Module 3 - Metal Removal Processes Fall2023

Module 2: Machining Processes and
Machine Tools
Manufacturing Processes
AERO 315
Manufacturing Instructors
UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical & Aerospae Engineering
1
Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
1. Describe casting processes.
2. Conduct metal removal processes.
3. Analyze bulk deformation processes.
4. Analyze sheet metal working.
5. Perform different welding processes.
6. Demonstrate self-study in recent topics in manufacturing processes.
7. Produce a well-structured report.

Module Objectives
3
1. Overview of Machining Technology

2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
Machining Processes and Machine Tools
4
 Parts can be manufactured by casting, forming and

shaping processes
 They often require further operations before the product
is ready for use
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Machining Processes and Machine Tools
5
 Major types of material removal processes:

1. Cutting
2. Abrasive processes
3. Advanced machining processes
 Machining operations is a system consisting of the

1. Workpiece
2. Cutting tool
3. Machine tool
4. Production personnel
Part 1
6
Fundamentals of Machining

Outline
7
1. Introduction
2. Mechanics of Cutting
3. Cutting Forces and Power
Machining
8
 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form

a chip, and as chip is removed, new surface is exposed: (a) positive
and (b) negative rake tools
©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
Machining Operations
9
 Most important machining operations:

 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
Turning
10
 Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Drilling
11
 Used to create a round

hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill bit)
with two cutting edges
Milling
12
 Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across

work to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling (left) and face milling
Cutting Tool Classification
13
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
 Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools
Cutting Tools
14
 (a) Single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point;
and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges
Cutting Conditions in Machining
15
 Three dimensions of a machining process

 Cutting speed v – primary motion
 Feed f – secondary motion
 Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original
work surface
 For certain operations (e.g., turning), material
removal rate RMR can be computed as
RMR = v f d
CNC Turning Machine Working
Process Cutting Machining
16 Precision
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl4H0swXz
UY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvYQdi68074
Cutting Conditions in Machining
17
 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning operation
Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts
18
 In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken

on a part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting work part
 Some material remains for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
 Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Mechanics of Cutting
Cutting Model
20
 In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left along

the workpiece at a constant velocity, V, and a depth of
cut, to
 Chip thickness, tc
Idealized model; Orthogonal; 2-D Orthogonal (2-D) cutting without a
cutting with a well-defined shear plane; well-defined shear plane: “shear
also called M.E. Merchant model zone”;

Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
21
 Cutting Edge is normal to tool feed.  Cutting Edge is inclined at an acute

angle to tool feed.
 Here only two force components are  Here three force components are
considered i.e. cutting force and thrust considered i.e. cutting force, radial force
force. Hence known as two dimensional and thrust force. Hence known as three
cutting. dimensional cutting.
 Shear force acts on smaller area.  Shear force acts on larger area.
22
 Major independent variables in the cutting process:

1. Tool material and coatings
2. Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
3. Workpiece material and condition
4. Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut
5. Cutting fluids
6. Characteristics of the machine tool
7. Work holding and fixturing
23
 Dependent variables in cutting (influenced by changes

in independent variables):
1. Type of chip produced (studied since early 1940’s)
2. Force and energy dissipated during cutting
3. Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the chip
4. Tool wear and failure
5. Surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece
24
 Merchant model is known as orthogonal cutting

 It is two dimensional and the forces involved are
perpendicular to each other
 Cutting tool has a rake angle () and a relief or
clearance angle
 Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear angle
( ) Velocity diagram
showing angular
Basic relationship among
mechanism 3 speeds in cutting
of chip zone:
formation by V: cutting speed
shearing Vs: shearing speed
Vc: chip velocity
Merchant model
25
AB AO OB
      cot   tan    
OC OC OC
26
 Imagine shearing: “deck of cards” sliding along each

other
 Below shear plane, workpiece: undeformed
 Above shear plane: chip moves up rake face (tool)
 Dimension d (distance between shear planes, OC)
 highly exaggerated to show mechanism
 It is only in order of 10-2 to 10-3 mm
 Some materials shear in a zone (not plane: slide 19)
 e.g. cast iron
 this leads to surface defects in workpiece

27
Cutting Ratio (or chip-thickness ratio, r )

 The ratio is related to the two angles
 shear angle, 
 rake angle, 
r cos  t0 sin 
tan   r 
1  r sin  tc cos   
 Chip thickness tc is always > than the depth of cut, to
 ⇒ the value of r is always less than unity (i.e. <1)

Cutting Ratio
(or chip thickness ratio)
28
Chip
tool

A
tc
to 
B
Workpiece
to tc
As Sin = and Cos-) =
AB AB
t0 sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
t c cos()
29
Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting conditions:

 depth of cut, to: machine setting (i.e. indep. variable)
 chip thickness, tc can be measured using micrometer
 cutting ratio, r can then easily be calculated
 rake angle,  is also known for cutting operation
 It is function of tool and workpiece geometry
 Cutting ratio and rake angle can be used to find shear
angle,  (equation in previous slide)

30
Shear Strain
 The shear strain (i.e. deformation relative to original
size) that the material undergoes can be expressed as
AB AO OB
      cot   tan    
OC OC OC
 (AB, AO and OB as shown in Slide 22)
 Large shear strains (≥5) are associated with low shear
angles or with low or negative rake angles
 Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts
itself to minimize the cutting force,
  β = friction angle, related to μ :
  45   μ = tanβ  coefficient of –dynamic – friction
2 2 μ usually: 0.5 – 2
31
 Chip encounters friction as it moves up the rake face

 Large variations in contact pressure and temperature
are encountered at the tool-chip interface (rake face)
 This causes big changes in μ and it is thus called
“apparent mean coefficient of friction”
 Equation (second set in previous slide) thus indicates:
 As rake angle ↓ or friction at rake face ↑
shear angle ↓ and chip becomes thicker
 Thicker chip more energy lost because shear strain is
higher
 Because work done during cutting is converted into heat
temperature rise is higher
32
Velocities in the Cutting Zone

 Since tc > to Vc (velocity of chip) < V (cutting speed)
 Since mass continuity is maintained,
V sin 
Vt0  Vc tc or Vc  Vr  Vc 
cos   
 From Velocity diagram, obtain equations from
trigonometric relationships (Vs velocity at shearing
plane): V V V
 s  c
 cos    cos  sin  (See slide 22)
Note also that t0 Vc


r 
tc V
Cutting Forces and Power
34
 Knowledge of cutting forces and power involves:

1. Data on cutting forces
 important to minimize distortions, maintain required
dimensional accuracy, help select appropriate toolholders
2. Power requirements Force circle to
 enables appropriate tool selection determine
various forces
in cutting zone
Forces acting in
the cutting zone
during 2-D
(orthogonal) cutting

35
Fs
Fn α
Fc φ V
β-α
Ft φ
R α
β F
Knowing Fc , Ft , α and β, all other component forces can be calculated.

Force Circle Diagram
(Merchants Circle)
36

Fs
Fc 

F F
t n

 R


F

N
Forces in Metal Cutting
37
 Forces considered in orthogonal cutting include

 Cutting, friction (tool face), and shear forces
 Cutting force,Fc acts in the direction of the cutting
speed V, and supplies the energy required for cutting
 Ratio of Fc to cross-sectional area being cut (i.e. product of
width and depth of cut, t0) is called: specific cutting force
 Thrust force,Ft acts in a direction normal to the cutting
force
 These two forces produces the resultant force, R
 see force circle (last slide)
 On tool face, resultant force can be resolved into:
 Friction force, F along the tool-chip interface
 Normal force, N to  to friction force
38
 It can also be shown that ( is friction angle)

F  R sin  , N  R cos 
 Resultant force, R is balanced by an equal and

opposite force along the shear plane
 It is resolved into shear force, Fs and normal force, Fn
 Thus, Fs  Fc cos   Ft sin 
Fn  Fc sin   Ft cos 
 The magnitude of coefficient of friction,  is
F Ft  Fc tan 
 
N Fc  Ft tan 
  tan  Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
39
Thrust Force
 The toolholder, work-holding devices, and machine tool
must be stiff to support thrust force with minimal
deflections
 If Ft is too high tool will be pushed away from workpiece
 this will reduce depth of cut and dimensional accuracy
 The effect of rake angle and friction angle on the direction
of thrust force is
Ft  R sin     or Ft  Fc tan    
 Magnitude of the cutting force, Fc is always positive as the
force that supplies the work is required in cutting
 However, Ft can be +ve or –ve; i.e. Ft can be upward with
a) high rake angle, b) low tool-chip friction, or c) both
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
40
 F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be directly
measured
 Forces acting on
the tool that can be
measured: Cutting
force Fc and
Thrust force Ft
41
 Equations to relate the forces that cannot be measured to

the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
Shear Stress
42
 Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Fs

As
where As = area of the shear plane
t w
As  o
sin 
 Shear stress  = shear strength S of work material
during cutting
Power in Metal Cutting
43
Power
 The power input in cutting is
Power  FcV
 Power is dissipated in
 shear plane/zone (due to energy required to shear material)
 Rake face (due to tool-chip interface friction)
 Power dissipated in shearing is
Power for shearing  FsVs
 Denoting the width of cut as w, (i.e. area of cut: wt0),
the specific energy for shearing, is
FsVs
us 
wt 0V
44
Power
 The power dissipated in friction is
Power for friction  FVc
 The specific energy for friction, uf is

FVc Fr
uf  
wt 0V wt 0
 Total specific energy, ut is
ut  u s  u f

45
Power
 Prediction of forces is
based largely on
experimental data (right)
 Wide ranges of values
is due to differences in
material strengths
 Sharpness of the tool tip
also influences forces
and power
 Duller tools require
higher forces and power

46
Measuring Cutting Forces and Power

 Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted
on the cutting-tool holder
 It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the
power consumption during cutting (provided
mechanical efficiency of the tool can be determined)
 The specific energy (u, last slide) in cutting can be
used to calculate cutting forces

47
EXAMPLE 21.1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm, V=120
m/min, α=10° and the width of cut 6 mm. It is observed that
tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and Ft=200 N. Calculate the
percentage of the total energy that goes into overcoming
friction at the tool–chip interface.

48
Solution
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as
Friction Energy FVc Fr
 
Total Energy FcV Fc
where
t0 0.13
r   0.565
tc 0.23
We have
F  R sin  , Fc  R cos    and
R Ft
2
 Fc2   200 2  500 2  539 N
49
Solution
Thus,
500  539 cos  10     32
F  539 sin 32  286 N
Hence
Percentage 
2860.565
 0.32 or 32%
500

Chip in Machining
Actual Chip Formation
51
 More realistic view of

chip formation,
showing shear zone
rather than shear
plane
 Also shown is the
secondary shear zone
resulting from tool-chip
friction
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
52
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
53
All Chips
 Chip has two surfaces:
 Surface in contact with rake face
 Shiny and polished
 Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool surface
 Outer surface from the original surface of the workpiece
 Jagged, rough appearance
 Caused by shearing mechanism
 Note, this surface remains exposed to the environment, and
does not come into contact with any other surface

Discontinuous Chip
54
 Brittle work materials

 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of
cut
 High tool-chip friction
Continuous Chip
55
 Ductile work materials

 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction
Continuous with BUE
56
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
Serrated Chip
57
 Semicontinuous - saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear strain
then low shear strain
 Associated with difficult-to-
machine metals at high cutting
speeds
58
Chip Curl
 Chips will develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave
the workpiece surface
 Factors affecting the chip curl conditions are:
1. Distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary
shear zones.
2. Thermal effects.
3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
material
4. Geometry of the cutting tool
5. Cutting fluids
 Note, as cutting depth ↓, chip radius ↓ (i.e. curlier)
59
Chip Breakers
 Long, continuous chips are undesirable since:
 become entangled and greatly interfere with machining
 potential safety hazard
action of chip breaker
 chip-breaker: breaks
clamped chip breaker
chips intermittently
with cutting tools
 Traditionally are clamped to
rake face: bend and
break the chip Grooves in tools act as
chip breakers
 Modern tools: built-in chip
breakers
 Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape
60
Chip Breakers
 Chips can also be broken by changing the tool
geometry to control chip flow
Chips produced in turning
Tightly curled chip Chips hits workpiece Continuous chip Chip hits tool
and breaks moving radially shank (body) and
away from the breaks off
workpiece
Oblique Cutting
61
 Majority of machining operations involve tool shapes that are

3-D where the cutting is said to be oblique (see slide 20 )
 Difference between oblique and orthogonal cutting can be
seen in chip movement and shape
Top view, showing

Cutting with an Oblique Tool
inclination angle, i
(note the direction of chip movement) Types of chips
produced with tools at
increasing inclination
angles

Part 2
Temperatures in Cutting and Cutting Tool Technology

Outline
63
1. Temperatures in Cutting
2. Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Temperatures in Cutting
64
 Temperature rise (due to heat lost in cutting raising

temp. in cutting zone) - its major adverse effects:
1. Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool (i.e. alters tool shape)
2. Causes uneven dimensional changes (machined parts)
3. Thermal damage and metallurgical changes in the
machined surface ( properties adversely affected)
 Sources of heat in machining:
a. Work done in shearing (primary shear zone)
b. Energy lost due to friction (tool-chip interface)
c. Heat generated due to tool rubbing on machined surface
(especially dull or worn tools)
65
 Expression: mean temperature in orthogonal cutting:

0.000665Y f Vt0
Tmean  3
c K
where,
 Tmean: mean temperature in [K]
 Yf: flow stress in [MPa]
 ρc: volumetric specific heat in [kJ/m3 K]
 K: thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal conductivity to
volumetric specific heat) in [m2/s]
 Equation shows that T:
 increases with material strength, cutting speed (V), depth of cut (t0);
 decreases with ρc and K
66
 Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by
Tmean  V f a b
where,
 V : cutting speed
 f : feed of the tool
 Approximate values of the exponents a,b:
 Carbide tools: a = 0.2, b = 0.125
 High-speed steel tools: a = 0.5, b = 0.375
 Also note how this relation shows the increase in
temperature with increased cutting speed and feed
67
Temperature Distribution
 Sources of heat generation are concentrated in
 primary shear zone, and
 At tool–chip interface
 very large temp. gradients
in the cutting zone (right)
 Note max. temp is about
halfway up tool-chip
interface (why?)
68
Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel
 Note:
b) tool-chip interface temp.
 Highest temp.: a) flank temperature distribution (note, abscissa:
1100ºC distribution 0: tool tip; 1: end of tool-
chip contact)
 High temp.
appear as dark-
color on chips
(by oxidation
at high V )
 Reason: as V ↑
time for heat
dissipation ↓
temp. ↑
69
 The temperature increases with cutting speed
 Chips can become red hot and create a safety hazard
for the operator
 The chip carries away most (90%) of the heat
generated during machining (see right)
 Rest carried by tool and workpiece
 Thus high machining speed (V ) ⇒
1. More energy lost in chips
2. Machining time decreases
(i.e. favorable machining economics)
Cutting Tool Technology
1. Tool Life
2. Tool Materials
3. Tool Geometry
4. Cutting Fluids
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
71
 Tool wear is gradual process; created due to:

1. High localized stresses at the tip of the tool
2. High temperatures (especially along rake face)
3. Sliding of the chip along the rake face
4. Sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece
surface
 The rate of tool wear depends on
 tool and workpiece materials
 tool geometry
 process parameters
 cutting fluids
 characteristics of the machine tool
Three Modes of Tool Failure
72
1. Fracture failure
 Cutting force becomes excessive and/or
dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
 Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material
3. Gradual wear
 Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
73
 Fracture and temperature failures are premature

failures
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the
longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
Tool Wear
74
Worn cutting tool,

showing principal
locations and
types of wear that
occur
Crater Wear and Flank Wear
75
Crater wear, (left), and flank wear (right) on a cemented

carbide tool (photos by J. C. Keefe, Lehigh University)
Tool Wear vs. Time
76
Tool wear (flank wear) as a function of cutting time
Effect of Cutting Speed
77
Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds, using tool life criterion of 0.5 mm flank wear
Taylor Tool Life Equation
78
Taylor tool life equation :

VT n  C
where
v = cutting speed; T = tool life;
n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,
work material, tool material, and tool life criterion
 To appreciate the importance of the exponent, n,
Taylor tool life equation, rearranged: 1/ n
C 
T  
V 
 Thus, for constant C : smaller n smaller tool life
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
79
Flank Wear
VT n d x f y  C
d = depth of cut (same as t0)

f : feed of the tool [mm/rev ]
x, y: must be determined experimentally for each cutting condition
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
80
Flank Wear
EXAMPLE 21.2
Increasing Tool Life by Reducing the Cutting Speed
Using the Taylor Equation for tool life and letting n=0.5 and
C=120, calculate the percentage increase in tool life when
the cutting speed is reduced by 50%.
Solution
T2
Since n=0.5, we have 0. 5V1 T2  V1 T1  4
T1
This indicates that the change in tool life is
T2  T1  T2 
    1  3 or 300% increase
T1  T1 
Tool Materials
81
 Tool failure modes identify the important properties

that a tool material should possess
 Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
 Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high
temperatures
 Wear resistance - hardness is the most important
property to resist abrasive wear
Tool Materials
82
Hot Hardness
83
Typical hot hardness

relationships for selected
tool materials
 High speed steel is much
better than plain C steel
 Cemented carbides and
ceramics are significantly
harder at elevated
temperatures.
84
Tool Materials topic (slides 82 to

92) is self study
High Speed Steel (HSS)
85
 Highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining

hardness at elevated temperatures better than high
carbon and low alloy steels
 Especially suited to applications involving
complicated tool shapes: drills, taps, milling cutters,
and broaches
 Two basic types of HSS (AISI)
1. Tungsten-type, designated T- grades
2. Molybdenum-type, designated M-grades
High Speed Steel Composition
86
 Typical alloying ingredients:

 Tungsten and/or Molybdenum
 Chromium and Vanadium
 Carbon, of course
 Cobalt in some grades
 Typical composition (Grade T1):
 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, and 0.9% C
Cemented Carbides
87
 Class of hard tool material based on tungsten carbide

(WC) using powder metallurgy techniques with cobalt
(Co) as the binder
 Two basic types:
1. Non-steel cutting grades - only WC-Co
2. Steel cutting grades - TiC and TaC added to
WC-Co
Cemented Carbides – General Properties
88
 High compressive strength but low-to-moderate

tensile strength
 High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
 Good hot hardness
 Good wear resistance
 High thermal conductivity
 High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
 Toughness lower than high speed steel
Non-steel Cutting Carbide Grades
89
 Used for nonferrous metals and gray cast iron

 Properties determined by grain size and cobalt
content
 As grain size increases, hardness and hot
hardness decrease, but toughness increases
 As cobalt content increases, toughness improves
at the expense of hardness and wear resistance
Steel Cutting Carbide Grades
90
 Used for low carbon, stainless, and other alloy

steels
 TiC and/or TaC are substituted for some of the WC
 Composition increases crater wear resistance for
steel cutting
 But adversely affects flank wear resistance for
non-steel cutting applications
Cermets
91
 Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride

(TiCN), with nickel and/or molybdenum as binders.
 Some chemistries are more complex
 Applications: high speed finishing and semi-finishing
of steels, stainless steels, and cast irons
 Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting
cemented carbide grades
 Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for
grinding
Coated Carbides
92
 Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more

layers of TiC, TiN, and/or Al2O3 or other materials
 Coating thickness = 2.5 - 13 m (0.0001 - 0.0005 in)
 Coating applied by chemical vapor deposition or
physical vapor deposition
 Applications: cast irons and steels in turning and
milling operations
 Best used at high speeds where dynamic force
and thermal shock are minimal
Coated Carbide Tool
93
Photomicrograph of
cross section of multiple
coatings on cemented
carbide tool (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Ceramics
94
 Primarily fine-grained Al2O3, pressed and sintered at

high pressures and temperatures into insert form with
no binder
 Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and
steel
 Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g.
rough milling) due to low toughness
 Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding
Synthetic Diamonds
95
 Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated

by sintering very fine-grained diamond crystals under
high temperatures and pressures into desired shape
with little or no binder
 Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-
Co insert
 Applications: high speed machining of nonferrous
metals and abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass
reinforced polymer, graphite, and wood
 Not for steel cutting
Tool Geometry
96
 Two categories:
 Single point tools
 Used for turning, boring, shaping, and
planing
 Multiple cutting edge tools
 Used for drilling, reaming, tapping, milling,
broaching, and sawing
Single-Point Tool Geometry
97
(a) Seven elements of

single-point tool
geometry
(b) Tool signature
convention that defines
the seven elements
Holding and Presenting a Single-Point Tool
98
(a) Solid shank tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed cemented

carbide insert; and (c) mechanically clamped insert, for
carbides, ceramics, and other very hard tool materials
Common Insert Shapes
99
(a) Round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with 80 point angles, (d)
hexagon with 80 point angles, (e) triangle, (f) rhombus with 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with 35 point angles
Common Insert Shapes
100
Collection of metal
cutting inserts with
various geometries and
made of various
materials (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Twist Drill
101
Standard twist drill geometry

 Most common cutting tools for hole-making
 Usually made of high speed steel
Twist Drill Operation
102
 Rotation and feeding of drill bit result in relative

motion between cutting edges and work material to
form the chips
 Cutting speed varies along cutting edges as a
function of distance from axis of rotation
 Relative velocity at drill point is zero, so no cutting
takes place
 Instead, a large thrust force is required to drive
the drill forward into the hole
Alternative Drills - Straight-Flute
103
Straight-flute drill using indexable cemented carbide inserts

for higher cutting speeds
Alternative Drills - Gun Drill
104
For deep holes, it has a carbide cutting edge, a single

straight flute, and a coolant hole running its entire length
Alternative Drills - Spade Drill
105
For large diameter holes - up to 152 mm (6 in)
Milling Cutters
106
 Principal types:
 Plain milling cutter
 Face milling cutter
 End milling cutter
Plain Milling Cutter
107
Tool geometry
elements of an
18-tooth plain
milling cutter
Face Milling Cutter
108
Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face milling cutter: (a)

side view and (b) bottom view
End Milling Cutter
109
 Looks like a drill bit but designed for primary

cutting with its peripheral teeth
 Applications:
 Face milling
 Profile milling and pocketing
 Cutting slots
 Surface contouring
Cutting Fluids
110
 Any liquid or gas applied directly to the machining

operation to improve cutting performance
 Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear and friction zones
2. Friction at tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
 Other functions and benefits:
 Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)
 Reduce temperature of work part for easier handling
 Improve dimensional stability of work part
Part 3
Machining Processes:
Turning, Milling, Hole Making and other processes
Lecture Objectives
112
1. To calculate material removal rate in turning,

milling and drilling process
2. To calculate required power in turning, milling and
drilling process
3. To study the economics of metal cutting (turning).
4. Describe the basic types of milling process
113
Turning Process
Lathe Cutting
Operations
Miscellaneous cutting operations

that can be performed on a lathe.
Note that all parts are circular – a
property known as axisymmetry.
The tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are
described throughout this chapter.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Introduction
115
 Turning is performed at various:

1. Rotational speeds, N, of the workpiece clamped in a
spindle
2. Depths of cut, d
3. Feeds, f, depending on the workpiece materials,
cutting tool materials, surface finish, dimensional
accuracy and characteristics of the machine tool
The Turning Process
116
 Majority of turning operations use simple single-point

cutting tools, which is a right-hand cutting tool
 Important process parameters have a direct influence on
machining processes and optimized productivity
Tool Geometry
 Rake angle control both the direction of chip flow and the
strength of the tool tip
 Side rake angle controls the direction of chip flow
 Cutting-edge angle affects chip formation, tool strength

and cutting force
The Turning Process
117
Tool Geometry
 Relief angle controls interference and rubbing at the tool–
workpiece interface
 Nose radius affects surface finish and tool-tip strength

The Turning Process
118

119
Forces Acting on a Cutting Tool in Turning
123
Forces in Turning
The 3 principal forces acting on a cutting tool are important in the
design of machine tools, deflection of tools and workpieces for
precision-machining operations
 Cutting force (Fc) acts downward on the tool tip and deflect
the tool downward and the workpiece upward
 Thrust force (or feed force) (Ft) acts in the longitudinal direction
 Radial force (Fr ) is the radial force that
tends to push the tool away from
the workpiece being machined.
General Recommendations for Turning Operations
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope

Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, NJ. All rights reserved.
General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t.

General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t

General Recommendations for Cutting Fluids for Machining
Milling Process
128
Introduction
What is milling?
 A manufacturing process in which a rotating, multi-tooth
cutter removes material while traveling along various axes
with respect to the workpiece.
Milling Cutters and Milling Operations
Figure 24.2 Some basic types of milling cutters and milling operations. (a) Slab
(Peripheral) milling. (b) Face milling. (c) End milling. (d) Ball-end mill with indexable
coated-carbide inserts machining a cavity in a die block. (e) Milling a sculptured surface
with an end mill, using a five-axis numerical control machine. Source: (d) Courtesy of
Iscar. (e) Courtesy of The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.
Milling Operations
Figure 24.3 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) lab-
milling operation showing depth-of-cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth-of-cut, tc; and
workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full
depth-of-cut.
Peripheral Milling
Milling parameters in peripheral milling
Summary of Peripheral Milling Parameters and
Formulas
Example 1
A slab-milling operation is being carried out on a 300-mm-long, 100-mm-wide
annealed mild-steel block at a feed f = 0.25 mrn/tooth and a depth of cut d = 3.0 mm.
The cutter is D = 50 mm in diameter, has 20 straight teeth, rotates at N = 100 rpm,
and, by definition, is wider than the block to be machined, Calculate the material-
removal rate, estimate the power and torque required for this operation, and calculate
the cutting time.
Given:
• w= 100 mm
• L= 300-mm
• f= 0.25 mm/tooth
• d= 3.0 mm
• D= 50 mm
• n = 20 teeth
• N = 100 rpm
• Cutter width > block width
• Specific energy: 3 W.s/mm3 (Table 20:2 , annealed mild steel)
Find:
a) Material Removal Rate, b) Power, c) Torque, and d)Cutting time
Solution
Solution
v
Example 2
A slab milling operation is being carried out on a 12-in long, 4 in wide annealed mild
steel block at a feed f=0.01 in/tooth and a depth of cut d=1/8 in. The cutter is D=2in in
diameter, and has 20 straight teeth, rotates at N = 100rpm, and is wider than the
block to be machined. Calculate the material Removal rate, estimate the power and
torque required for this operation, and calculate the cutting time.
Given:
• w=4 in
• L=12 in
• f=0.01 in/tooth
• d=1/8 in
• D=2 in
• n = 20 teeth
• N = 100 rpm
• Cutter width > block width
• Specific energy: 1.1 hp*min/in3 (Table 20:2 , annealed mild steel)
Find:
a) Material Removal Rate, b) Power, c) Torque, and d)Cutting time
Solution
Solution
Face-Milling Cutter with Indexable Inserts
Figure 24.5 A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts.

Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
Face-Milling Operation
Figure 24.4 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face

milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
Effect of Insert
Shape on Feed
Marks on a Face-
Milled Surface
Figure 24.6 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-
milled surface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of
small radius followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. (d) Feed marks
due to various insert shapes.
Face-Milling Cutter
Figure 24.7 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.

Ball Nose End Mills
Figure 24.10 Ball nose end mills.

These cutters are able to produce
elaborate contours and are often
used in the machining of dies and
molds. (See also Fig. 24.2d.)
Source: Courtesy of Dijet, Inc.
Other Milling Operations and Cutters
 Straddle milling: two or more
cutters are mounted on an
arbor and are used to machine
two parallel surfaces on the
Workpiece
 Form milling: produces

curved profiles. Also used in
machining gear teeth.
 Circular cutters can be used

for slotting and slitting (Slitting
saws are typically < 5mm).
 T-slot cutters are used to mill

T-slots in which are used in
clamping workpieces to the
work table. (figure next page)
Figure 24.11 Cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form

milling, (c) slotting, and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.
T-Slot Cutting and Shell Mill
Figure 24.12 (a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.
General Recommendations for Milling Operations
Troubleshooting Guide for Milling Operations
Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machines
Figure 24.15 Schematic illustration of (a) a horizontal-spindle column-and-

knee type milling machine and (b) vertical-spindle column-and-knee type
milling machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
CNC Vertical-Spindle Milling Machine
Figure 24.17 A computer numerical-control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling

machine. This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. The
original vertical-spindle milling machine iused in job shops is still referred
to as a “Bridgeport”, after its manufacturer in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
Source: Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines Dibision, Textron Inc.
Five-Axis Profile Milling Machine
Figure 24.18 Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that
there are three principal linear and two angular movements of machine components.
Gear Generating
with Various Cutters
Figure 24.30 (a) Producing gear

teeth on a blank by form cutting.
(b) Schematic illustration of gear
generating with a pinion-shaped
gear cutter. (c) and (d) Gear
generating on a gear shaper
using a pinion-shaped cutter.
Note that the cutter reciprocates
vertically. (e) Gear generating
with rack-shaped cutter. Source:
(d) Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
Bevel Gears
Figure 24.32 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutter. (b)
Cutting a helical bevel gear. Source: Courtesy of Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
155
Hole Making
Processes
Figure 23.19 Two common types of
drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The
function of the pair of margins is to
provide a bearing surface for the drill
against walls of the hole as it
penetrates into the workpiece. Drills
with four margins (double-margin) are
available for improved drill guidance
and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker
features also are available. (b)
Crankshaft drills. These drills have
good centering ability, and because
chips tend to break up easily, these
drills are suitable for producing deep
holes.
Drilling, Drills, and Drilling Machines:
161
EXAMPLE
A hole is being drilled in a block of magnesium alloy
with a 10-mm drill bit at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev and with
the spindle running at N = 800 rpm. Calculate the
material-removal rate.
Solution

General Recommendations for
Speeds and Feeds in Drilling

Vertical Drill Press and Radial Drilling
Machine
Figure 23.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical drill press.
(b) A radial drilling machine. Source: (b) Courtesy of Willis Machinery and Tools.
Helical Reamer and Inserted-Blade
Adjustable Reamer
Figure 23.26 (a) Terminology for a helical reamer.

(b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
Tapping
(a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.
Part 4
ECONOMIC AND PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

IN MACHINING
Outline
167
1. Machinability
2. Tolerances and Surface Finish
3. Machining Economics
4. Product Design Considerations in Machining
Machinability
168
 Relative ease with which a material (usually a metal)

can be machined using appropriate tooling and
cutting conditions
 Depends not only on work material
 Type of machining operation, tooling, and
cutting conditions are also important factors
Machinability Criteria in Production
169
 Tool life – longer tool life for the given work material
means better machinability
 Forces and power – lower forces and power mean
better machinability
 Surface finish – better finish means better
machinability
 Ease of chip disposal – easier chip disposal means
better machinability
Machinability Tests
170
 Tool life (most common test)

 Tool wear
 Cutting force
 Power required in the operation
 Cutting temperature
 Material removal rate under standard test conditions
Mechanical Properties and Machinability
171
 Hardness
 High hardness means abrasive wear increases so
tool life is reduced
 Strength
 High strength means higher cutting forces, specific
energy, and cutting temperature
 Ductility
 High ductility means tearing of metal to form chip,
causing chip disposal problems and poor finish
Surface Finish and Integrity
172
 Surface finish (Roughness):

 this influences the dimensional accuracy of machined parts, as
well as properties and performance in service
 this refers to geometric features of a surface
 Surface integrity
 this refers to material properties
 e.g. fatigue life, corrosion resistance
 this is greatly affected by the nature of the surface produced
Tolerances and Surface Finish
173
 Tolerances
 Machining provides high accuracy relative to most
other shape-making processes
 Closer tolerances usually mean higher costs
 Surface roughness in machining is determined by:
1. Geometric factors of the operation
2. Work material factors
3. Vibration and machine tool factors
Geometric Factors
174
 Machining parameters that determine surface

geometry:
 Type of machining operation, e.g., milling vs.
turning
 Tool geometry, especially nose radius
 Feed
 Surface geometry that results from only these factors
is the "ideal" or "theoretical" surface roughness
Geometric Factors Affecting Surface
175
Finish
Effect of (a) nose radius, (b) feed, and (c) ECEA
Ideal Surface Roughness
176
Ri  f2
32NR
where Ri = theoretical arithmetic average surface

roughness; f = feed; and NR = nose radius
Work Material Factors
177
 Built-up edge effects

 Damage to surface caused by chip
 Tearing of surface when machining ductile materials
 Cracks in surface when machining brittle materials
 Friction between tool flank and new work surface
Influence of BUE on Surface Finish
178
 The built-up edge has the greatest influence on surface

finish (due to large effect on tool-tip surface); see below
 Damage shown below is due to BUE
 It appears as “scuffing” (i.e. scratching) marks
 In normal machining: marks would appear as straight grooves
 Note: diamond, ceramic tools have best surface finish (no BUE)
Machined surfaces
produced on steel
(highly magnified)
a) turned surface
b) surface
produced by
shaping
Effect of Work Material Factors
179
Multiply theoretical
surface roughness by
the ratio of actual to
theoretical roughness for
the given cutting speed
to obtain estimate of
actual surface
roughness
Vibration and Machine Tool Factors
180
 Related to machine tool, tooling, and setup:

 Chatter (vibration) in machine tool or cutting tool
 Deflections of fixtures
 Backlash in feed mechanism
 If chatter can be eliminated, then surface roughness
is determined by geometric and work material
factors
How To Avoid Chatter
181
 Add stiffness and/or damping to setup

 Operate at speeds that avoid cyclical forces with
frequencies close to natural frequency of machine
tool system
 Reduce feeds and depths to reduce forces
 Change cutter design to reduce forces
 Use a cutting fluid
Machining Economics
182
 For each machining operation, decisions must be

made about machine tool, cutting tool(s), and cutting
conditions
 Cutting conditions: depth of cut, feed, speed, and
cutting fluid
 These decisions must give due consideration to
work part machinability, part geometry, surface
finish, and so forth
Selecting Depth of Cut
183
 Depth of cut is often predetermined by workpiece

geometry and operation sequence
 In roughing, depth is made as large as possible to
maximize material removal rate, subject to
limitations of horsepower, machine tool and setup
rigidity, and strength of cutting tool
 In finishing, depth is set to achieve final part
dimensions and surface finish
Determining Feed
184
 Select feed first, speed second

 Determining feed rate depends on:
 Tooling – harder tool materials require lower feeds
 Roughing or finishing?
 In roughing, limits on feed are imposed by
forces, setup rigidity, and maybe horsepower
 In finishing, select feed to achieve desired
finish
Optimizing Cutting Speed
185
 Select cutting speed to achieve a balance between

high metal removal rate and suitably long tool life
 Mathematical formulas are available to determine
optimal speed
 Two alternative objectives in these formulas:
 Maximum production rate
 Minimum unit cost
Maximum Production Rate
186
 Maximizing production rate is equivalent to

minimizing cutting time per unit
 In turning, total production cycle time for one part
consists of:
1. Part handling time per part = Th
2. Machining time per part = Tm
3. Tool change time per part = Tt/np, where np =
number of pieces cut in one tool life
Maximum Production Rate
187
 Total time per unit product for operation:

Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np
 Cycle time Tc is a function of cutting speed
Cycle Time vs. Cutting Speed
188
Minimizing Cost per Unit
189
 In turning, total production cycle cost for one part

consists of:
1. Cost of part handling time = CoTh , where Co =
cost rate for operator and machine
2. Cost of machining time = CoTm
3. Cost of tool change time = CoTt/np
4. Tooling cost = Ct/np , where Ct = cost per cutting
edge
Minimizing Unit Cost
190
 Total cost per unit product for operation:

Cc = CoTh + CoTm + CoTt/np + Ct/np
 Again, unit cost is a function of cutting speed, just as
Tc is a function of v
Unit Cost vs. Cutting Speed
191
Comments on Machining Economics
192
 As C and n increase in Taylor tool life equation,

optimum cutting speed increases
 Cemented carbides and ceramic tools should be
used at speeds significantly higher than for HSS
 vmax is always greater than vmin
 Reason: Ct/np term in unit cost equation pushes
optimum speed to left in the plot of Cc vs. v
Comments on Machining Economics
193
 As tool change time Tt and/or tooling cost Ct

increase, cutting speed should be reduced
 Tools should not be changed too often if either
tool cost or tool change time is high
 Disposable inserts have an advantage over
regrindable tools because tool change time is
lower
Product Design Guidelines
194
 Design parts that need no machining

 Use net shape processes such as precision
casting, closed die forging, or plastic molding
 If not possible, then minimize amount of machining
required
 Use near net shape processes such as impression
die forging
195
 Reasons why machining may be required:

 Close tolerances
 Good surface finish
 Special geometric features:
 Threads
 Accurate holes
 Accurate cylindrical sections
 Flat and/or straight surfaces
196
 Tolerances should be specified to satisfy functional

requirements, but process capabilities should also be
considered
 Very close tolerances add cost but may not add
value to part
 As tolerances become tighter, costs generally
increase due to additional processing, fixturing,
inspection, sortation, rework, and scrap
197
 Surface finish should be specified to meet functional

and/or aesthetic requirements
 However, better surface finish generally
increases processing cost by requiring additional
operations such as grinding or lapping
198
 Machined features such as sharp corners, edges,

and points should be avoided
 They are difficult to machine
 Sharp internal corners require pointed cutting tools
that tend to break during machining
 Sharp corners and edges tend to create burrs and
are dangerous to handle
199
 Machined parts should be designed so they can

be produced from standard stock sizes
 Example: rotational parts with outside
diameters equal to standard bar stock diameter
200
 Select materials with good machinability

 As a rough guide, allowable cutting speed and
production rate correlates with machinability rating
of a material
 Thus, parts made of materials with low
machinability take longer and cost more to
produce
201
Avoid undercuts as in (a)

Additional setups,
operations, and often
special tooling are
required for undercuts as
in (b)
202
Two parts with similar hole features: (a) holes that must be
machined from two sides (two setups), and (b) holes that can
all be machined from one side
 Design parts with features that can be produced in a
minimum number of setups
203
 Machined parts should be designed with features that

can be achieved with standard cutting tools
 Avoid unusual hole sizes, threads, and features
requiring special form tools
 Design parts so that the number of individual
cutting tools needed is minimized

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Module 2: Machining Processes and

1. Describe casting processes.

2. Conduct metal removal processes.

3. Analyze bulk deformation processes.

4. Analyze sheet metal working.

5. Perform different welding processes.

6. Demonstrate self-study in recent topics in manufacturing processes.

7. Produce a well-structured report.

1. Overview of Machining Technology

 Parts can be manufactured by casting, forming and

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Major types of material removal processes:

 Machining operations is a system consisting of the

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form

 Most important machining operations:

 Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

 Used to create a round

 Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across

 Three dimensions of a machining process

 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning operation

 In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken

 In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left along

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Cutting Edge is normal to tool feed.  Cutting Edge is inclined at an acute

 Major independent variables in the cutting process:

 Dependent variables in cutting (influenced by changes

 Merchant model is known as orthogonal cutting

 Imagine shearing: “deck of cards” sliding along each

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Cutting Ratio (or chip-thickness ratio, r )

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting conditions:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Chip encounters friction as it moves up the rake face

Velocities in the Cutting Zone

Note also that t0 Vc

 Knowledge of cutting forces and power involves:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Knowing Fc , Ft , α and β, all other component forces can be calculated.

 Forces considered in orthogonal cutting include

 It can also be shown that ( is friction angle)

 Resultant force, R is balanced by an equal and

 Equations to relate the forces that cannot be measured to

 Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Power for friction  FVc

 The specific energy for friction, uf is

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Measuring Cutting Forces and Power

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 More realistic view of

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 Brittle work materials

 Ductile work materials

 Majority of machining operations involve tool shapes that are

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Temperatures in Cutting and Cutting Tool Technology

 Temperature rise (due to heat lost in cutting raising

 Expression: mean temperature in orthogonal cutting: