Welding

Module 2: Welding Processes
Aerospace Manufacturing Processes AERO315-01

Dr. Erwin Sulaeman
UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
1. Describe casting processes.
2. Conduct metal removal processes.
3. Analyze bulk deformation processes.
4. Analyze sheet metal working.
5. Perform different welding processes.
6. Demonstrate self-study in recent topics in manufacturing processes.
7. Produce a well-structured report.

Lecture objectives
1. To discuss fusion-welding processes.

2. To discuss Solid-State (diffusion) Welding
Processes
3. To discuss brazing and soldering
Welding as a joining process
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Seventh Edition in SI Copyright ©2014 by Pearson Education
Serope Kalpakjian | Steven R. Schmid South Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.
Module 2_ Part 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Welding Defined
 Joining process in which two (or more) parts are

coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application
of heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing5/e
Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint

 Welded components become a single entity
 Usually the most economical way to join parts in
terms of material usage and fabrication costs
 Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks
of Welding
 Most welding operations are performed manually and

are expensive in terms of labor cost
 Most welding processes utilize high energy and are
inherently dangerous
 Welded joints do not allow for convenient disassembly
 Welded joints can have quality defects that are difficult
to detect
Principal Applications of Welding
 Construction - buildings and bridges

 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks
 Shipbuilding
 Aircraft and aerospace
 Automotive
 Railroad
Types of Welding Processes
 Some 50 different types of welding processes have been
catalogued by the American Welding Society (AWS)
 Welding processes can be divided into two major
categories:
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases
adding filler metal to the joint ( Examples: arc welding,
resistance welding, oxyfuel gas welding)
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used
to achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals
occurs and no filler metal is added (Examples:
diffusion welding, friction welding, etc)
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
Module 2_ Part 2: Fusion‐welding processes
Fusion‐welding processes
• Fusion welding is defined as melting together and
join materials by means of heat.
• This welding processes involve the partial melting
and fusion between two members to be joined
• In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is
added to the molten pool to facilitate the process
and provide bulk and added strength to the welded
joint
• Fusion welds made without the use of filler metals
are known as autogenous welds.
Welding processes
Major classes of fusion‐welding processes
1) Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
 Group of fusion welding operations that burn various

fuels mixed with oxygen
 Flame heat melt the metals at the joint.
 OFW employs several types of gases,
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches
to cut and separate metal plates and other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 Fusion welding performed by a high temperature

flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen
 Flame is directed by a welding torch
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Oxyacetylene Welding
 Most popular fuel among OFW group acetylene (C2H2)

because it is capable of higher temperatures than any
other
 Up to 3480C (6300F)
 The process is known as oxyacetylene welding
(OAW).
Produces about one-
First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
third of the total heat
generated in the flame.
Second stage reaction (outer envelope)

produces about two-thirds
of the total heat.
Oxyacetylene Flame Types
With a greater oxygen If the oxygen is

Ratio of acetylene
supply, the flame can be insufficient for full
and oxygen is 1:1
harmful (especially for combustion (a flame
steels), because it oxidizes have more acetylene),
the metal. Oxidizing flame The temperature of this
desirable in welding of flame is lower; this type
copper and copper-based suitable for applications
alloys, because in those requiring low heat, such
cases, a thin protective as brazing, soldering,
layer of slag forms over and flame-hardening
the molten metal. operations.
Oxyacetylene Flame Types
• Principle of the OFW process:
OFW can be used
with most ferrous
and nonferrous
metals for almost
any workpiece
thickness, but
relatively low heat
input limits the
process to
thicknesses of less
than 6 mm.
Alternative Gases for OFW
 Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
 Hydrogen
 Propylene
 Propane
 Natural Gas
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
• Filler Metals:
 Filler metals are used to supply additional metal
to the weld zone during welding.
 Available as filler rods or wire and may be bare
or coated with flux. The purpose of the flux is to
retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts by
generating a gaseous shield around the weld
zone.
 The flux also helps to dissolve and remove
oxides and other substances from the weld zone.
Filler rods Filler wire

Oxyacetylene welding process
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJNrbhi-
9CM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7r7YrNHdUl
E
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEWEMCwS
Muw
Start at Minute 0:44
Welding processes
2) Arc‐welding Processes:
 A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the
metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
5500C (10,000F), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume
and strength of weld joint
 An AC or a DC power supply produces an arc between
the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to be welded.
Arc‐welding Processes:
Pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as

electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in
its wake
What is an Electric Arc?
 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current

across a gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, the electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly separated
from it by a short distance
Arc Shielding
 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by
these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux
Flux
 A substance that prevents formation of oxides and

other contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering
Two Basic Types of Arc Welding Electrodes
 Consumable Electrode– consumed during welding
process. There are two forms of consumable electrodes:
 Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8
inch or less in diameter
 Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools with
long lengths of wire
 In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by
the arc and added to weld joint as filler metal.
 Non consumable Electrode– not consumed during
welding process
 Made of tungsten
 Filler metal must be added separately if it is added
Consumable Electrode AW Processes
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
 Submerged Arc Welding
AW Technologies
(Consumable Electrode) :
1. Shielded Metal Arc

Welding (SMAW)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler

metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux
and shielding
 Sometimes called stick welding
Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW)
 The SMAW process is commonly used in general
construction, shipbuilding, pipelines, and maintenance
work.
 Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain
nonferrous alloys. Not used or rarely used for aluminum
and its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium
 SMAW is best suited for workpiece thicknesses of 3 to19
mm,
 Cheap
 Need higher skills
Welding Stick in SMAW
 Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal
 Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and
carbonates, and held together by a silicate binder
 Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder connected to
power source
 Disadvantages of stick welding:
 Sticks must be periodically changed
 High current levels may melt coating prematurely
Stick welding
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TeBX6cK
KHWY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elmD
vqdeMKI
AW Technologies
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 Formerly called metal inert-gas (MIG) welding
 Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode. Wire is
fed continuously and automatically from a spool through
the welding gun
 the weld area is shielded by an effectively inert
atmosphere of argon and helium for aluminum welding,
and CO2 for steel welding
 suitable only for thin sheets and sections of less than 6
mm;
 suitable for welding most ferrous and nonferrous metals
and is used extensively in the metal-fabrication industry.
 Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate slag
on weld bead
Gas Metal Arc Welding:
Gas Metal Arc Welding: MIG welding
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YU8WdV
6k3rA
AW Technologies
3. Submerged Arc Welding

(SAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

with arc shielding by a cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
 Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by
gravity from a hopper
 Completely submerges welding operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged-Arc Welding
 https://youtu.be/Zc3Fu1AVCjc
SAW Applications and Products
 Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

 Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
 Welded components for heavy machinery
 Most steels (except high-C steel)
 Not good for nonferrous metals
Electrodes for Arc Welding
 Electrodes for consumable arc-welding
processes are classified according to the
following properties:
• Strength of the deposited weld metal
• Current (Ac or Dc)
• Type of coating.
 Typical coated-electrode dimensions are in
the range from 150 to 460 mm in length and
1.5 to 8 mm in diameter.
Electrode Designations
Non‐consumable Electrode AW Processes
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

 Plasma Arc Welding
AW Technologies
(Non‐consumable Electrode):
1. Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding
A. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an

inert gas for arc shielding
 Called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding
 Used with or without a filler metal; when filler metal
used, it is added to weld pool from separate rod or
wire.
 This welding process is used for a wide variety of
applications and metals, aluminum and stainless
steel mostly.
 provides welds of very high quality and surface finish.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNYmo2_DI6c
Time 1:20 to 2:13

Advantages and Disadvantages of GTAW
 Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications
 No spatter because no filler metal through arc
 Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
 Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes
AW Technologies
(Non‐consumable Electrode):
2. Plasma Arc Welding

(PAW)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma

arc is directed at weld area
 Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that
focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely
hot plasma arc stream
 Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F),
due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet
of small diameter and very high power density
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Advantages and Disadvantages of PAW
 Advantages:
 Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
 Better penetration control than other AW processes
 High travel speeds
 Can be used to weld almost any metals
 Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Larger torch size than other AW processes
 Tends to restrict access in some joints
Welding processes
3) Resistance Welding (RW)
 A group of welding processes that use a combination

of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to current
flow at junction to be welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot welding
(RSW)
Resistance Welding: Spot Welding
 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of force and current

 Cycle: (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, (3)
current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened
Spot Welding
 Spot welding is used widely for fabricating

sheet-metal parts. Examples range from
attaching handles to stainless-steel cookware to
spot-welding large sheet-metal structures.
 Modern spot-welding equipment is computer
controlled for optimum timing of current and
pressure;
 Automobile bodies can have as many as 10,000
spot welds; they are welded at high rates.
Spot Welding
Watch the first minute of the video. It explain the concept of spot welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwL1CAg43PU
Example of spot welding , notice the waiting time the electrode remains
in contact after the weld finish (hold time).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4QwDhJ-exA
Spot Welding
(a) and (b) Spot-

welded cookware
and muffler. (c) An
automated spot-
welding machine
with a
programmable robot;
the welding tip can
move in three
principal directions.
Sheets as large as
2.2 m  0.55 m (88
in.  22 in.) can be
accommodated in
this machine.
Source: Courtesy of
Taylor–Winfield
Corporation.
Resistance Seam Welding
 Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint
 Can produce air-tight joints
 Applications:
 Gasoline tanks
 Automobile mufflers
 Various sheet metal containers
Seam Welding
(a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes; (b) overlapping spots in a seam
weld; (c) roll spot welds; (d) mash-seam welding.
Welding processes
Other Fusion Welding Processes
 FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding
 Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
 Applications are typically unique
 Processes include (among other):
 Electron beam welding
 Laser beam welding
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
 Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is

provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity stream of
electrons striking the work surface
 Electron beam gun operates at:
 High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons
 Beam currents are low (milliamps)
 Power in EBW not exceptional, but power density
is very high
EBW Vacuum Chamber
 When first developed, EBW had to be carried out in a

vacuum chamber to minimize disruption of electron
beam by air molecules
 Serious inconvenience in production
 Pump-down time can take as long as an hour
Three Vacuum Levels in EBW
1. High-vacuum welding – welding in same vacuum

chamber as beam generation to produce highest
quality weld
2. Medium-vacuum welding – welding in separate
chamber but partial vacuum reduces pump-down time
3. Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or near
atmospheric pressure, with work positioned close to
electron beam generator - requires vacuum divider to
separate work from beam generator
Advantages and Disadvantages of EBW
 Advantages:
 High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
 Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
 No flux or shielding gases needed
 Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Precise joint preparation & alignment required
 Vacuum chamber required
 Safety concern: EBW generates X-rays
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
 Fusion welding process in which coalescence is

achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
 LBW normally performed with shielding gases to
prevent oxidation
 Filler metal not usually added
 High power density in small area
 So LBW often used for small parts
Comparison: LBW vs. EBW
 No vacuum chamber required for LBW

 No X-rays emitted in LBW
 Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical
lenses and mirrors
 LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
 Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas
EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)
Physics of Welding
Physics of Welding
 Fusion is most common means of achieving

coalescence in welding
 To accomplish fusion, a source of high density heat
energy must be supplied to the faying surfaces
 Resulting temperatures cause localized melting of
base metals (and filler metal, if used)
 For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the
metal with minimum energy but high heat densities
Related parameters
• Power (required to melt the metal)
– Power density PD
• (Heat) Energy
– Unit energy for melting u or um
• Welding geometry
– Cross section Area A
– Welding length L
– Welding volume V
• Welding speed v
Unit
• Power (W)
– Power density PD (W/mm2)
• (Heat) Energy (J)
– Specific energy for melting u or um (J/mm3)
• Welding geometry
– Cross section Area A (mm2)
– Welding length L (mm)
– Welding volume V (mm3)
• Welding speed v (mm/s)
Power Density
 Power transferred to work per unit surface area,

W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)
 If power density is too low, heat is conducted into
work, so melting never occurs
 If power density too high, localized temperatures
vaporize metal in affected region
 There is a practical range of values for heat
density within which welding can be performed
Comparisons Among Welding Processes
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large amounts

of heat, but heat density is relatively low because
heat is spread over a large area
 Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest OFW fuel, burns at
a top temperature of around 3500C (6300F)
 Arc welding produces high energy over a smaller
area, resulting in local temperatures of 5500 to
6600C (10,000 to 12,000F)
Power Densities for Welding Processes
Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Oxyfuel 10 (6)
Arc 50 (30)
Resistance 1,000 (600)
Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)
Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)
Power Density
 Power entering surface divided by corresponding

surface area:
P
PD 
A
where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2); P =
power entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A = surface
area over which energy is entering, mm2 (in2)
Unit Energy for Melting
 Quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume of

metal
 Unit energy Um (J/mm3) or (Btu/in3) is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature of solid metal to melting
point
 Depends on metal’s volumetric specific heat
 Heat to transform metal from solid to liquid phase
at melting point
 Depends on metal’s heat of fusion
Typical Fusion Welded Joint
 Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a) principal

zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure
Heat Affected Zone
 Metal has experienced temperatures below melting

point, but high enough to cause microstructural
changes in the solid metal
 Chemical composition same as base metal, but
this region has been heat treated so that its
properties and structure have been altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is
usually negative
 It is here that welding failures often occur
Heat Transfer Efficiency in Welding “e”
 Not all of the input energy is used to melt the weld
metal, heat got lost in the following ways:
1. Losses to the surrounding air

2. Losses to the shielding gas
3. Losses to the nozzle, or the torch holder
4. Losses as radiation
5. Losses in heating up the rest of the welded part:
Metals with high thermal conductivity, such as aluminum and copper,
present a problem in welding because of the rapid dissipation of heat
away from the heat contact area
Heat Transfer Efficiency in Welding
ଵ ଶ
Losses to the surrounding air

Losses to the shielding gas
Losses to the nozzle, or the
torch holder
Losses in heating up the rest of

the welded part
Losses as radiation
Heat Available for Welding
Hw = e . H
e = f1 * f2
Where:
Hw : net heat available for welding;
e: heat transfer efficiency;
H : total heat input (generated by welding machine)
Heat Balance in Arc Welding
Heat required for melting = efficiency X heat input from the source
Hw = e . H
Um . Volume = e . Power . time
Um . Weld Area . Weld length = e . (V.I ) . time
V is the voltage applied,
Divide both sides by time I is the current
Um . Weld Area . (Weld length/time) = e . (V.I )

Um . A. (welding speed) = e . (V.I )
welding speed = e . (V.I )/ (Um . A)
Example :
Specific Energy u (J/mm3)
Module 2_ Part 3: Solid State Welding
Welding processes
Solid State Welding
 Joining processes in which coalescence results from
application of
 Pressure alone, or
 Heat and pressure
 If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not
enough to melt work surfaces
 For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
 No filler metal is added
 Each SSW process has its own way of creating a
bond at the faying surfaces
Solid-State Welding Processes
1. Friction welding process

Friction welding (FRW)
 SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by

frictional heat combined with pressure
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
Friction welding
(1) Rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to
generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure
applied; (4) weld created
 Solid steel bars up to 100 mm in diameter and pipes up to

250 mm in outside diameter have been friction welded
successfully.
Friction welding
Inertia welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
aEuAK8bsQg
Linear welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG3t
0Q7UuCU
Applications and Limitations
of Friction Welding
 Applications:
 Shafts and tubular parts
 Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum and natural gas
 Limitations:
 At least one of the parts must be rotational
 Flash must usually be removed (extra operation)
 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be
taken into consideration in product design)
Solid-State Welding Processes
friction welding process
Shape of the fusion zones in friction welding, as a function of the

axial force applied and the rotational speed.
Solid-State Welding Processes:
2. Friction Stir Welding

Friction Stir Welding
 SSW process in which a rotating tool is fed along a joint

line between two workpieces, generating friction heat
and mechanically stirring the metal to form the weld
seam
 Distinguished from FRW because heat is generated
by a separate wear-resistant tool rather than the
parts
 Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in
aerospace, automotive, and shipbuilding
Friction Stir Welding
 (1) Rotating tool just before entering work, and
(2) partially completed weld seam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hKqSPoQtMA
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction
Stir Welding
 Advantages
 Good mechanical properties of weld joint
 Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues
 Little distortion or shrinkage
 Good weld appearance
 Disadvantages
 An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
 Heavy duty clamping of parts is required
Other Solid-State Welding Processes:
3. Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic Welding
 Two components are held together, and oscillatory

shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are applied to
interface to cause coalescence
 Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films
to allow intimate contact and strong metallurgical
bonding between surfaces
 Temperatures are well below Tm
 No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
 Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
Ultrasonic Welding
(a) General setup for a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m8Cxeiw90xA
USW Applications
 Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry
 Eliminates need for soldering
 Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
 Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
 Assembly of small parts in automotive industry
Module 2_ Part 4: Brazing and soldering
Welding processes
Brazing and soldering
Brazing process
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wtav235-5zE
Soldering process
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBPeD3xr9Jc
This video also compare between the Brazing and soldering
Brazing
 Brazing is a joining process in which a filler
metal is placed between the mating surfaces to
be joined (or at their periphery) and the
temperature is raised sufficiently to melt the
filler metal, but not the components (the base
metal.
 Upon cooling and solidification of the filler
metal, a strong joint is obtained.
 Filler metals used for brazing typically melt
above 450°C, which is below the melting point
(solidus temperature) of the metals to be
joined.
Furnace Brazing
Figure 32.2 An example of furnace brazing:

(a) before and (b) after brazing.
The filler metal is a shaped wire and moves into the interfaces by
capillary action with the application of heat.
Typical Filler Metals for Brazing Various Metals
and Alloys
Effect of Joint Clearance on Strength of Brazed
Joints
Figure 32.4 The effect of joint clearance on tensile and shear strength of brazed joints.
Note that unlike tensile strength, shear strength continually decreases as the clearance
increases.
Good and Poor Brazing Design
Figure 32.6 Examples of good and poor design for brazing. Source:
American Welding Society.
Soldering
 In soldering, the filler metal (called solder)
melts at a relatively low temperature. As in
brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary
action between closely fitting or closely placed
components.
 Soldering is used extensively in the electronics
industry.
 A soldered joint has very limited utility at
elevated temperatures.
 Soldering can be used to join various metals of
different thicknesses. Copper & silver and
Copper & gold are easy to solder.
Solder Types and Applications
Module 2_ Part 5: Welding design, quality and
inspection
Lecture objectives
1. Discus weld design guidelines

2. Identify weld defects
3. Identify weld tests
Welding Design
Weld design principles and guidelines
• Keep the weld puddle (melted zone) protected.
• Maintain equal fusion of both parts
• Fusion should reach the bottom of the weld
thickness.
• Minimize distortion
• Minimize weld length.
• Consider the appearance
• Design the joint to be accessible
• Minimize the load on the weld joint
Five Types of Joints
 (a) Butt joint, (b) corner joint, (c) lap joint, (d) tee joint,
and (e) edge joint
Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove to facilitate weld
penetration
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single or double
sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints
 Designer needs to choose

the proper choice of the
joint type and edge
preparation
Edge preparation for weld joint;
example of butt joints
Examples of joints
Proper choice
of the joint
type
Weld geometrical parameters
Weld Face
Weld Size
Weld Root
Weld Size
Arc Welding Positions
Welding positions defined here for groove welds: (a) flat,
(b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d) overhead
Flat is the easiest
Welding Defects
 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
 Incomplete fusion
 Miscellaneous defects
Welding Cracks
 Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base

metal adjacent to weld
 Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the
metal that significantly reduces strength
 Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld
and/or base metal combined with high restraint
during contraction
 In general, this defect must be repaired
Welding Cracks
Various forms of welding cracks
Cavities
 Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
 Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification
Solid Inclusions
 Nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal

 Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules
of slag become encased during solidification
 Other forms: metallic oxides that form during
welding of certain metals such as aluminum,
which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
Incomplete Fusion
A weld bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout

entire cross section of joint
Weld Profile in AW
(a) Desired profile for single V-groove weld joint, (b) undercut
- portion of base metal melted away, (c) underfill - depression
in weld below adjacent base metal surface, and (d) overlap -
weld metal spills beyond joint onto part surface but no fusion
occurs
Overlap
• Overlap is an imperfection at the weld toe or root

caused by metal flowing onto the surface of the
base metal without fusing to it
• Prevention
– Adjust electrode manipulation to ensure fusion of
base metal
– Limit size of fillet to 9-mm leg length
Undercut
• Undercut is an irregular groove at the weld toe in

the parent metal or previous pass caused by
– excessive weaving
• Prevention
– Weld in flat position
– Change shielding gas to one which produces better
wetting
– Terminate welds so they don’t finish at a free edge
Spatter
• Spatter consists of small droplets of electrode
material that land beside the weld and may or
may not fuse to the base material
• Prevention
– Reduce energy input
– Shorter arc length
– Adjust the pressure of
– the shielding gas
Distortion of Parts After Welding
Distortion of parts after welding. (a) Butt joints and (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused by differential
thermal expansion and contraction of different regions of the welded assembly.
Fixtures can be used to reduce distortion

Inspection and Testing Methods
 Visual inspection
 Nondestructive evaluation
 Destructive testing
Visual Inspection
 Most widely used welding inspection method

 Human inspector visually examines for:
 Conformance to dimensions, warpage
 Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other
surface defects
 Limitations:
 Only surface defects are detectable
 Welding inspector must also decide if additional
tests are warranted
Destructive Tests
 Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing

or to prepare test specimen
 Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to
conventional testing methods such as tensile tests,
shear tests, etc.
 Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent and
condition of heat affected zone, and similar
phenomena
 Other tests: Macro and microscopic tests
Mechanical Tests in Welding
TENSILE
 Material is sectioned
and edges rounded of
to prevent cracking.
 Punch marks are made
to see elongation.
Bending Test: Shows Physical condition of the weld and
determine welds efficiency
Bending Test
• Bend through 180o

• the specimen should be a minimum of 30mm wide
• The fulcrums diameter is 3x thickness of the plate
• The bottom rollers have a distance of the diameter of the
former + 2.2 times the thickness of the plate
• Upper and lower surfaces ground or filed flat and edges
rounded off.
• the tests should be one against the root -another against
the face ,and in some cases a side bend.
Root bend
FACE BEND
IMPACT TEST
• Gives the toughness and

shock loading of the
material and weld
• The measurement is the
energy required to break
a specimen with a given
notcho of a 2mm depth at
a 45 bevel or a “U” notch.
FATIGUE TEST
• the testing of material that is subject to

fluctuating loads
MICROSCOPIC TEST
• Used to determine
the actual structure of
the weld and parent
metal
• Up to 50,000 times
magnification with an
electron beam
microscope
• Polishing must be of a
very high standard
MACROSCOPIC TEST
• Examined using a
magnifying glass.
• magnification from 2 to 20
time.
• it will show up slag
entrapment or cracks.
• polishing not as high as
micro.
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
 Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves

through specimen to detect cracks and inclusions
 Radiographic testing - X-rays or gamma radiation
provide photograph of internal flaws
 Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - to
detect small cracks and cavities at part surface
 Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on
surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting
magnetic field in part
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
Ultrasonic testing Radiographic testing
Dye-penetrant
X-RAY VIEWER
• Pictures taken are

viewed as negatives
• will only give flat
image not in three
dimensional
• darkened area must
be used for viewing
ULTRASONIC TESTING
• This uses high
pitched sound
• The sound will
not pass
through an air
gap so
bounces back
and is picked
up on a
receiver
• The reader is a
oscilloscope
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
• Mainly for surface

defects
• Some sub surface
defects can be found
• Only ferrous metal
ACOUSTICS
• Striking with a
rounded object
• Ringing tone if no
defect
• Tone changes when
object is cracked
Pressure test
• Used to test pressure vessels

• Pipe lines
• The item for testing is filled with water or oil, it is
then pressurised using a pump
• A safety valve is set 1.5 to 2 times below the
working pressure.
Apply Pressure up to 60
bar for 30 second

Welding

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Module 2: Welding Processes

Aerospace Manufacturing Processes AERO315-01

1. Describe casting processes.

2. Conduct metal removal processes.

3. Analyze bulk deformation processes.

4. Analyze sheet metal working.

5. Perform different welding processes.

6. Demonstrate self-study in recent topics in manufacturing processes.

7. Produce a well-structured report.

1. To discuss fusion-welding processes.

 Joining process in which two (or more) parts are

 Provides a permanent joint

 Most welding operations are performed manually and

 Construction - buildings and bridges

1) Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

 Group of fusion welding operations that burn various

 Fusion welding performed by a high temperature

 Most popular fuel among OFW group acetylene (C2H2)

Second stage reaction (outer envelope)

With a greater oxygen If the oxygen is

Filler rods Filler wire

Pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as

 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current

 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

 A substance that prevents formation of oxides and

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

1. Shielded Metal Arc

 Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler

2. Gas Metal Arc Welding

3. Submerged Arc Welding

 Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

 Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

1. Gas Tungsten Arc

 Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an

Time 1:20 to 2:13

2. Plasma Arc Welding

 Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma

 A group of welding processes that use a combination

 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of force and current

 Spot welding is used widely for fabricating

(a) and (b) Spot-

 Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

 Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is

 When first developed, EBW had to be carried out in a

1. High-vacuum welding – welding in same vacuum

 Fusion welding process in which coalescence is

 No vacuum chamber required for LBW

 Fusion is most common means of achieving

 Power transferred to work per unit surface area,

 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large amounts

Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)

Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)

 Power entering surface divided by corresponding

 Quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume of

 Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a) principal

 Metal has experienced temperatures below melting

1. Losses to the surrounding air

Losses to the surrounding air

Losses in heating up the rest of

Um . Weld Area . (Weld length/time) = e . (V.I )

welding speed = e . (V.I )/ (Um . A)

1. Friction welding process