

to another or move within one bodyy
 His movement is both cause and effect of any change in
the sensible world and at the same time the
demonstration that it is occurred
 When the energy does not move,
move the bodies do not
changes and are in equilibrium
 Energy in the universe is constant but distributed
unevenly
Physical meaning of energy and power
 Energy: a term used with two meanings, related but

not identical
 physical quantity associated with the amount of material of
bodies (mass)
 physical quantity associated with interactions between bodies
g
(e.i. heat, work, electromagnetic waves, ...)
 Power: ratio of the energy exchanges during a
transformation of a body and the duration of the same
transformation
 can be interpreted as the transfer rate
The energy in human societies
 The science of energy deals with all about the physical

world
 In this course we will study only those applications of
energy that are closely related to human uses
The Greeks
Eliopila di Erone Macchina a vapore per

(Museo della Scienza e della Tecnica di Milano) le porte del tempio
Pumps of Savery (1702) and Desagulier
(1712)
Fire-Engine
Miner’ss friend
Miner
Newcomen Machines (1712)
Otto-Engine (1876)
The "Rocket" by Stephenson
Multi-tubular boiler
Energy today
 Energy today is an extremely fascinating field of study,

research,, thinkingg and p
people
p opportunity.
pp y
 It involves advances study of materials and chemistry to
improve actual energy conversion paths and at the same
time it has several connections with comtemporary
economical environmental and social issues
economical,
The economical issue
The economical issue
/GDP
TPES/
TPES/GDP
The environmental issue
The social issue
Average world energy consuption 1.8 TEP/year per capita
The social issue
000 born)
Availability (MJ/day)
Child Morttality (death/10
Food A
GJ Pro Capita GJ Pro
P Capita
C it
e Expectancy (years)
%)
Literacy (%
Life
GJ Pro Capita GJ Pro Capita
Key feature of Caspian energy
International Energy Agency - World Energy Outlook 2010
YYou expectt a very busy

b f t
future with
ith
energy matters!
tt !
Thermodynamics
Definitions and concepts
Basic concepts and definitions
 Definitions
 Properties of bodies
 Processes and transformations
Definitions and Concepts
Definitions
Definitions
 Definitions
 p
primitive concepts
p and q
quantities
 Concepts and quantities whose meaning is not explained within the
theory itself because this is done in other theories or because they
are the result of a cognitive. In general, their definition is given by
the operating procedure of measurement. Examples: time, mass,
volume heat,
volume, heat temperature,
temperature ... ... ....
 derivative
 Concepts and quaantities which are deducted directly from primitive
ones based on mathematical relationships
Basic definitions
 Body: it is an object constitued by a certain amount of

matter whose it is p possible to measure different p
physical
y
properties
 System: it is the object we will consider to apply the
concepts developed within the theory. It is defined as a
portion of space which can contain one or more bodies
and it is separated from the external environment by a
surface which is needed to define exactly.
exactly
 External Environment: it is the portion of space
containing allll the
h bodies
b d whichh h do
d not belong
b l to the
h
system
Basic definitions
 Universe: it is the ensemble of the system and and the

external environment
 Control Volume: the volume occupied by the system
 Boundary
Bo ndar surface,
s rface control surface
s rface or wall:
all it is
i the
th reall
or imaginary surface which separates the system from
th environment
the i t
Interaction
 In nature we observe that between a system and the

external environment can be established mutual
influences
 We know three kinds of interactions between a system
and the external environment
 Mechanical: due to the exchange of mutual forces
 Materials: due to the exchange of matter
 Thermal: due to all causes which cannot be classified as mechanical
or materials
Interactions and energy exchanges
 During the interactions between a system and the

external environment
 It is always observed a transfer of energy
 It is always possible to measure two quantities, heat and work
 Heat and work are different modes of energy transfer
Systems
 We define
 Open:
p if theyy allow interactions of all kinds
 Closed: only if it allows mechanical and thermal interactions
 Isolated: if theyy do not allow anyy kind of interaction
Systems
Mass
Massa
Sistema Sistema Sistema

La
La
e
e
lor
vo
lor
vo
Ca
ro
Ca
OPEN
APERTO ro CLOSED
CHIUSO ISOLATED
ISOLATO
Boundary surface
 We define
 p
permeable if it theyy can be crossed in both directions byy the matter
of all chemical species, semipermeable if passage is allowed only to
certain species
 rigid if as a result of any interaction does not allow changes in the
volume, deformable if it allows volume changes
 adiabatic if you do not allow thermal interactions, diatermàne if the
permit
Properties of bodies
Thermodynamic properties
 All physical quantities can be measured on a

thermodynamic
y system
y ((such as temperature,
p , volume,,
pressure, mass, composition, etc..)
 We can define
 independent thermodynamic properties, minimum set of
thermodynamic properties needed (necessary and sufficient) to
fully characterize the system
 dependent
p thermodynamic
y properties,
p p , can be calculated as a
function of the independent ones
The measurable quantities of a system
 We define
 extensive if their value is proportional to the amount of matter in
the system (eg. mass, volume, kinetic and potential energy, heat,
work, etc..)
 intensive if their value is independent of the amount of matter in
the system (eg. temperature, pressure, etc.).
 specific, obtained by the ration of extensive quantities.
For example
 density, ratio between mass and volume
 specific volume, ratio between volume and mass
Thermodynamic state
 Array of N independent
thermodynamic properties at x1 t 
the instant t, also known as
thermodynamic state variables 
or coordinates
X  t   xi  t 

xN  t 
State space
 The N independent thermodynamic coordinates which

characterize the state of a thermodynamic
y system
y can be
interpreted as the coordinates of a point in a N‐
dimensional space
 It will be referred as the state space of thermodynamic
coordinates
Thermodynamic equilibrium
 A condition in which the values of all independent

coordinates remain unchanged
g and constant over time
x1  t   const

X  t   xi  t   const  constant

xN  t   const
State equations
 Functional relationships which correlate a dependent

thermodynamic
y coordinate,, y, with N independent
p
coordinates, x1, .., xN
 Can be expressed in
 implicit form
F  y , x1, , xN   0
 explicit form
y  f  x1, , xN 
Equations
q of state
 Example: ideal gas equation of state
V  nRT
pV RT
 R = 8314 J / (kmol K)
© Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer by M. Calì. Review by Pierluigi Leone, Politecnico di
Torino.
Processes and transformations
Process P
 From the observations of nature we can understand that

bodies ggenerallyy never stayy at rest neither keepp identical
 A process is the the description and representation of
how the status of a system may change in a certain time
interval identified by an initial time, t1, And a final time,
t2
 From a mathematical point of view it consists in the
d fi i i off N functions
definition f i that
h relatel eachh independent
i d d
thermodynamic coordinate to the time
Process P
x1 t 

X t   xi t 

xN t 
Transformation 
 A trasformation is a curve in the N‐dimension state space

which is described byy a p
point representing
p g the
thermodynamic state of the system as the process P
develops and time passes from the initial t1 to the final
instant, t2
A process and the corresponding trasformation
Transformation
p-v
Process P: Curve p(t )
P
Process P Curve
P: C v(t)
(t)
Composed processes and trasformations
 A P process is composed by a
P1 pprocess which develops p in
τ1 [t1,1;t1,2] and a P2 process
which develops in τ2 [t2,1 , ;t2,2
, ]
if:
X1  t1,2   X2  t2,1 
 It follows that the

transformation consists in an
unbroken line
Cyclic process
 A P process developing in τ
[t1;t2] is cyclic if :
X  t1   X  t2 
 It follows that the cyclic

processing or cycle, W is a
closed line
Inverse p
processes and trasformations
 Given any
ypprocess P,, it is said that a second p
process Pinv is its
inverse (and vice versa) if
 the initial and final states P coincide with the final and initial Pinv
 intermediate states in an orderly way coincide
 transformation of the two curves overlap p exactly,
y even if theyy
traveled through the other one in the opposite direction
Inverse p
processes and transformations
Quantities depending on a process
 Some quantities cannot be associated to the state of a

system
y but theyy eventuallyy relates to the p
process it
undertakes
 We define as action a(P) a fucntion which allows to
associates a real number to a process which develop in a
time range τ [t1;t2]
P  a(P )
Quantities depending on a process
 Additive property applies for actions:
a(P1  P2 )  a(P1 )  a(P2 )

 In
I engineering
i i thermodynamics
h d i two actions
i are
investigated, the heat and the work
Reversible and irreversible processes
 A process P is called reversible if the following conditions

occur together
g
 you can find another Pr which is inverse of the first
 The value which assumes the generic action is equal in absolute
value and opposite in sign to the one of the direct process
a(Pr )  a(P )
 If the two conditions do not occur either process P and
its inverse are called irreversible
Reversible and irreversible transformations
 The same attributes and meanings of reversible and

irreversible apply
pp y to the corresponding
p g transformations
 The concepts of reversibility and irreversibility have
important physical and phenomenological implications
which will be deepen after introducing the second law of
thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Temperature, Heat and Work
 Temperature
 Heat
 Work
 The kinetic energy theorem
Temperature
Thermal level and temperature
 It is inherent to the human being to experience the

concepts
p of
 "hot ", "warm“ and "cold"
 relationships of the type "hottest
hottest or colder
colder"
 These experiences deal with the concept of thermal
level which is associated with a well‐defined and
measurable physical quantity, that is temperature
Temperature measurement
 Two rigid volumes contain a gas but under different

conditions,, A and B
 The initial states of the two gases are <pA1 ,VA1> and
<pB1 ,VVB1>
 When we put the two containers in contact and the wall
off separation
ti isi consists
i t off a suitable
it bl material,
t i l said
id
thermal conductor (diathermic), the status of both gases
i changed,
is h d becoming
b i <pA2 ,V VA2> And
A d <pB2 ,V
VB2>
An experiment
p to measure the temperature
p
A1 B1
Adiabatic
B1 2
Rigid wall
A1
1 A2 B2
Diathermic
Rigid wall
The Zero Law of Thermodynamics
 If two bodies, after they were brought into contact

through
g a rigid
g and diathermic,, reach an equilibrium,
q ,
then we can say they are in thermal equilibrium and and
have the same temperature
 If two bodies, A and B, are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third,
third C,
C A and B are also in thermal equilibrium
and all three have the same temperature
The Zero Law of Thermodynamics
A1 B1 A2 B2
C1 C2
A2 B2
C2
The thermometer
 It is the instrument to measure the temperature T

 In a thermometer some features can be defined
 thermometric substance: a material whose thermodynamic state
varies significantly with changes in temperature
 the sensor: a device consisting of the substance and built in such a
way that when the temperature changes you can keep constant all
the thermodynamic properties except for a one called the
thermometric property,Y
 a measurement system
y of the thermometric p
property
p y
 a thermometer scale
Thermometers and thermometric properties
Thermometer Thermometric Properties
A liquid (mercury, alcohol, ..) Height of the liquid, h
Resistance thermometer Electrical resistance, R
Thermocouple
p Electromotive force,, f.e.m.
Radiance of the radiation,

Pyrometer
G
.... ....
Thermometric scale
 Mathematical relationship which establishes a unique

and monotonous relationship p between a ggeneric
thermometric quantity, Y, and the temperature, T
T  f Y 
The Conventional Temperature Scale
 It has been conventionally defined based on the

followingg considerations
 there is a threshold temperature at which no body can get
with a conventional value set a zero, this reason it is called
Absolute Zero Temperature
 in nature when there are two or more different states of
aggregation of the same substance (liquid + vapor + solid-
liquid, etc..) the temperature is strictly constant
 th
these states
t t are called
ll d Fixed
Fi d Points
P i t
 The chosen fixed point is conventionally the triple point of water in

which the phases of liquid, solid and vapor coexist
 the unit of measurement of temperature is called Kelvin, symbol K
 to its temperature has been conventionally associated the value T0
= 273.16 K
 using a thermometer characterized by a thermometric

property Y, which assumes the value Y0 at the triple point
 each temperature measured with the instrument is defined by
the relation
Y
T T0 
Y0
 The computed temperatureì is called empirical temperature
How do you measure a temperature
 It is needed to bring the sensor of the thermometer in

contact with the bodyy of which one wants to measure
the temperature
 When the termometric property keeps constant than the
thermal equilibrium have been reached and have the
same temperature
 The value Y of the thermometric substance is read and
the
h temperature value
l isi evaluated
l d with
i h the
h fundamental
f d l
relation
The gas thermometer
 Laboratory instrument consists

essentially of
 a sensor or sensing element, bulb‐
shaped and very small Sensor
Sensore p
 a U‐tube filled with suitable liquid to
measure a p pressure difference Tx
 a tank that can be moved to adjust

the liquid level
The gas thermometer
 The thermometric substance is a gas whose pressure is

kept
p so low that it can be considered ideal ((this attribute
will be explained in more detail bin the following)
 The thermometric property is the pressure of the gas
when its volume is kept constant
The gas thermometer
 For the measurement

 y
you pput the sensor in contact with the bodyy whose temperature
p Tx
is unknown
 moving the fluid reservoir up or down until the volume of gas in the
sensor reaches the mark value
 reads the height difference in the two branches of the U‐tube,
which is proportional to the pressure in the bulb
 the temperature is calculated with the fundamental relationship
The gas thermometer
Sensore p p  pb
Tx p p
Tx  T0   273,16 
p0 p0
The heat
Experimental observations
 From the observation of natural phenomena two main

conclusions can be drawn
 Heat can flow from a body at high temperature to abody at
lower temperature or within the same body if temperature
gradients occur (in case of continous bodies!)
 Two bodies at the thermal equilibrium
q and then at the same
temperature do not exchange heat
 Heat flows spontaneously only

 between two bodies: from the one at higher
g temperature
p to the
one at lower temperature and never vice versa
 within a body in which temperature is not uniform, from points at a
higher temperature to ones at lower temperature and never vice
versa
 When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, and are
thus at the same temperature, between them there is no
net exchange of heat
Considerations about heat transfer
 Heat is not a property of bodies but only the name of an

action that is exerted on them
 The term "heat" is used correctly only when two
conditions occur together:
 An energy flow moves from one body to another or within the
same body
 the
h cause that
h determines
d i the
h transport off energy in
i space is
i a
temperature difference
 It makes sense to speak of heat when referring to a
process
Heat Q
 Measure the energy exchanged between the system and

the external environment
 It is measured using the calorimeter
 The
Th conceptt off heat
h t has
h tot be
b expressedd in
i association
i ti to
t
the time interval during which the transfer takes place
and d to
t the
th corresponding
di thermodynamic
th d i process, P
power,, 
Heat flux or thermal p
 It is also referred as thermal power or heating rate

 Measure the speed
p with which a system
y exchanges
g heat
with the external environment
 It is defined as the ratio between the amount of heat
exchanged in a certain time interval and the length time
of the same when becomes arbitrarly small
Q(P ')
(t )  lim
t 0 t
 May vary from time to time and so it is an instantenous
quantity
Relationship between heat and heat flux
 Because
 heat flux is an instantaneous quantity
q y
 heat should always be referred to the time interval in which the
process takes place P
 The following relations must hold
Q    t   dt
t2
Q P    Q    t   dt
P t1
The algebraic sign of heat and heat flux
 Heat and heat flux may be added or subtracted to an

energy
gy system
y and then are expressed
p as
 a positive number when the external environment has a higher
temperature of the system and then gives him energy
 a negative number when the external environment has a lower
temperature of the system and then receives energy
The units of measurement in S.I.
 The heat Q has the same dimensions of an energy which

is measured in Joules,, J in the SI
 The heat flux , has units of energy transferred in a unit
of time and is measured in watts,
watts W
 Heat and heat flux are extensive quantities as energy
Work
The Work
 In many physical phenomena we observe that different

bodies can established a p
particular interaction due to the
exchange of mutual forces. This occurs for
 direct contact
 in presence of force fields
The Work
 The interaction of two bodies by a mutual exchange of

forces and the eventual displacement
p or deformation of
bodies from the initial state can be quatified by
introducing a physical quantity defined as work
 We will talk about exchanged work in order to outline the
mutual interaction of bodies
The interaction introduces two main effects related to the

modification of the motion state of the fluid and eventually
of physical quantities which characterize the bodies:
 The first effect occurs because the system could be not
properly bonded and it can move with respect to an inertial
reference system
 The modifcation of physical quantities chracterizing the system
is instead related to the establishment of internal forces which
have a rnet force equal to zero.
zero When the interaction causes a
deformation of the system then the acting point of forces
modifyy causingg a work exchangeg and a modification of the
system
Phenomena with work exchanges
 The work is not a property of bodies but it is an action

 The term “work" is used correctly
y onlyy when two
conditions occur together:
 An energy flux moves from one body to another or within the same
body
 the cause that determines the transport of energy from body to
body in space is the exercise of mutual unbalanced forces
 It makes sense to talk about work only if associated to a
process
Work, L
 Measure the energy exchanged between the system

and the external environment
 In mechanics it is calculated by measuring intensity and
direction of movement and strength and making the
scalar product
 The
Th conceptt off workk has
h tot be
b expressedd in
i association
i ti
to the time interval during which the transfer takes
place
l andd to the
h corresponding
di thermodynamic
h d i
process, P
Mechanical power, W
 Measure the speed with which a system exchanges work

with the external environment
 It is defined as the ratio between the amount of heat
exchanged in a certain time interval and the length time
of the same when becomes arbitrarly small
L(P ')
W (t )  lim
t 0 t
 May vary from time to time and so it is an instantenous

quantity
The units of measurement in S.I.
 The work L, has the same dimensions of energy and is

then measured in Joule,, J in the SI
 The mechanical power W, has units of energy per unit
time and is measured in Watts,W
Watts W
 Mechanical work and power are extensive quantities as
energy
Relations between work and mechanical power
 Because
 the p
power is a instantaneous q
quantityy
 the work must always be refers to the time in which the process
takes place P
 It has
L  W t   dt
t2
L P    L   W t   dt
 t1
The algebric sign of work and mechanical power
 Work and mechanical power may be added or subtracted

to an energy
gy system
y and then are expressed
p as
 a positive number when the system expands and delivers energy to
the external environment such as work
 a negative number when the system is contracted and thus
receives energy from the environment
Action-Reaction Law
External environment
s s
Fse Fes
s e
System
The principle of action and reaction
s s s s
Fes  Fse  0 Fes  Fse
 s  s
Les  Lse  0 Les  Lse
s s
 NOTE: these relations are valid in the case of neglibile

f
friction f
forces
t1
s e
Fse Fes
s
t2 s e
Fse Fes
The system s expands: Lse > 0
t1
s e
Fse Fes
s
t2
s e
Fse Fes
The system s contracts: Lse <0
Forces acting on a body
 Surface or contact forces: between the boudary surface

which define the volume of bodies:
 concentrated at a point
 distributed over a surface area over
 Field, distance or body forces: act on every particle of the
body without contact for the action of fields
 Internal: they are mutually exchanged between the
particles
ti l that
th t constitute
tit t the
th system
t
Concentrated and distributed surface forces
 Direct contact between the body and the external

environment
 Referring to the surface boundary can be concentrated
on a point or distributed over a finite area
Concentrated and distributed surface forces
 If the point of force application moves you can calculate work

and power
p
s s
Fse   fd , se dA
A
 s  s
Lse   dx  Fse
s
W  v  Fse
s
se
P
 s   s dV
L   n  f d , se dV
s
se W   n  f d , se
s
se
V V
dt
Field, distance or body forces
d  There is no direct
FFessedcontact between the
 Wd  F  v
d d
body and the external
FFseesd se se B
environment, the
i
interaction
i isi driven
di b
by
B the presence of a vector
field
 Act on the entire mass
d  of the body
body. The result

Fse  b se dV can be concentrated in
the center of ggravityy B
  V
system
Lse   Fse  dx B
d
Field, distance or body forces
 If the case of conservative forces a potential function can

be introduced and the expressions
p of the work and the
corresponding power is
L se P  Ep  Ep  t2   Ep  t1 
d
dEp
se  t    E p
d
W
dt
Internal forces
• When external forces are

applied on a body, a system of
internal forces establish within
the system which has a null
 ij resulting
lti force,
f b t nett workk
but
different from zero in the case
of deformation of the body

Fi  0 Li (P)  0 Wi (t )  0
Friction work
 Many materials experience dissipative phenomena,

which absorb in their mass a pproportion
p of energygy which
cannot be taken into account as work exchanged with the
outside world. The decrease in the internal work with
respect to the ideal or reversible one, LiR is said friction
work (internal), La
 Examples are the viscosity of fluids, the magnetic
hysteresis etc..
hysteresis, etc
The kinetic energy theorem
Momentum
 In cases that are studied in these notes can be properly

defined as the pproduct of the velocityy of the center of
gravity of the body to its mass
 It is a vector

vB
 
B
QM  M  v B
The laws of mechanics
II Principle of Dynamic
or
Conservation of momentum:
"I every instant
"In i t t off a process, the
th result
lt off forces
f applied
li d
from the external is equal to the rate of change of
momentum
momentum"

s d
  dQ M
Fes  Fes 
dt
Kinetic energy theorem
 It can be inferred from the second law of motion of

which is a consequence
q
 Relates the work of external forces acting on the
system Les, the work of internal forces Li and the
change of kinetic energy in the time interval a process
P takes place
 In the energy form is
Les P   Li P   Ec  t2   Ec  t1   Ec
or
 Lse P   Li P   Ec  t2   Ec  t1   Ec
 In the form of power is
dEc
Wes  t   Wi  t  
dt
or
dEc
Wse  t   Wi  t  
dt
Kinetic energy theorem: the work of contact forces
 We want to find a form for the kinetic energy theorem suitable for
practical applications
 In general the work and mechanical power of contact forces can
be expressed in the following way:
W  t   W  t   Wae  t   0
s
es
s
se
Les  P   Lse  P   Lae  P   0

s s
 The expressions account for the work dissipated to the

environment for the effect of friction. This occurs in case of
relative motion of contacting boundary surfaces which in case of
friction is accompanied by the presence of tangential forces
Kinetic energy theorem: the work of field forces
 In general the work and mechanical power of field forces

can be expressed
p in the followingg way:
y
W d
es t   W t   0
d
se
Ldes  P   Ldse  P   0
 In case of conservative field forces a potential function
can be introduced leadingg to:
dE p
W d
es t   
dt
Les  P     E p  t2   E p  t1    E p
d
Kinetic energy theorem: the work of internal forces
 In general the work and mechanical power of internal

forces can be expressed
p in the followingg way:
y
Wi  t   Wi  t   Wai  t 
lin
Wai  t   0
Li  P   Llin
i  P   Lai  P  Lai  P   0
 The expression accounts for a linear term and a non

non‐
linear term which does not contribute to the volume
variation of the system
 The kinetic energy equation can be then expressed in a more suitable

form by developing few mathematical steps_
Les P   Li P   Ec  t2   Ec  t1   Ec
dEc
Wes  t   Wi  t  
dt
 And
Wes  t   Wess  t   Wesd  t 
Les  P   Lses  P   Ldes  P 
 Then we obtain dEc

W  t   W  t   Wi  t  
s
es
d
es
dt
Lses  P   Ldes  P   Li  P   Ec
 Thus
W s
es t   W  t   Wae  t 
s
se
Les  P    Lse  P   Lae  P 

s s
 And
dEc
W  t   Wae  t   W  t   Wi  t  
s
se
d
es
dt
 Lsse  P   Lae  P   Ldes  P   Li  P   Ec
 Thus
dEc
W  t   Wae  t   W  t   Wi  t  
s
se
d
se
dt
 Lsse  P   Lae  P   Ldse  P   Li  P   Ec
 And
dEc dE p
W  t   Wae  t   Wi  t  
s
se 
dt dt
 Lsse  P   Lae  P   Li  P   Ec  E p
 Thus
dEc dE p
W  t   Wae  t   Wi  t   Wai  t  
s
se
l in

dt dt
 Lsse  P   Lae  P   Llin
i  P   Lai  P   Ec  E p
 And
dEc dE p
W  t   Wa  t  
s
se   Wi l in  t   0
dt dt
Lsse  P   La  P   Ec  E p  Lliin  P   0
 The work done by the system against the external environment can
be defined including two terms
Lt  P   shaft work or technical work

L0  P   deformation work against the atmosphere
 Thus
dEc dE p
Wt  t   W0  t   Wa  t     Wi l in  t   0
dt dt
Lt  P   L0  P   La  P   Ec  E p  Lliin  P   0
 For a homogeneous fluid
dEc dE p dV (t )
Wt  t   W0  t   Wa  t     p (t )  0
dt dt dt
Lt  P   L0  P   La  P   Ec  E p   p (T ,V )  dV  0

Equations of state and thermodynamic relations
Constitutive equations
Phenomenological relations
 Simple homogeneous fluids can be studied by knowing

p
two indipendent thermodynamics
y coordinates chosen
between the natual set: p‐V‐T
 Those systems
y are called hydrostatic
y systems
y or p
p‐V‐T
system
 In these notes we will consider non
non‐viscous
viscous simple and
homogeneous fluids (NVSHF)
 Energy exchanges of those fluids will be modeled by
using phenomenological relations which take into
account the evolution of the state of the fluid and thus
of its indipendent thermodynamic coordinates
The calculation of heat and work
 In order to calculate the heat and the work associated to

approcess that a homogeneous
g fluid can undertake there
are two possible alternatives
 approach of thermokinecis and mechanics: energy exchanges
between two interacting bodies are described by using appropriate
relationships in terms of relative conditions
 Approach of thermodynamics: energy exchanges between two
interacting bodies are described by using mathematical
phenomenological
h l i l relationships
l ti hi which hi h correlate
l t those
th exchanges
h
with the variation of independent thermodynamic coordinates
Linear differential forms
 If in a two‐dimensional space x,y it is possible to define

functions M(x,( , y ) and N(x,
( , y ), then we define linear
differential form, LDF, every expression of type
z  M  x, y   dx  N  x, y   dy
 Property
 The value of the definite integral of the LDF between two points in
space x, y changes as the line joining the two points changes
The calculation of heat and internal work
 In the case of homogeneous bodies both internal work

and heat
 can be expressed as integrals of linear differential forms, LDF
 functions M (x, y) and N (x, y) are equations of state of indipendent
thermodynamic properties
 it follows that the LDF are phenomenological relations because
they relate the energy exchanged to the change of the independent
thermodynamic coordinates
The calculation of heat and internal work
 It is possible to choose two independent coordinates,

such as temperature
p and volume,, T (t)
( ) and V ((t))
 The phenomenological equations can be written in two
different ways
 time domain
 state space
Heat in the variables V-T and v-T
 In the time domain
dV
d dT
d
  t   V V , T    CV V , T  
dt dt
 dv dT
 t   v  v, T    cv  v, T  
M dt dt
 Cv= Constant volume thermal capacity
p y
 Λv= Volume latent heat
 cv= Constant volume specific
p heat
 λv= Volume specific latent heat
Heat in the variables V-T and v-T
 State space
Q P   Q   V V ,T   dV  CV V , T   dT
 
Q
q    q   v  v,T   dv
d  cv  v,T   dT
M  
Internal work in the variables V-T and v-T
 In the time domain
dV (t )
Wi  t   p V , T  
dt
dv(t )
wi  t   p  v, T  
dt
 State space
Li  P   Li   p V ,T   dV
 
li  P   li   p  v,T   dv
 
Heat in the variables p-T
 In
I the
th time
ti d
domain
i
dp dT
  t    p  p, T    C p  p, T  
dt dt
 dp dT
 t     p  p, T    c p  p, T  
M dt dt
 State space
Q   Q   p  p,T   ddp  Cp  p,T   dT

 
Q
q    q   p  p,T   dp  cp  p,T   dT
M  
Physical meaning of quantities
 Pressure p
 in mechanics it is the ratio between a force and the surface on
which it is applied
 in thermodynamics it can be interpreted as the ratio between the
energy associated with a quantity of matter and its volume
 Unit of Measure
 p→ Pascal, symbol Pa, equivalent to N / m2 and J / m3
 Volume specific latent heat λv and pressure specific

latent heat λp
 the amount of heat exchanged along a constant temperature
process per unit of volume (λv )or pressure change (λp)
 Unit of Measure
 λv  J / m3
 λp  m3/ Kg
 Constant volume specific heat cv , and constant pressure

specific
p heat cp
 the amount of heat exchanged along a constant volume (cv) or
pressure process (cp) related to temperature variation and mass of
the body
 Unit of Measure
 cv  J / (kg K)
 cp  J / (kg
( g K))
Needed equations of state
 In order to perform all types of calculations it is needed

to know five equations
q of state
1 Pressure
1. p  v,T   p V ,T 
2. Volume specific latent heat v  v,T   V V ,T 
3. Constant volume thermal capacity cv  v,T   CV V ,T  M
4. Pressure specific
p latent heat p  p,T   P  p,T  M
5. Constant pressure thermal capacity cp  p,T   Cp  p,T  M
Needed equations of state
 It is possible to demonstrate that the needed equations

can reduced to three because of:
V V , T 
 p  p, T  
(p V )T
(p T )V
C p  p, T   CV V , T   V V , T 
(p V )T
Ideal gas model
 Ideal gases are particular simple homogeneous fluids

 The ideal gas is a concept or a model which can be used
as a first approximation in order to investigate the
behavior of a large variety of fluids in engineering
thermodynamcs
 Ideal
Id l gas modeld l describes
d ib with
ith a sufficient
ffi i t approximation
i ti
the behavior of real gases when they are at:
 very low pressure
 away from the critical point
 very low density
Equations of state for ideal gases
 The equations of state, in the specific form, are

n  R T R T R  T T
p        R* 
V M n v M v v
n  R T R * T
v  V   p
V v
cv  cv T 
 R is the universal constant whose value in S.I. is R = 8.314 J / (mol K)

 R* is a characteristic constant of the considered gas
g
V
 Other useful relationships p   v
 p v T
c p  cv  R *
Equations of state for ideal gases
 For many the ideal gas one can also assume that
cp  costante
t t cv  costante
t t
Atoms in the
cp cv γ = c p / cv
molecule
1 5 R* / 2 3 R* / 2 5/3
2 7 R* / 2 5R*/ 2 7/5
3 4 R* 3 R* 4/3
+3 cp(T) cv(T) γ (T)
Other significant quantities
 In order to characterize the behavior of a material

some other quantities are used:
 Isothermal compressibility
1  V  1  v 
    
V  T  p v  T  p

 Coefficient of cubic expansion
1  V  1  v 
T       
V  p T v  p T
Processes for ideal gas

g
The adiabatic process
 In a adiabatic process, the heat power which the system

exchanges
g with the environment is equal
q to zero for
every instant belonging to the time range of the process
 t   0 t  t1, t2  
 Q0
Adiabatic coefficient
 From the definition of an adiabatic transformation fand from the

state equation of ideal gases it is possible to derive
T  T v 
 
 p  p v ,T v    p v 
 p  p v ,T 
 Laplace Theorem
dp c p  p   p  cp
       with  
dv cv  v T  v T cv
 The coefficient γ is the adiabatic coefficient.

coefficient It is a constitutive
qualtity as it describes the behavior of the material which is taken
into account
Processes and transformations for ideal gases
 Most of processes taking place in heat engines can be

considered in the succession of a few elementaryy pprocesses
 Equations for the calculation of internal work and heat are
Indipendent Variables v, T p, T
q   v  dv  cv  dT q   p  dp  c p  dT
 
Homogeneous Fluid
li   p  dv Rarely used

T  dv T  dp
q   R*   cv  dT q   R *   c p  dT

v 
p
Ideal gas
dv
li  R *   T 

v
Transformation Equation Heat and internal work

T2
Constant volume q   cv  dT  cv  T2  T1 

v  constant  v1  v 2 T1
Isochoric
li  0
T2
Constant pressure q   cp  dT  cp  T2  T1 

p  constant  p1  p2 T1
Isobar
li  p1  v2  v1 
Transformation Equation Heat and internal work

 v2 
v2 v2
dv
Constant q   v v,T1   dv  R T1  *
 R T1  ln  
*
v1 v1
v  v1 
Temperature t  constant  T1  T2
v 
v2 v2
dv
Isotherm li   p v,T1   dv  R T1  
*
 R* T1  ln  2 
v1 v1
v  v1 
Equations
q for an adiabatic transformation
dv dT dv dT dv dT
  v  cv  p  cv 0 p  cv
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dT p dv

dt cv dt
dp dT dp  p dv  dp c p p dv
  p  cp  v  c p     0 v 
d
dt d
dt d
dt  cv dt
d  dt cv dt
dp p dp dv
   
dv v p v
ln pv  const.
ln p   ln v  const.
pv  const.
Equations for an adiabatic transformation
Thermodynamic Differential Equation of the

coordinates equations transformation
dv dT
  1   0
T  v    T1  v1  =constant
 1  1
v,T v T
1    dp  dT  0 1 

1 
p,T  p T T p  T1  p1   constant
dv dp
p,v   0 p  v   p1  v1 =constant
v p
Equations for an adiabatic transformation
 Internal work
  1 
p1  v1  v1 
v2
 p  dv  p1  v1   v  dv 
 
li   1    
  1   v2  
ad v1  
 Technical work
  1 
  
p2 
 p1  v1  1   2  
p
lt    v  dpp  p11   v1   p 1   dpp 
 1   p1  
ad p1
 
Polytropic transformations
 For the ideal gas
c  dT   p  dp  c p  dT
q  c T   dT 
 
 c  c p   dT   p  dp
p0
 We can then write
v  dp  p  dv
 c  c p   dT   p  dp  0  c  cp  
R *
 v  dp  0
 c  cp   c  c p  dv dp
 c  c   
   v  dp  p  dv  v  dp  0     0
 p v c  cv  v p
 
n
c  cpn 
p  v  constant; n 
n
; c  cv  ;
c  cv n 1
Polytropic
y p transformations
 All transformations which an ideal gas undertakes can be

treated as special
p cases of a p
polytropic
y p transformation for
particular values of the specific heat
c  cp n 
pv  cos t
n
n c  cv
c  cv n 1
Transformation Equation c n
Isochoric v  constant cv 
Isobar p  constant cp 0
Isotherm T  constant  1
Adiabatic q0 0 
Polytropic transformations
p n = -3
n=∞
n= n = -2
n=0
n=1
n=3
v
Real gases
Coefficient of compressibility
 A generic equation of state can be written in the form

p  p  v, T 
 But also introducing the compressibility coefficient
pv
Z *  Z  v, T 
R T
 For an ideal gas
pv
Z * 1
R T
 The deviation of the compressibility coefficient from the value
of 1 expresses
e presses the deviation
de iation from the ideal gas
as behavior
beha ior
Corresponding states and Amagat diagram
 It is a diagramm representing the relationship between the

compressibility coefficient , pressure and temperature
 It is built as function of reduced thermodynamic coordinates
 Theyy are defined as the ratio between the actual and the coordinates at
the critical point
p v T
pr  ; vr  ; Tr  ;
pc vc Tc
 Pressure and temperature at the critical point represent the highest

temperature and pressure under which the liquid‐vapour
liquid vapour
transformation takes place with two phases coexistent ( this concept
will be deepen later in the course)
 It is observed that curves is quite independent of

the type
yp of ggas
 All the isotherms intersect the y‐axis at value Z = 1
 In particular,
particular the temperature for which we have:
 Z 
lim   0
p0 p
 T
is called the Boyle temperature of the particular
substance
bt and
d is
i the
th only
l temperature
t t f which
for hi h the
th
real gas behaves as the ideal one
Van der Waals equation (1873)
Isoterma
IIsotherm
th
 It
I is
i expressed
d in
i the
h form
f p CurvaCurve
Limit limite
Isoterma
Not impossibile
physical isotherm
Isoterma metastabile
Metastable Isotherm
K
T1
R T a *
p  2
 v  b v T2
T3
T4
 Property T 5
 describes quite well the area of the liquid

v
 describes quite well the area within the limit curve
corresponding
p g to the metastable conditions of the fluid
 the mathematical curve extends into areas that have no physical
meaning
Van der Waals equation (1873)
 The two constants introduce considerations related to the

corpuscular structure of the fluid which are not considered
in the ideal gas equation
 a takes into account the influence of inter.molecular
inter molecular forces of
attraction
 b is called covolume because it takes into account the finite volume
of molecules which is therefore not available for expansion or
contraction of the fluid
 Both constants can be related with the coordinates of the
critical p
point
27   R Tc 
* 2
R* Tc
a ; b
64  pc
6 8 pc
Other equations of state
Name State Equations Coefficients

 
2
27 R  TK
* 3
a 
64 pK
R* T a 3 R *  TK
p  b   vK
Clausius
v  b  T  v  c  2 8 pK
R *  TK
c  vK 
4  pK
a  0.42748 
R  * 2
 TK5 2
R* T a pK
Redlich and Kwong p 
v  b  v  v  b   T R *  TK
b  0.08664 
pK
p v B T  C T  D T  B T  , C T  , D T 
Virial Z  1  2  3 
R T
*
v v v in tables

Week 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Week 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Week 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

 A brief history of energy and thermodynamics

 It is the chapter of physics in which we study

 We do not consider concepts of microscopic and statistical

 The theory is presented in a simple mathematical form

A brief historyy of energy

 Concern with studies applied to machines and

 It is a property of matter which can move from one body

 Energy: a term used with two meanings, related but

 The science of energy deals with all about the physical

Eliopila di Erone Macchina a vapore per

 Energy today is an extremely fascinating field of study,

Average world energy consuption 1.8 TEP/year per capita

GJ Pro Capita GJ Pro Capita

International Energy Agency - World Energy Outlook 2010

International Energy Agency - World Energy Outlook 2010

International Energy Agency - World Energy Outlook 2010

YYou expectt a very busy

Definitions and concepts

 Processes and transformations

 Body: it is an object constitued by a certain amount of

 Universe: it is the ensemble of the system and and the

 In nature we observe that between a system and the

 During the interactions between a system and the

 Isolated: if theyy do not allow anyy kind of interaction

Sistema Sistema Sistema

 All physical quantities can be measured on a

 The N independent thermodynamic coordinates which

 A condition in which the values of all independent

 Functional relationships which correlate a dependent

 Example: ideal gas equation of state

Processes and transformations

 From the observations of nature we can understand that

 A trasformation is a curve in the N‐dimension state space

Process P: Curve p(t )

 It follows that the

 It follows that the cyclic

 Some quantities cannot be associated to the state of a

 Additive property applies for actions:

a(P1  P2 )  a(P1 )  a(P2 )

 A process P is called reversible if the following conditions

 The same attributes and meanings of reversible and

Temperature, Heat and Work

 The kinetic energy theorem

 It is inherent to the human being to experience the

 Two rigid volumes contain a gas but under different

 If two bodies, after they were brought into contact

 It is the instrument to measure the temperature T

Thermometer Thermometric Properties

A liquid (mercury, alcohol, ..) Height of the liquid, h

Resistance thermometer Electrical resistance, R

Radiance of the radiation,

 Mathematical relationship which establishes a unique

 It has been conventionally defined based on the

 The chosen fixed point is conventionally the triple point of water in

 using a thermometer characterized by a thermometric

 It is needed to bring the sensor of the thermometer in

 Laboratory instrument consists

 a tank that can be moved to adjust