Module 4 - Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working

Module 4: Bulk Deformation Processes
in Metal Working
Manufacturing Processes
AERO315
UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
1
Introduction
Bulk deformation processes in metal

working include:
• Rolling.
• Other deformation processes related to
rolling.
• Forging.
• Other deformation processes related to
forging.
• Extrusion.
• Wire and Bar Drawing
Introduction
• Bulk deformation processes accomplish significant
shape change in metal parts whose initial form is bulk
rather than sheet.
• The starting forms include (1) cylindrical bars and billets,

(2) rectangular billets and slabs, and (3) similar
elementary geometries.
• The bulk deformation processes refine the starting

shapes, sometimes improving mechanical properties,
and always adding commercial value. (shape change
and value adding)
• Deformation processes work by stressing the metal

sufficiently to cause it to plastically flow into the desired
shape. (plastic deformation)
Introduction
• Bulk deformation processes are performed as (1) cold,
(2) warm, and (3) hot working operations.
• Cold and warm working is appropriate when the shape

change is less severe, and there is a need to improve
mechanical properties and achieve good finish on the
part.
• Hot working is generally required when massive

deformation of large workpieces is involved.
Introduction
• Commercial justification:
– When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve

significant change in the shape of the workpiece.
– When performed as cold working operations, they can be used

not only to shape the product, but also to increase its strength
through strain hardening. (change properties)
– These processes produce little or no waste as a byproduct of

the operation. Some bulk deformation operations are near net
shape or net shape processes; they achieve final product
geometry with little or no subsequent machining.
Bulk Deformation Processes
Process 1: Rolling of Metals
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Flat-Rolling and
Shape-Rolling
Processes
Figure 13.1 Schematic

outline of various flat-
rolling and shape-rolling
processes. Source: After
the American Iron and
Steel Institute.
Rolling of Metals
• Rolling: is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work
is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
• The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously squeeze the workpart

between them.
The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Flat-Rolling Process
(a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process.

(b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces.
(c) Roll force, F, and the torque, T, acting on the rolls. The width of the strip, w, usually
increases during rolling
Rolling of Metals
• According to the part geometry, the rolling processes can
be divided into:
– Flat rolling: used to reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross

section.
– Shape rolling: related to flat rolling, in which a square cross

section is formed into a shape such as an I-beam.
Rolling of Metals
• Rolling can be carried out at high or low (ambient)
temperatures.
– Hot rolling: most rolling is carried out by hot working, due to the
large amount of deformation required.
– Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual stresses, and its

properties are isotropic (similar properties in different directions).
– Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held

to close tolerances, and the surface has a characteristic oxide
scale.
Rolling of Metals
• Rolling can be carried out at high or low (ambient)
temperatures.
– Cold rolling: less common than hot rolling.
– Cold rolling strengthens the metal and permits a tighter tolerance

on thickness.
– the surface finish of the cold-rolled sheet is absent of scale and

generally superior to the corresponding hot-rolled product.
Rolling of Metals
Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

Flat Rolling and Its Analysis
• Flat rolling involves the rolling of workpieces of rectangular cross section in
which the width is greater than the thickness; e.g. slabs, strips, sheets and
plates.
• Draft is amount of thickness reduction and described as:
d = t0 − t f
where d = draft, mm; t0 = starting thickness, mm; and tf = final thickness, mm.
• Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock thickness,

called the Reduction (r):
d
r=
t0
Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,

work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
• Spreading: the increase in width due to rolling, described as:
• Constant volume
to wo Lo = t f w f L f
where wo and wf are the before and after work widths, mm; and Lo and Lf are the before and
after work lengths, mm.
• Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow must be the same,
so the before and after velocities can be related:
• Constant volume rate
to wo vo = t f w f v f
where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
Spreading in Flat Rolling
tf
to
Increase in strip width (spreading) in flat rolling. Note that similar

spreading can be observed when dough is rolled with a rolling pin.
• The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can be measured by
means of the forward slip, a term used in rolling that is defined
• where s is forward slip; vf is final (exiting) work velocity, m/s (ft/sec); and vr
is roll speed, m/s (ft/sec).
• True strain is expressed by:

to
 = ln
tf
• The true strain can be used to determine the average flow stress Yf (MPa)
applied to the work material in flat rolling:
K n
Yf =
1+ n
The average flow stress is used to compute estimates of force and power in rolling.
• There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in
flat rolling with a given coefficient of friction, defined by:
d max =  2 R
where dmax = maximum draft, mm; μ = coefficient of friction; and R = roll radius, mm.
• Rolling force (F, N) can be expressed as:

F = Y f wL
• Contact length (L, mm) is described as:
L = R(to − t f )
• The torque (T) required to drive each roll are:
T = 0.5FL
• The total power (for two rolls), in S.I. units, is
where F is in newtons, L is in meters, and N is the revolutions per minute of the

roll.
• The total power (for two rolls), in English units, is
where F is in pounds and L is in feet.

Example 1
A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to
34.0 mm in one pass in a rolling operation. As the thickness is
reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield strength of the steel plate
is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance speed
of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the
rotational speed is 4.90 rev/min. Determine
(a) the minimum required coefficient of friction that would make this
rolling operation possible,
(b) exit velocity of the plate,
(c) forward slip.
b) Plate widens by 4%.
Solution: towovo = tfwfvf ………………(1)
(a) Maximum draft dmax = μ2 R wf = 1.04 wo ……………….(2)
42(wo)(15) = 34(1.04wo)vf
Given that d = to - tf = 42 - 34 = 8.0 mm,
vf = 42(wo)(15)/ 34(1.04wo) = 630/35.4
μ2 = 8/325 = 0.0246
= 17.8 m/min
μ = (0.0246)0.5
= 0.157 (c) vr = 2π rN= 2π(0.325) (4.90) = 10.0 m/min
s = (vf - vr)/vr = (17.8 – 10)/10 = 0. 78
Example 2
An annealed copper strip 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is rolled to
a thickness of 20 mm in one pass. The roll radius is 300 mm, and the
rolls rotate at 100 rpm. Calculate the roll force and the power
required in this operation. Given that the average true stress is 180
MPa
Rolling Mills
• Rolling mill configurations:
– Two-high: consists of two opposing rolls, and the configuration

can be either reversing or nonreversing.
(a) two-high rolling mill.

Rolling Mills
– Three-high: three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of

rotation of each roll remains unchanged.
(b) three-high rolling mill.

Rolling Mills
– Four-high: uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work

and two backing rolls behind them.
(c) four-high rolling mill.

Rolling Mills
– Cluster mill: roll configuration that allows smaller working rolls

against the work (smaller than in four-high mills).
(d) cluster mill.

Rolling Mills
– Tandem rolling mill : consists of a series of rolling stands,

aimed at higher throughput rates.
(e) tandem rolling mill.

Tandem-Rolling
Figure 13.11 An example of a tandem-rolling operation.
Bending of Rolls
Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of

straight cylindrical rolls caused by
roll forces. (b) Bending of rolls
ground with camber, producing a
strip with uniform thickness
through the strip width.
Deflections have been
exaggerated for clarity.
Effects of Hot Rolling
Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought

metals during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size
in metals for improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or
continuous castings are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
Roller Leveling
Figure 13.7 (a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets.

(b) Roller leveling to straighten drawn bars.
Defects in Flat Rolling
Schematic illustration of
typical defects in flat
rolling:
(a) wavy edges;
(b) (b) zipper cracks in
the center of the strip;
(c) edge cracks; and
(d) alligatoring.
Shape Rolling of an H-section part
Steps in the shape rolling of

an H-section part. Various
other structural sections,
such as channels and I-
beams, also are rolled by
this kind of process.
Production of Steel Balls
Figure 13.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of
steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by
these processes subsequently are ground and polished for use in ball bearings.
Other Deformation Processes
Related to Rolling
• Ring Rolling: a deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
– As the thick-walled ring is compressed, the deformed material elongates,

causing the diameter of the ring to be enlarged.
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a
ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.
Thread-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.16 Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (b) reciprocating flat dies; (c) two-roller dies.
(d) Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes at high
rates of production. Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled Thread Die Co.
Machined and Rolled Threads
Figure 13.17 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and
(c) rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling
of threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
Cavity Formation in Bar
Figure 13.18 Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-
piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (see also Fig. 2.9.)
Process 2: Forging of Metals
Forging
• Forging: a deformation process in which the work is compressed

between two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form
the part.
– Dates back to perhaps 5000 BCE.
– Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety

of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other
applications.
– These components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods,

gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine turbine parts.
– In addition, steel and other basic metals industries use forging to

establish the basic form of large components that are subsequently
machined to final shape and dimensions.
Forging
• Forging can be classified in many ways, one is working temperature.
– Hot or warm forging: done when significant deformation is demanded

by the process and when strength reduction and increase of ductility is
required.
– Cold forging: its advantage is the increased strength that results from
strain hardening of the component.
• The other way is by the way the forging is carried out:
– Forging hammer: a forging machine that applies an impact load.
– Forging press: a forging machine that applies gradual load.

Forging
• Forging can be also classified according to the degree to which the
flow of the work metal is constrained by the dies.
– Open-die forging: the work is compressed between two flat dies,

thus allowing the metal to flow without constraint in a lateral direction
relative to the die surfaces.
– Impression-die forging: the die surfaces contain a shape or

impression that is imparted to the work during compression, thus
constraining metal flow to a significant degree. Here, flash will form.
– Flashless forging: the work is completely constrained within the die

and no excess flash is produced.
Forging process Video
• https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=YobXFODkp50
Forging
Three types of forging operation: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and
(c) flashless forging.
Forging
Open-Die Forging
• Known as upsetting or upset forging.
• Involves compression of a workpart of cylindrical cross

section between two flat dies, much in the manner of a
compression test.
• It reduces the height of the work and increases the

diameter.
Open-Die forging with Barreling
Figure 14.3 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform
deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note the
barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
Open-Die forging with Barreling
• Analysis of Open-Die Forging:
2 r 
2
Forging force, F = Y f  r 1 + 
 3h 
and , Y f = k  n
where :
Yf is the flow stress of the material, μ is the coefficient of friction
between the workpiece and the die, and r and h are, respectively,
the instantaneous radius and height of the workpiece.
Example
A solid cylindrical slug made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and
100 mm high. It is reduced in height by 50% at room temperature by open-die
forging with flat dies. Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate
the forging force at the end of the stroke.
2 r 
2
Forging force, F = Y f  r 1 + 
 3h 
The final radius, r, is determined from volume constancy by equating the
volumes before and after deformation.
(π)(75)2(100) = (π)(r)2(50) => r = 106 mm.
Y f = k  = 1275 x 0.69
n .45
 1100MPa
2
(2)(0.2)(0.106 ) 
F = (1078 x10 )( ) (0. 106) 1 +
6
  48 MN
 (3)(0.05) 
Impression-Die Forging
• Impression-die forging (sometimes called closed-die forging):
performed with dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the
part.
Figure 14.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note
the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig.
14.7). (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die.
Cogging Operation on a Rectangular Bar
Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an
anvil. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by barreling, as in Fig. 14.3c. (b) Reducing the
diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c)
The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
Force in Impression Die Forging
F = kY f A
Trimming Flash After Forging
Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a forged part. Note that

the thin material at the center is removed by punching.
Closed-Die Forging Versus Flashless Forging
Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and
precision or flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V.
Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
The Coining
Process
(b)
Figure 14.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were
made by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a
modern coining operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior
finish that can be achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.
The Coining Process
• Coining: is a type of flashless forging, in which fine details in the die
are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the workiece.
There is little flow of metal in coining.
Coining operation: (1) start of cycle, (2)

compression stroke, and (3) ejection of finished
part.
(b) An example of a modern coining operation,

showing the workpiece and toolin (b)
Heading
Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
Metals in Decreasing Order of Forgeability
Defects in Forged Parts
Figure 14.16 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during
forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects
caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the
center flows past the filled regions as the die closes.
Speed Ranges of Forging Equipment
Costs of a Rod Made by Forging and Casting
Figure 14.19 Relative unit

costs of a small connecting
rod made by various forging
and casting processes.
Note that, for large
quantities, forging is more
economical. Sand casting
is the most economical
process for fewer then
about 20,000 pieces.
Process 3: Extrusion and Drawing of
Metals
Extrusion
• Extrusion: a compression process in which the work metal is forced
to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.
• Advantages include:
– A variety of shapes are possible (especially in hot extrusion).
– Close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion.
– in some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created.

Types of Extrusion
• Extrusion can be classified in various ways:
– By physical configuration: Direct Extrusion and

Indirect Extrusion.
– By working temperature: Cold, Warm, or Hot

Extrusion.
– Finally, it is performed as either a Continuous or

Discrete process.
Types of Extrusion
1. Direct extrusion (also called forward extrusion) is illustrated in the
Figure below.
Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct-extrusion process.

Direct-Extrusion
(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross section; (b)

hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
Extrusions and Products Made from Extrusions
Figure 15.2 Extrusions and

examples of products made by
sectioning off extrusions.
Source: Courtesy of Kaiser
Aluminum.
Types of Extrusion
2. Indirect Extrusion (also called backward extrusion) is illustrated in
the Figure below.
Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross
section.
Types of Extrusion
Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral;
Types of Extrusion
• Hot Extrusion:
– Hot extruded metals include: Al, Cu, Mg, Zn, Sn, and their alloys
(sometimes extruded cold as well).
– Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more
ductile grades are sometimes cold extruded (e.g. low C-steels).
– Al is probably the most ideal metal for extrusion (hot and cold).
– Products include: doors and window frames.

Analysis of Extrusion
Analysis of Extrusion
• Consider the figure below:
NOTE: This is ideal case (no friction considered).

The workpiece has round cross section
Summary
Example 1
A round billet made of brass is extruded at a temperature of 675°C. The
billet diameter is 125 mm, and the diameter of the extrusion is 50 mm.
Calculate the extrusion force required.
 Ao 
Extrusion force, F = Ao k ln  
 Af 
 
For brass, k = 250 MPa
 (0.125 ) 2   (0.125 ) 2 
F= (250 x10 ) ln 
6 
4   (0.050 ) 2 
 
= 5.6 MN
Example 2
A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 50 mm in diameter is reduced
by indirect extrusion to a 20 mm diameter. The 2flow curve for the work
Ao 𝜋(25)
metal has a strength coefficient
(a) rof
x =800 MPa
= =6.25
and2 strain hardening exponent
Af
of 0.13. Assume Ideal (no friction) case. 𝜋(10)
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b)
ram pressure and (c) ram force
(b) ε = ln rx = ln 6.25 = 1.833
2
Ao 𝜋(25)
(a) rx = = 2 =6.25 p = Y f ln rx
Af 𝜋(10)
(b) ε = ln rx = ln 6.25 = 1.833 K n

Yf =
1+ n
p = Y f ln rx
K n
Yf = Y f = 800(1.833)0.13/1.13 = 766.0 MPa
1+ n
P = 766.0 x 1.833 = 1.4 GPA
0.13 (c) F = p . Ao = 1.4 x10^9 x (π x 25x10-6^2)=110 KN

Y f = 800(1.833) /1.13 = 766.0 MPa
P = 766.0 x 1.833 = 1.4 GPA

Exercise
A 3.0-in-long cylindrical billet whose diameter = 1.5 in is reduced by
indirect extrusion to a diameter = 0.375 in. In the flow curve for the work
metal, K = 75,000 lb/in2 and n = 0.25. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true
strain, (c) ram pressure, (d) ram force, and (e) power if the ram speed = 20
in/min.
Example 4
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.4 Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section,
extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
Extrusion Temperature Ranges
Extrusion-Die Configurations
Figure 15.7 Typical extrusion-die configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b) die
for ferrous metals; (c) die for a T-shaped extrusion made of hot-work die steel and
used with molten glass as a lubricant. Source: (c) Courtesy of LTV Steel Company.
Design of Extruded Cross-Sections
Figure 15.9 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the
importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform.
Source: J.G. Bralla (ed.); Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. New York:
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1986. Used with permission.
Extrusion of Heat Sinks
Figure 15.10 (a) Aluminum extrusion used as a heat sink for a printed circuit board. (b)
Die and resulting heat sink profiles. Source: Courtesy of Aluminum Extruders Council.
Cold Extrusion Examples
Figure 15.11 Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows

indicate the direction of metal flow during extrusion.
Impact-Extrusion Process
Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded

parts are stripped by use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
Process 4: Wire and Bar Drawing
Wire and Bar Drawing
• Bar drawing: the term used for large diameter bars.
• Wire drawing: applies to small diameter bars (wire sizes down to

0.03 mm are possible in wire drawing).
• Two stress components are present in drawing; tensile stresses due

to the pulling action and compressive stresses because the metal is
squeezed down as it passes through the die opening.
Ao − Af
• Change in size of work (given by area reduction): r=
Ao
• Draft: difference between original and final diameter: d = Do − D f
Example 1
A spool of wire has a starting diameter of 2.5 mm. It is drawn through a die
with an opening that is to 2.1 mm. The entrance angel of the die is 18°
degrees. Coefficient of friction at the work-die interface is 0.08. The work
metal has a strength coefficient of 450 MPa and a strain hardening
coefficient of 0.26. The drawing is performed at room temperature.
Determine (a) area reduction, (b) draw stress, and (c) draw force required for
the operation.
(C)
F A
= = Y f  = Y f ln o
Af Af
Exercise
Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle = 15o. Starting
diameter is 2.5 mm and final diameter = 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction
at the work-die interface = 0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K =
205 MPa and a strain hardening exponent n = 0.20. Determine the draw
stress and draw force in this operation.
Tube-Drawing Operations
Figure 15.19 Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal

mandrel. Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced
from the same initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).
Drawing Dies
Figure 15.20 Terminology of a Figure 15.21 Tungsten-carbide die

typical die used for drawing a insert in a steel casing. Diamond
round rod or wire. dies used in drawing thin wire are
encased in a similar manner.
Multistage Wire-drawing Machine
Figure 15.23 Two views of a multistage wire-drawing machine that typically is used
in the making of copper wire for electrical wiring. Source: After H. Auerswald

Module 4 - Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working

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Module 4: Bulk Deformation Processes

Bulk deformation processes in metal

• The starting forms include (1) cylindrical bars and billets,

• The bulk deformation processes refine the starting

• Deformation processes work by stressing the metal

• Cold and warm working is appropriate when the shape

• Hot working is generally required when massive

– When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve

– When performed as cold working operations, they can be used

– These processes produce little or no waste as a byproduct of

Figure 13.1 Schematic

• The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously squeeze the workpart

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

(a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process.

– Flat rolling: used to reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross

– Shape rolling: related to flat rolling, in which a square cross

– Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual stresses, and its

– Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held

– Cold rolling: less common than hot rolling.

– Cold rolling strengthens the metal and permits a tighter tolerance

– the surface finish of the cold-rolled sheet is absent of scale and

Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

• Draft is amount of thickness reduction and described as:

• Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock thickness,

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,

Increase in strip width (spreading) in flat rolling. Note that similar

• True strain is expressed by:

• Rolling force (F, N) can be expressed as:

• The total power (for two rolls), in S.I. units, is

where F is in newtons, L is in meters, and N is the revolutions per minute of the

• The total power (for two rolls), in English units, is

where F is in pounds and L is in feet.

– Two-high: consists of two opposing rolls, and the configuration

(a) two-high rolling mill.

– Three-high: three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of

(b) three-high rolling mill.

– Four-high: uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work

(c) four-high rolling mill.

– Cluster mill: roll configuration that allows smaller working rolls

(d) cluster mill.

– Tandem rolling mill : consists of a series of rolling stands,

(e) tandem rolling mill.

Figure 13.11 An example of a tandem-rolling operation.

Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of

Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought

Figure 13.7 (a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets.

Steps in the shape rolling of

– As the thick-walled ring is compressed, the deformed material elongates,

Process 2: Forging of Metals

• Forging: a deformation process in which the work is compressed

– Dates back to perhaps 5000 BCE.

– Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety

– These components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods,

– In addition, steel and other basic metals industries use forging to

– Hot or warm forging: done when significant deformation is demanded

• The other way is by the way the forging is carried out:

– Forging hammer: a forging machine that applies an impact load.

– Forging press: a forging machine that applies gradual load.

– Open-die forging: the work is compressed between two flat dies,

– Impression-die forging: the die surfaces contain a shape or

– Flashless forging: the work is completely constrained within the die

• Involves compression of a workpart of cylindrical cross

• It reduces the height of the work and increases the