•Filiform

9- SENSES
•Function
SPECIAL SENSES
•Receptors on hairs detect dissolved substances
•Olfaction
•Taste types
•Taste
1.Sour
•Visual system
2.Salty
•Hearing
3.Bitter
•Balance
4.Sweet
•Sense of smell -Olfactory neurons
5.Umami
•Bipolar neurons-Olfactory hairs

•Cilia which lies in mucous

•Odors

•Odorants bind to chemoreceptor molecules

•Depolarize and initiate action potentials in

neurons

•Low threshold for odor detection

VISUAL SYSTEM

•Eye•Accessory structures

•Eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes, tear glands

•Protect eyes from sunlight and damaging particles

•Optic nerve (II)

•Tracts
TASTE
•Pathways
•Detected by taste buds
•Eyes respond to light and initiate afferent action
•Papillae
potentials
•Vallate

•Fungiform

•Foliate

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 1
 •Ion levels

•Water balance

•Heart rate and blood pressure changes

•Control of blood glucose and other nutrients

•Control of reproductive functions

•Uterine contractions and milk release

•Immune system function

BALANCE

•Static labyrinth

•Responds to force of gravity and linear

acceleration

HORMONES

•Chemicalmessengerreleasedbyoneormorecellsthat
affectscellsinotherpartsoftheorganism

10-ENDOCRINE SYSTEM •Secreted(released)directlyintothebloodstream

GLANDS

•One or more cells that make and secrete a product

•Secretion = protein in aqueous solution:

hormones, acids, oils2

Types of Glands:
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS:
•Exocrine →glands with ducts
•Autocrine chemical messengers
•Endocrine →have no ducts
•Paracrine chemical messengers
•Neurotransmitters
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
•Endocrine chemical messengers
•Metabolism

•Control of food intake and digestion

•Tissue development

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 2
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Composed of:

•Endocrine glands
→Secretes
hormones into the
bloodstream

•Specialized
endocrine cells ENDOCRINE GLANDS
located throughout
the body Pituitary gland / Hypophysis

•Located inferior to the

hypothalamus

•Connected to it by a stalk of
tissue →Infundibulum
Divided functionally into two
parts:

•Posterior pituitary gland

(neurohypophysis)

•Anterior pituitary gland

(adenohypophysis)

COMPARISON OF THE NERVOUS AND

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

Difference:

•Mode of Transport

•Speed of response

•Duration of response

POSTERIOR PITUITARY

•Neurohypophysis

•Extension of the nervous system

•Secretions→Neuropeptides / Neurohormones
Hormones:

•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

•Oxytocin

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 3
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE / VASOPRESSIN •Increased amino acid uptake and protein synthesis

•It prevents the output of large amounts of urine •Increased breakdown of lipids and release of FA
from cells
•Reabsorption of water from kidney
tubules→Reduces urine volume •Increased glycogen
synthesis
•Structure: Small peptide
•Increased blood
•Target tissue: Kidney Tubules glucose levels

OXYTOCIN •Structure: Protein

•Increased uterine contractions •Target: Most

tissues
•Increased milk
expulsion from
THYROIDSTIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
mammary glands

•Unclear function in
males •Increased thyroid
hormone secretion
•Structure: Small
peptide •Structure: Glycoprotein

•Target: Uterus & •Target: Thyroid gland

Mammary glands

ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

•AdenohypophysisHormones:
•Increased
•Growth hormone (GH) / Somatotropin glucocorticoid
hormone secretion
•Thyroid-Stimulating hormone
•Structure: Peptide
•Adeno corticotropic hormone (ACTH)
•Target: Adrenal cortex
•Prolactin

•Melanocyte-Stimulating hormone (MSH)

•Luteinizing hormone (LH) LIPOTROPINS

•Increased lipid breakdown

•Follicle-Stimulating hormone (FSH)
•Structure: Peptide
GROWTH HORMONE (SOMATOTROPIN)
•Target: Adipose tissues
•Increased growth in tissue

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 4
Β ENDORPHIN •Target: Ovaries and Mammary glands in females

•Analgesia in the brain HYPOTHALAMUS

•Inhibition of gonadotropin releasing hormone •Regulates the secretory activity of the pituitary
secretion gland Hormones:

•Structure: Peptide •Growth hormone-Releasing hormone (GHRH)

•Target: Brain •Growth hormone-Inhibiting hormone (GHIH) /

MELANOCYTESTIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)
•Increased melanin production in melanocytes to
make the skin darker in color
Somatostatin
•Thyrotropin-Releasing hormone (TRH)
•Corticotropin-Releasing hormone (CRH

•Structure: Peptide )•Gonadotropin-Releasing hormone (GnRH)

•Target: Melanocytes in the skin •Prolactin-Releasing hormone (PRH)

LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) •Prolactin-Inhibiting hormone (PIH)

•Ovulation and Progesterone production in ovaries GROWTH HORMONE -RELEASING HORMONE

(GHRH)
•Testosterone and support for sperm cell
production in testes •Increased growth hormone secretion

•Structure: Glycoprotein •Structure: Peptide

•Target:Ovaries→femalesTestes→males •Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete growth

hormone
FOLLICLESTIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
GROWTH HORMONE –INHIBITING HORMONE
•Follicle maturation and estrogen secretion in
(GHIH)
ovaries
•Decreased growth hormone secretion
•Sperm cell production in testes
•Structure: small peptide
•Structure: Glycoprotein
•Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete growth
•Target: Follicles in ovaries in femalesSeminiferous hormone
tubules in males
THYROTROPIN –RELEASING HORMONE (TRH)
PROLACTIN
•Increased thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
•Milk production in secretion
lactating women
•Structure: Small peptide
•Increased response of
follicle to LH and FSH •Target: Anterior pituitary

•Structure: Protein

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 5
CORTICOTROPIN –RELEASING HORMONE THYROID GLAND
(CRH)

•Increased adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion

Hormones:
•Structure: Peptide
•Triiodothyronine (T3)
•Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete
adrenocorticotropic hormone •Tetraiodothyronine (T4) /
thyroxine
GONADOTROPIN –RELEASING HORMONE
•Calcitonin
(GNRH)

•Increased secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) THYROID HORMONES

and Follicle –stimulating hormone (FSH)
•Triiodothyronine (T3)
•Structure: Small peptide
•Tetraiodothyronine (T4)
•Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete LH and
•Secreted by thyroid follicles
FSH
•Increased metabolic rate
PROLACTIN –RELEASING HORMONE (PRH)
•Essential for normal growth and maturation
•Increased prolactin secretion
•Structure: Amino acid derivative
•Structure: Unknown
•Target: Most cells of the body
•Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete
prolactin CALCITONIN

PROLACTIN –INHIBITING HORMONE (PIH) •Secreted by Parafollicular cells

•Decreased prolactin secretion •Decreased rate of breakdown of bone by

osteoclasts
•Structure: Dopamine →amino acid derivative
•Prevention of a
•Target: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete large increase in
prolactin blood calcium levels

PINEAL GLAND •Structure:

Polypeptide
•Located at the end
of the short stalk on •Target: Bone
the diencephalon
PARATHYROID GLANDS
•Melatonin helps
regulate the circadian •Usually embedded in the posterior part of each
rhythm lobe of the thyroid gland

•Made up of two cell types: •Chief cells →secretes

PTH

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 6
•Oxyphils →unknownHormone:

•Parathyroid hormone (PTH) •Norepinephrine

(Noradrenaline)

•Dopamine

ADRENAL CORTEX

3 indistinct layers:
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
•Zona glomerulosa
•Increased rate of breakdown of bone by
•Zona fasciculata
osteoclasts
•Zona reticularisSecretes
•Increased reabsorption of Calcium in kidneys
three hormone types:
•Increased
•Mineralocorticoids
absorption of
calcium from the •Glucocorticoids
small intestine
•Androgens
•Increased vitamin
D synthesis MINERALOCORTICOIDS

•Increased blood •Aldosterone

Calcium levels
•Increased Sodium reabsorption
•Structure: Polypeptide
•Increased Potassium and Hydrogen excretion
•Target: Bone, Kidneys, Small intestine
•Enhanced water reabsorption
ADRENAL GLANDS
•Structure: Steroids

•Target: Kidney
•Composed of :
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
•MEDULLA →Inner
•Cortisol
•CORTEX →Outer
•Increased protein and lipid breakdown

•Increased glucose production

ADRENAL MEDULLA
•Inhibition of immune response
Hormones: Catecholamines
•Decreased inflammation
•Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
•Structure: Steroids

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 7
•Target: Most tissues SOMATOSTATIN

ADRENAL ANDROGENS •Secreted by the Delta islets of the pancreas

•Males→Minor importance •Inhibition of insulin and glucagon secretion

•Females→development of some secondary sex •Structure: Peptide

characteristics
•Target: Alpha and Beta cells
•Structure: Steroids
HORMONES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
•Target: Many tissues
•Testes
PANCREAS
•Testosterone
•Exocrine→secretes
digestive pancreatic juice •Inhibin

•Endocrine→secretes •Ovaries
hormones
•Estrogen
•Soft , Lobulated and
•Progesterone
elongated organ
•Inhibin
INSULIN
•Relaxin
•Secreted by the Beta islets of pancreas
TESTOSTERONE
•Increased uptake
•Primary male sex hormone
•Increases use of
glucose and amino •Aidsinspermatogenesis,developmentofgenitalia,m
acids aintenanceoffunctionalreproductiveorgans,seconda
rysexcharacteristics,and sexual behavior
•Structure: Protein
•Structure: Steroid
•Target: Liver, Skeletal muscle, Adipose tissue
•Target: Most of the cells
GLUCAGON
INHIBIN
•Secreted by the Alpha islets of the pancreas
•InhibitsFSHsecretion
•Increased breakdown of glycogen
•Structure: Polypeptide
•Release of glucose
into the circulatory •Target: Anterior pituitary gland
system
ESTROGEN
•Structure:
Polypeptide •3 forms of Estrogen:

•Target: Primarily liver •Estrone (E1)

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 8
•Estradiol (E2) DIABETES INSIPIDUS

•Estriol (E3) •Increased urine output →diluted urine

•Aidsinuterineandmammaryglanddevelopmentandf •Increased thirst

unction,maturationofgenitalia,secondary sex
characteristic sexual behavior or,and menstrual •Lack of ADH
cycle

PROGESTERONE

•Aids in uterine and mammary gland development

and function maturation of genitalia, secondary sex
characteristics, and menstrual cycle.

•Structure: Steroid

•Target: Most of the cells DISORDER OF THE PANCREAS

RELAXIN
•Increases the flexibility of connective tissue in the
pelvic area, especially the symphysis pubis
•Diabetes mellitus
•Type 1 →Insulin-dependent diabetes
•Type 2 →Non-insulin-dependent

•Structure: Polypeptide
TYPE 1 (INSULIN-DEPENDENT DIABETES)
•Target: Connective tissue cells IDDM

•Autoimmune destruction of the

DISORDERS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM b-cells of the pancreas
•Pituitary Disorders
•Absolute deficiency of insulin
secretion
•Disorder of the Pancreas

•Disorders of the Thyroid gland TYPE 2 (NON -INSULIN-DEPENDENT) NIDDM

•Disorders of the Adrenal cortex •Insulin resistance with an insulin secretory defect

PITUITARY DISORDERS

•Posterior Pituitary gland

•Diabetes insipidus

•Anterior Pituitary gland

•Gigantism
ABNORMAL THYROID CONDITIONS
•Dwarfism
•Hypothyroidism

•Iodinedeficiency

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 9
•Neonatalhypothyroidism •Deficiencies of both glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids
•Pituitaryinsufficiency
•Cushing’s Syndrome →Hypersecretion of
•Hashimotodisease glucocorticoid hormones

•Hyperthyroidism

•Gravesdisease

•Thyroiditis

•ElevatedTSHlevels

•Tumor

HASHIMOTO DISEASE

•Autoimmune disease in which thyroid hormone

14-CARDIO VASCULAR SYSTEM:BLOOD
secretion can be normal or depressed.
BLOOD
Functions of Blood

•Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products

•Transport of processed molecules

GRAVES DISEASE •Transport of regulatory molecules

•Characterizedbygoiterandexophthalmos •Regulation of pH and osmosis

•Autoimmunedisease
•Maintenance of body temperature
•Hyperthyroidism
•Protection against foreign substances
•MostpatientshaveaTSH-likeimmunoglobulin
→thyroid-stimulatingimmunoglobulin(TSI) •Clot formation

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

•Liquid matrix –55% →PLASMA

•Formed elements –45% :

•Cells

•Cell fragments

•Total blood volume in adults:

DISORDERS OF ADRENAL CORTEX

•Addison’s disease (Adrenal Insufficiency) →Major •MALE →5 –6 L

hyposecretory disorder of the adrenal cortex
•FEMALE →4 –5 L

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 10
PLASMA

•Liquid part of blood

•Pale yellow fluid

•Colloids

FORMED ELEMENTS

•95%→RBC

•5% →WBC and Platelets

PRODUCTION OF FORMED ELEMENTS

•Hematopoiesis→Process of blood cell production

COMPOSITION OF PLASMA

COMPOSITION OF PLASMA

SERUM

•Plasma without clotting factors

•No fibrinogen

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 11
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)

•Biconcavedisc

•Nonucleus

•Containshemoglobin →red color

•7.5μmindiameter

•Central pallor
ANEMIA
•Normal life span is 120 days
•Anaimia→“without blood”
•RBC reference ranges in SI units:1) Females 4.0-5.4
X 1012/L2) Males 4.6-6.0 X 1012/L •A decrease in hemoglobin concentration or
number of RBCs results in decreased oxygen
•Erythropoiesis is regulated by erythropoietin delivery to tissue, resulting in tissue hypoxia.
produced in the kidney
•May be a sign of underlying condition.
FUNCTIONS
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTE)
•Oxygen transport
White Blood Cells
•Removal of metabolic waste
•Granulocytes(with granules)

•Neutrophils

•Eosinophils

•Basophils

•Agranulocytes(without
granules)

•Lymphocyte

•Monocyte

GRANULOCYTES

NEUTROPHILS
•60–70% of white blood cells

•Small cytoplasmic granules

•Stain with both acidic and basic dyes

•Nuclei are lobed (2-5 lobes)

→polymorphonuclear neutrophils

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 12
•Usually the first of the white blood cells to
respond to infection
•Contains large amounts of histamine
•Normally remain in the circulation for about 10–12
hours

MAST CELL
EOSINOPHILS
•Similar to basophil
•2–4% of white blood cells
•Containshistamineandheparin
•Granules→stain bright red with eosin, an acidic
•Matured in tissue site
stain

•two-lobed nucleus

•Important in the defense against certain worm

parasites

•Not able to phagocytize the large parasites

•They attach to the worms and release substances

that kill the parasites
AGRANULOCYTES

MONOCYTES

•3–8% of white blood cells

•Largest of the white blood cells

•Leave The circulation→transformed

into macrophages

BASOPHILS •Increased in chronic infection

•0.5–1% of white blood cells •Kidney bean shaped nucleus

•Large granules →stain blue or purple with basic

LYMPHOCYTE
dyes
•20–25% of WBC
•Increase in number in both allergic and
inflammatory reactions •Smallest WBC

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 13
•B cells →produces antibodies •Middle age and elderly

•T cells →protect against viruses and other •Insidious onset

intracellular
microorganism •years

•T helper cell •Mature cells CML=granulocytesCLL=lymphocytes

•T killer cell PLATELETS(THROMBOCYTES)

•B cell Platelets (Thrombocytes)

•Memory cell •Derived from megakaryocytes(100 μm in

diameter)
•Natural killer cell
•Cell fragments
•Regulatory cell
•3 μm in diameter
LEUKEMIA
•Important roles in controlling
•Uncontrolled proliferation of one or more of the blood loss
various hematopoietic cells.
•Life expectancy of platelets is about 5–9 days
•Associated with many changes in the circulating
cells of the blood. Platelets play an important role in preventing blood
loss by:
2 main classifications of leukemia
1.Forming platelet plugs that seal holes in small
•Lymphocytic vessels

•ALL →Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia 2.Promoting the formation and contraction of clots
that help seal off larger wounds in the vessels.
•CLL →Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
HEMOSTASIS
•Myelocytic
•Complex network of interactions involving vessels,
•AML →Acute Myeloid Leukemia
platelets, and factors Hemostasis
involves:
•CML →Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
•Vascular spasm
ACUTE VS CHRONIC
•Platelet plug formation
ACUTE
•Coagulation
•Children & young adults
•Primary hemostasis
•Sudden onset
→Platelet function
•weeks to months
→Vasoconstriction
•Blast cells AML = myeloblastALL= lymphoblast
•Secondary hemostasis
CHRONIC
RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 14
→Coagulation proteins •Activation of Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Common
coagulation pathway factors
→Platelet phospholipids
COAGULATION
→Fibrin formation
•Blood clotting →Formation of clot
→Platelet plug formation until healing is complete
•Blood clot→Network of threadlike protein fibers
VASCULAR SPASM (fibrins) that traps blood cells, platelets and fluid

•Immediate constriction of a blood vessel •Formation is dependent on the clotting factors

•Results when smooth muscle within the wall of
the vessel contracts.
•Allows platelets to adhere to exposed tissue
(coagulation factors) →found in plasma
•NORMAL→clotting factors are inactive
•ACTIVATED ONLY after injury

•ADP/ATP release →promotes platelet aggregation

•Synthesis of thromboxane A2 →promotes

activation, release and aggregation of platelets

PLATELET PLUG FORMATION

•Accumulation of platelets →seal small breaks in

blood vessels

•Steps:

1.Platelet adhesion

2.Platelet activation

3.Platelet aggregation
EXTRINSIC PATHWAY

•Factor III, Factor VII

•Begins with chemicals that are outside of blood

•Damaged tissue releases THROMBOPLASTIN (

Tissue factor/ Factor III)

•Thromboplastin forms a complex with Factor VII

(stablefactor, proconvertin) *presence of
Vascular spasms and platelet plugs alone are not Ca→Begins common pathway
sufficient to closelarge tears or cuts
INTRINSIC PATHWAY
Secondary Hemostasis (Coagulation)
•Factors XII, XI,IX,VIII
•Involves:
•It begins with chemicals that are inside the blood

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 15
•Damage BV expose collagen→Activate Factor
XII→Factor XI →Factor IX and VII →Common
pathway

COMMON PATHWAY

•Involves
fibrinogen
(factor I),
factors II BLOOD GROUPING
(prothrombin),
V, X •Transfusion →Transfer of blood or blood
components from one individual to another
•Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble
fibrin •Infusion →Introduction of fluids other than blood
(saline or glucose solution) into the blood
CONTROL OF CLOT FORMATION
•Antigen→present in the surfaces of RBC (blood
•Blood contains several anticoagulants →To groups)
prevent unwanted clotting
•Antibodies →proteins present in plasma
•Ex. of anticoagulants in the blood:
•Donor →Person who gives blood
•Antithrombin
•Recipient →Person who receives it
•Heparin
ABO BLOOD GROUP
•Prostacyclin
•used to categorize human blood based on the
CLOT RETRACTION presence or absence of ABO antigens on the surface
of red blood cells.
•Consolidation or
tightening of fibrin clot •Type A →A antigens; anti-B antibodies

•Clot retracts it pulls •Type B →B antigens; anti-A antibodies

the edges of the
damaged Vessel close •Type AB →A and B antigens; neither type of
together antibody

•Type O →neither A nor B antigens ; anti-A and

FIBRINOLYSIS: CLOT DISSOLUTION
anti-B
•Plasminogen/ Profibrinolysin→Trapped the clot ;
activated plasmin
(fibrinolysin)

•Plasmin→Digests
fibrin threads and other
clotting factors and
removes the clot

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 16
 •Analysis of blood that provides much useful
informationConsists:

•RBC count

•Hemoglobin levels

•Hematocrit levels

•WBC count

•Differential WBC
RH BLOOD GROUP

•First studied in rhesus monkeys RBC COUNT

•Number (expressed in millions) of red blood cells

•Rh-positive →Rh antigen (the D antigen) on the
per microliter of blood
surface of their red blood cells
•Normal:
•Rh-negative →Do not have Rh antigen
•Male →4.6–6.2 million/μL
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN
(HDN) •Female →4.2–5.4 million/μL

•Erythroblastosis fetalis •Increases RBC →Erythocytosis

HEMOGLOBIN LEVELS

•Determines the amount of hemoglobin in a given

volume of blood

•Expressed as grams of hemoglobin per 100 mL of

blood

•Normal:

•Male →14–18 g/100 mL

DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS •Female →12–16 g/100 mL

Type and Crossmatch

HEMATOCRIT LEVELS
•Blood typing →Determines the ABO and Rh blood •Percentage of the total blood volume that is
groups of the blood sample. composed of red blood cells
•Crossmatch→Donor’s blood cells are mixed with •RBC account for 40–54% of the total blood
the recipient’s serum, Donor’s serum is mixed with volume→males
the recipient’s cells
•38–47% →females
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT
•Number and size of red blood cells affect the
hematocrit measurement.

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 17
•Normocytes →Normal-sized red blood cells with a BLEEDING TIME
diameter of 7.5 mm

•Microcytes →Smaller than normal (6 μmor less

diameter) •Assessment of platelet
function
•Macrocytes →Larger than normal (9 μmor greater
diameter) •In vivo measure of primary
hemostasisDuke methodIvy
WBC COUNT method

•Measures the total number of white blood cells in CLOTTING

the blood
•Blood’s ability to clot can be assessed by the
•5000–10,000 white blood cells are present in each platelet count andthe prothrombin time
microliter of blood measurement

•Leukopenia →lower than normal WBC resulting Prothrombin time measurement

from depression or destruction of the red marrow
•Expresses how long it takes for the blood to start
•Leukocytosis →abnormally high WBC clotting

DIFFERENTIAL WBC •Normal: 9–12 seconds

•Determines the percentage of each of the five BLOOD CHEMISTRY

kinds of white blood cells
•Analyzed the composition of materials dissolved
•Neutrophils →60–70% or suspended in the plasma

•Lymphocytes •Function Assessment of many body’s systems

→20–30%
•Blood glucose
•Monocytes→2–
8% •Blood Urea Nitrogen

•Eosinophils →1– •Bilirubin

4%
•Cholesterol
•Basophils →0.5–1%
15- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: HEART
PLATELET COUNT
HEART
•Normal: 250,000–400,000 platelets per microliter
of blood

•Thrombocytopenia •Located in the mediastinum

→platelet count is greatly
•Pumps blood through the network of
reduced
arteries and veins
•chronic bleeding through
small vessels and capillaries

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 18
FUNCTIONS OF HEART HEART WALL

1.Generating blood pressure •Composed of 3 layers of tissue:

2.Routing blood •Epicardium →Visceral

3.Ensuring one –way blood flow •Myocardium →responsible for

hearts contraction
4.Regulating blood supply
•Endocardium →Covers the
surfaces of heart valves

EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND CORONARY

CIRCULATION

•Heart consists of four chambers:

•2 Atria

•2 Ventricles
SIZE, SHAPE, AND LOCATION OF THE HEART
•Large veins:
•Size of a closed fist
•Superior vena cava
•APEX →Blunt rounded
•Inferior vena cava
point of cone
•4 Pulmonary veins
•BASE →Flat part at
opposite of end of cone •Arteries:

•Located in thoracic •Aorta

cavity in mediastinum
•Pulmonary artery
PERICARDIUM (PERICARDIAL SAC)
•Coronary artery
•Double layered closed sac
HEART CHAMBERS RIGHT ATRIUM
•Surrounds
heartConsists: •Openings:

•Fibrous pericardium •Superior vena cava

•Serous pericardium •Inferior vena

cava
•Parietal pericardium
•(receive blood
•Visceral pericardium from the body)

•Coronary sinus

•(receives blood from the heart itself)Left atrium

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 19
•4 uniform openings HEART VALVES

•receive blood from the four pulmonary veins from

the lungs SEMILUNAR VALVES
•Pulmonary semilunar

•Aortic semilunar

•Consists of three
pocketlike
semilunar cusps

•Free inner
borders →meet in
the center of
artery to block
HEART VALVES
blood flow
•Located in each canal
•Blood flow from ventricles pushes against each
•Composed of cusps or flaps valve→Forcing it to open

•Allow blood to flow from the atria into the

ventricles

•Prevent blood from flowing back into the atria

Atrioventricular valve

•Between the right atrium and the right ventricle

→three cusps (tricuspid valve)

•Between the left atrium and the left ventricle

→two cusps (bicuspid valve)Atrioventricular Valves

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 20
 •AV node (Atrioventricular node)•Conducting
bundle

•Atrioventricular bundle

HEART SOUNDS

•First heart sound

•Lubb→ventricles contract and both AV valves

close

HEART SKELETON •Second heart sound

•Consists of plate of fibrous connective tissue •Dupp→semilunar valves close at end of ventricular
between atria and ventricles systole

•Fibrous rings •Third heart sound

around valves to
support •Caused by blood flowing in a turbulent fashion
into the ventricles
•Serves as electrical
insulation between •Systole →Between the first and second heart
atria and ventricles sounds

•Provide site for muscle attachment
CARDIAC MUSCLE
•Elongated, branching cells that have one
•Centrally located nuclei
•Organized in spiral bundles or sheets
•Intercalated disks →Specialized desmosome
•Diastole →Between the second heart sound and
the next first heart sound
MURMUR
•Abnormal heart sounds
•Important indicators of specific cardiac
abnormalities
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION(CPR)

•Consists of firm
and rhythmic
compression of the
chest combined
with artificial
CONDUCTING SYSTEM ventilation of the
lungs
•Consists:
PERICARDITIS
•Modified cardiac muscle cells →forms two nodes
•Inflammation of the pericardium
•SA node (Sinoatrial node) →generate action
potentials

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 21
•Can lead to •Chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the
fluid shoulder, arm, back, neck or jaw
accumulation
within the CORONARY BYPASS
pericardial sac
•Surgery redirects blood
around a section of a
CARDIAC TAMPONADE
blocked
•Accumulation of fluid in thepericardialspace
•Partially blocked
•When it is compressed by fluid within the artery in yourheartto
pericardial cavity, it cannotexpand when the improve blood flow to
heartmuscle
cardiac muscle relaxes
16- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD
•Can cause a person to die
quickly unless the fluid is VESSEL AND CIRCULATION
removed
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
•Causes:

•Rupture of the heart wall •Pulmonary vessels

•Rupture of blood vessels •Systemic vessels
•Damage to the pericardium due to radiation
therapy, and trauma

ANGINA PECTORIS
PULMONARY VESSELS
•Chest pain
•Transport blood from the right ventricle, through
•Results from a the lungs, and back to the left atrium
reduced blood supply
to cardiac muscle SYSTEMIC VESSELS

•Pain is temporary •Transport blood through all parts of the body from
the left ventricle and back to the right atrium
•Chest discomfort
deep to the sternum Functions of Circulatory System

•Results from narrowed and hardened coronary •Carries blood

arterial walls
•Exchanges nutrients
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
•Transports substances
•Heart attack
•Helps regulate blood pressure
•Blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the
heart →damage to the heart muscle •Directs blood flow to tissues

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 22
STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF BLOOD VESSELS FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES

3 Main Types of Blood Vessels: •Endothelial cells have numerous fenestrae→70–

100 nm in diameter ; pores
•Arteries →Carry blood away from the heart
•Located where capillaries are
•Capillaries highly permeable:
→Most of the
exchange •Intestinal villi
occurs
•Ciliary processes of the eyes
•Veins →Carry
blood toward •Choroid plexuses of the CNS
the heart
•Glomeruli of the kidneys

CAPILLARIES
SINUSOIDAL CAPILLARIES
•Range from 7 μmto 9 μmin diameter
•Larger in diameter
•Consists:
•Less prominent or
•Endothelial cells completely absent of
basement membrane
•Pericapillary cells
•Fenestrae are larger than
TYPES OF CAPILLARIES fenestrated capillaries

•Located mostly in endocrine

glands
•Continuous
CAPILLARY NETWORK
•Fenestrated

•Sinusoidal

CONTINUOUS CAPILLARIES

•Approximately 7–9 μmin diameter

•Walls exhibit no gaps between the endothelial

cells
ARTERIOVENOUS ANASTOMOSES
•Less permeable to large
molecules •Allows blood to flow from arterioles to small veins
without passing through capillaries.
•Location:

•Muscle

•Nervous tissue

•Others

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 23
STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES AND VEINS •Tunica media→consists of a meshwork of elastic
fibers, smooth muscle cells and collagen fibers

•Tunica adventitia →relatively thin

MUSCULAR ARTERIES

•Medium-sized and small arteries

•Distributing arteries
3 DISTINCT LAYERS: →smooth muscle cells
•Tunica allow them to regulate
intima blood supply by either
constricting or dilating.
•Tunica
media •Tunica intima →well-
developed internal
•Tunica elastic membrane
adventitia /
tunica externa •Tunica adventitia →composed of a relatively thick
layer
ARTERIES
ARTERIOLES
Types of Arteries
•Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries
•Elastic Arteries •Smallest arteries

•Muscular Arteries •Capable of vasodilation

and vasoconstriction
•Arterioles
•Tunica intima→no
observable internal elastic
membrane

•Tunica media →consists of

1or 2 layers of circular smooth muscle cells
ELASTIC ARTERIES
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION: ARTERIES
•Largest diameters
•Aorta
•Conducting
arteries →Blood •Coronary arteries
pressure is
relatively high •Arteries of the Head and
•Greater amount neck
of elastic tissue
•Arteries of the upper Limb
•Tunica intima →relatively thick
•Abdominal Aorta and its
Branches

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 24
•Arteries of the Pelvis •Hypothalamohypophysialportal veins →carry
blood from the hypothalamus of the brain to the
•Arteries of the Lower Limb anterior pituitary gland

VEINS VALVES
Types of Veins

•Venules •Diameters greater than 2

mm
•Small Veins
•Contains valves
•Medium and Large Veins
•Mostly in lower limbs
•Portal Veins

•Valves VARICOSE

•Vasa Vasorum •Enlarged, swollen, and twisting veins

•Appears blue or
VENULES AND SMALL VEINS
dark purple
•Venules →very small
•Valve malfunction
veins
→allow blood to
•Collects blood from the flow in the wrong direction or to pool
capillaries and transport it
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION: VEINS
to small veins
Three major veins return blood from the body to
•Small veins →receives the right atrium:
blood from venules
•Coronary sinus
MEDIUM AND LARGE VEINS
•Superior vena cava
•Medium veins →collect blood from small veins
•Inferior vena cava
and deliver it to large veins
•Veins of the Head and neck
•Large veins →Transport blood from the medium
veins to the heart •Veins of the upper Limb

PORTAL VEINS •Veins of the Thorax

2 systems of portal
CIRCULATORY SHOCK
veins in humans
•Inadequate blood flow
•Hepatic portal veins throughout the body
→carry blood from
GIT and spleen to •Due to failure of the
dilated capillaries in mechanisms that maintain
liver normal blood pressure.

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 25
STROKE •Clear & Colorless except chyle→milky

•Decreased blood supply to a part of the brain •Similar consistency to plasma

•It can occur •Moves by peristalsis

as a result of
a thrombosis, LYMPHATIC VESSELS
an embolism,
•Essential for the maintenance of fluid balance
or a
hemorrhage •Lymphatic
capillaries→small,
17- LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM dead end tubes ;
collects excess fluid
Lymphatic System Includes:

•Lymph LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES

•Lymphatic capillaries are in most tissues of the

•Lymphatic
body EXCEPT in CNS, bone marrow, and tissues
vessels
without blood vessels
•Lymphatic
•More permeable than blood capillaries →No fluid
tissue
left behind
•Lymphatic
•Series of one-way valves →prevent it from passing
nodules
back into the interstitial spaces
•Lymph nodes
3 MAJOR MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR
•Tonsils•Spleen MOVING LYMPH THROUGH LYMPHATIC
•Thymus VESSELS:

•Contraction of lymphatic
FUNCTIONS: vessels

•Contraction of skeletal
•Fluid balance muscles

•Lipid •Thoracic pressure changes

Absorption
LYMPH NODES
•Defense
•Round, Oval, Bean-shaped

•Distributed along the various lymphatic vessels

•Filter lymph
LYMPH

•Fluid circulating through lymphatic vessels •Lymph nodes are connected in aa series

•Formed when the interstitial was gathered by the •Lymph →Lymph node →carried to another lymph
lymphatic plexus node

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 26
•Contains lymphocytes →destroyed pathogens DIFFUSE LYMPHATIC TISSUE

LYMPH NODES ARE CATEGORIZED AS •Contains dispersed lymphocytes, macrophages,

and other cells
SUPERFICIAL OR DEEP

•Superficial lymph nodes →subcutaneous tissue •No clear boundary

•Deep lymph nodes →everywhere else •Located deep to

mucous membranes
LYMPHATIC TRUNKS
•Within the lymph
•Drains a major portion of the body nodes and spleen

•Jugular trunks →drain the head and neck LYMPHATIC NODULES (FOLLICLES)
•Subclavian trunks →drain the upper limbs,
superficial thoracic wall, and mammary glands •Denser arrangements of lymphatic tissue
•Broncho mediastinal trunk →drain the thoracic
•Primary Follicles →No germinal centers
organs and the deep thoracic wall
•Secondary Follicles
•Intestinal trunks→drain abdominal organs
→Germinal centers
•Lumbar trunks→drain the lower limbs, pelvic and present
abdominal walls, pelvic organs, ovaries or testes,
•Numerous in the loose
kidneys, and adrenal glands
connective tissue of the
digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
LYMPHATIC DUCTS
systems

•Peyer patches →aggregations of lymphatic

•Connects Lymphatic nodules in small intestine and appendix
vessel to the large
veins TONSIL

•Large groups of lymphatic nodules and diffuse

lymphatic tissue
LYMPHATIC TISSUE AND ORGANS
•Located in the pharynx
Consists of:
•Protect against bacteria and other
•Primary of lymphocytes potentially harmful material entering the pharynx
from the nasal or oral cavity
•Macrophages
TONSILS
•Dendritic cells
•Palatine tonsils
•Reticular cells
•Pharyngeal tonsil
•Other cell types
•Lingual tonsil

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 27
 IMMUNITY
SPLEEN •Ability to resist damage from foreign substances
•Located on the left superior to the abdominal •Microorganisms
cavity
•Harmful chemicals →toxins
•Acts as a filter for blood
•Internal threats →cancer cells
•White pulp
•2 Categories
•Red pulp
•Innate immunity (Nonspecific resistance)
THYMUS
•Adaptive immunity (Specific immunity)
•Bilobed gland
ROLE OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
•Located in the superior
mediastinum •Defend the body against infections

•Thymic corpuscles •Recognize and respond to antigens

→rounded epithelial
structures in medulla; •Defend the body against the development of
for development of tumors
regulatory T cells
•Thymosin →hormone secreted by thymus; NATURAL OR INNATE IMMUNITY (NON -
important in the T cell maturation process SPECIFIC)

•Ability of the host to resist infection by means of

REGULATORY T CELLS normally present body functions
•Suppress the body’s immune response
•No prior exposure
•Protect against autoimmune diseases is required

•Nonadaptive or
nonspecific

•Response does
not change with subsequent exposures

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 28
MAIN COMPONENTS OF INNATE IMMUNITY INTERFERONS

•Physical Barriers •Proteins that protect the body against viral

infection and some forms of cancer
•Chemical mediators

•White Blood Cells

•inflammatory Response

PHYSICAL BARRIERS

•Skin

•Mucous membranes

•Tears

•Saliva INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

•Urine •Sequence of events involving many of the

chemical mediators and cells of innate immunity
•Mucus
ACQUIRED/ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (SPECIFIC)
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
•Specific for each individual pathogen or microbial
•Lysozyme agent

•Sebum •Ability to remember a prior exposure which

results in an increased immune response upon
•Mucus repeated exposure

•Histamine •Third Line of Defense

•Complement

•Cytokines→Interferons

COMPLEMENT

•Protein include: C1-C9 and factors B,D,P

•Complement proteins circulate in the blood

→inactive

•Activated only in complement cascade →Series of ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF

reaction, each component activates the next LYMPHOCYTES
component
•B cells and T cells originate in red bone marrow
•Alternative pathway
•T cells →thymus
•Classical pathway
•B cells →bone marrow

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 29
•Positive selection →ensures the survival of ACQUIRED ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
lymphocytes that can react against antigens
•Active natural immunity →natural exposure to an
•Negative selection →eliminates lymphocytes that antigen
react against self-antigens
•Active artificial immunity →deliberate exposure to
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF an antigen
LYMPHOCYTES
•Passive natural
•Primary lymphatic organ →Lymphocytes mature immunity
into functional cells →transfer of
antibodies from a
•Red bone mother to her fetus
marrow or baby

•Thymus •Passive artificial immunity →transfer of antibodies

from an immune to a nonimmune
•Secondary
lymphatic
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE LYMPHATIC
organs
SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
→Lymphocytes produce an immune response
•Decreased helper T-cell proliferation
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
•Decreased antibody mediated and cell-mediated
•Antibodies are proteins. immune responses to antigens

•Variable region →combines with the antigen •Primary and secondary antibody responses
•Constant region →activates complement or binds decrease
to cells
•Ability to resist intracellular pathogens decreases
•Five classes of antibodies exist: GMADE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
•IgG
DISEASES AND DISORDERS
•IgM
Lymphatic System
•IgA
•Infections
•IgD
•Lymphadenitis
•IgE
•Lymphangitis

•Bubonic

•Lymphedema

•Lymphoma

LYMPHADENITIS

•Inflammation of the Lymph nodes

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 30
•Nodes become enlarged and Tender •Immune system become depressed
→microorganisms are trapped and destroyed
•Increased susceptibility to infections

IMMUNITY

•Immediate Hypersensitivities

•Hay fever

LYMPHANGITIS •Asthma

•Inflammation of Lymphatic vessels •Immune complex disease

•Visible red streaks in the skin that extend from the •Urticaria•
site of infection
Anaphylaxis

•Delayed Allergic Reactions

•Poison ivy

•Autoimmune Diseases

•Congenital Immunodeficiencies
BUBONIC

•Black Death •Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

•Enlarged Lymph nodes •Acquired Immunodeficiencies

•Caused by bacterial •Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome ( AIDS )

infection →Yersinia •Transplanted tissue rejection
pestis•Transferred by flea
HAY FEVER
bites from rats
•Allergic rhinitis
•Rapid Death →Septicemia
•Often caused by inhalation of plant pollen
LYMPHEDEMA antigens

ASTHMA

•Antigen combines with

•Abnormal accumulation antibodies on mast cells
of lymph in tissues or basophils in the lungs

•Release inflammatory
chemicals
LYMPHOMA
•Constriction of the air
•Cancer of lymphocytes that begins in lymph nodes tubes →trouble in
breathing

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 31
IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASE SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY
(SCID)
•Causedbyexcessiveformationofimmunecomplexes

•CombinationsofantigensandIgGorIgM
•Failure in formation of B
•Activated complement and T cells

•Results in acute inflammatory response and tissue •Unable to fight off even
damage mild infections

URTICARIA (HIVES)

•Skin rash or localized

swelling
ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME
•Caused by an
ingested antigen •Life-threatening disease caused by Human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
ANAPHYLAXIS
•Attacks T helper cells →Impaired cytotoxic T cell
•Systemic allergic reaction and B cell activation

•Adaptive immunity is suppressed

18- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

RESPIRATION 4 PROCESSES:

1.Ventilation→Movement of air into and out of the

lungs

2.External respiration →Gas exchange between the

POISON IVY lungs and the blood

•Antigen absorbed by epithelial cells →Destroyed 3.Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
by T cells blood

•Inflammation and 4.Internal respiration →Gas exchange between the

tissue destruction blood and the tissues

•Intense itching
FUNCTIONS:

AUTOIMMUNE •Regulation of blood pH

DISEASES
•Production of chemical mediators
•Immune system
incorrectly treats self- •Voice production
antigens as foreign
•Olfaction
antigens

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 32
•Protection NOSE

ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF

THERESPIRATORY SYSTEM
•Consists of :

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION •External nose

•Upper respiratory tract →Visible structure

•External nose •Nasal cavity

•Nasa cavity PHARYNX

•Pharynx •Common opening of both digestive and

respiratory systems
•Larynx
•Respiratory →Receives air from the nasal cavity
•Lower and oral cavity
respiratory
tract •Digestive
→Receives
•Trachea food and
drink from
•Bronchi
the oral
•Lungs cavityDivided
into 3
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION DIVIDED regions:

INTO 2 REGIONS: •Nasopharynx

•Conducting zone •Oropharynx

•Exclusively for air movement •Laryngopharynx

•Extends from the nose to the bronchioles

LARYNX
•Respiratory zone •Passageway for air between the pharynx and the
trachea
•Within the lungs

•Gas exchange between air and blood

CONDUCTING ZONE

•Nose

•Pharynx

•Larynx

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 33
RESPIRATORY ZONE

•Tracheobronchial tree

•Alveoli

•Lungs

LUNGS

•Principal organs of respiration

•Right lung
→Larger ; 3
lobes

•Left
lung→2
lobes and
cardiac
notch

THORACIC WALL AND MUSCLES OF

RESPIRATION

ALVEOLI
PLEURA
•Small ; Air filled chambers

•Gas
exchange
between
the air
and blood
takes
place

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 34
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESPIRATORY LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
SYSTEM
•Whooping cough
•Decrease vital capacity, ventilation →weakened
respiratory muscles and decreased thoracic cage •Tuberculosis
compliance
•Pneumonia
•Alveolar ventilation decreases
•Flu
•Thickening of alveolar walls
•Fungal diseases
•Decrease ability to remove mucus from the
respiratory passageways 20-DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
INFANT RESPIRATORY DI STRESS SYNDROME
•Consists of :

•Digestive tract (Alimentary tract/ canal)

•Newborn produces
insufficient surfactant •Accessory organs →Glands
•Collapse lungs •Gastrointestinal tract →stomach and intestines
•Ventilation is
DIGESTIVE TRACT
inadequate
1.Oral cavity
DISEASES AND DISORDERS
2.Pharynx
BRONCHI AND LUNGS
3.Esophagus
•Bronchitis
4.Stomach
•Emphysema
5.Small intestine
•Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
6.Large intestine
•Cystic fibrosis
7.Anus
•Pulmonary fibrosis
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
•Lung cancer
•Ingestion
•Asthma
•Mastication
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
•Propulsion
•Strep throat
•Swallowing
•Diphtheria
•Peristalsis
•Common cold
•Mass movement

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 35
•Mixing MUSCULARIS

•Secretion

•Digestion

•Absorption

•Elimination

HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

SEROSA / ADVENTI TIA

MUCOSA / MUCOUS MEMBRANE

•Innermost tunic ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

•Consists of 3 •Consists of nerve

layers plexuses within wall of
digestive tract
•Inner mucous
epithelium •Capable of controlling :

•Lamina propria •Complex peristaltic

(Loose CT)
•Mixing movements
•Muscularis mucosae (Thin outer layer of smooth
•Blood flow to the
muscle)
digestive tract

SUBMUCOSA
PERITONEUM
•Thick connective tissue layer

•Contains nerves,
blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels
& small glands

•Meissner plexus
→submucosal
plexus; network of
nerve cells

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 36
DIGESTIVE TRACT

ORAL CAVITY

Mouth

Divided into 2 regions:

•Vestibule
MASTICATION
•Oral cavity proper
•Breaks large food particles

SALIVARY GLANDS

•Scattered
throughoutthe oral
cavity

•3 pairs

•Parotid gland

•Submandibular
gland

•Sublingual gland

SWALLOWING

•Pharynx and Esophagus

PHARYNX
PALATE
•Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx →transmit food
•Separates the oral and nasal cavities
ESOPHAGUS
•Prevents
food from •Muscular tube connecting the pharynx with the
passing into stomach
nasal cavity
during SWALLOWING PHASE
chewing and
•Deglutition
swallowing
•3 Phases:
•Hard palate
•Voluntary
•Soft palate
•Pharyngeal

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 37
•Esophageal •Relaxation of the esophageal sphincters to force
fully expel gastric contents
STORAGE AND MIXING
•Vomiting reflex is initiated by irritation of the
•STOMACH stomach or small intestine

ANATOMY OF STOMACH PEPTIC ULCER

•Lesions in
the lining of
the stomach
or duodenum

•Due to
bacterial
infection
SECRETION OF THE STOMACH →Helicobacter pylori

•Gastric juice DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

•Mucus •Small Intestine

•HCl
SMALL INTESTINE
•Digestive •About 6m long
enzymes
•Consists of 3 parts:
REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETION
•Duodenum →25cm
•2-3 L of gastric juice are produced each day
•Jejunum →2.5 m

•Ileum→3.5 m

SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

MOVEMENTS OF THE STOMACH
•Mucosa of the small intestine produces secretions
•Stomach Filling that containprimarily mucus, electrolytes, and
water
•Mixing of Stomach content
•Intestinal secretions lubricate and protect the
•Stomach Emptying
intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and the action
of digestive enzymes
VOMITING

•Contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTI NE

muscles
•Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary
mechanicalfunctions of the small intestine

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 38
•Aid of segmental and peristaltic contractions HEPATITIS
accomplished by thesmooth muscle in the wall of
the small intestine and propagated forshort •Inflammation of liver
distances
•Causes hepatocyte death
•Usually takes 3–5 hours for chyme to move from
•Replacement by scar tissue
the pyloric region to the ileocecal junction.
•If not treated →Loss of liver function →death
LIVER GALLBLADDER PANCREAS
HEPATITIS A

•Infectious hepatitis

•Transmitted by poor sanitation practices

HEPATITIS B

•Serum hepatitis
LIVER
•Transmitted through blood and other body fluids
•Largest Internal organ •Sexual contact or contaminated needle

•Located at the right upper quadrant of the HEPATITIS C

abdomen
•Blood borne virus
•Consists of:2 Major lobes:
•Chronic disease leading to cirrhosis
Right
•Possibly cancer of the liver
lobe
Left
CIRRHOSIS
lobe
•Damage and death of hepatocytes
2 Minor
lobes: •Loss of normal liver function

Caudate lobeQuadrate lobe •Interferes blood flow through the liver

•Most common cause→Alcoholism

LIVER FUNCTIONS

•Bile production GALLBLADDER

•Storage •Saclike structure

•Nutrient interconversion •Located at the inferior surface of the liver

•Detoxification •Stores bile up to 40-70 mL

•Phagocytosis GALLSTONES

•Synthesis •Due to excess cholesterol in the bile

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 39
•Block the release of bile and pancreatic enzymes EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE
•Interferes digestion SYSTEM

PANCREAS •Connective tissue layer→thin

•Exocrine secretions of the pancreas→Pancreatic •Blood supply decreases

juice
•Reduced motility inn Digestive tract
•Aqueous component and an enzymatic
component •Decrease secretion →mucus, pancreatic enzymes,
bile
•Delivered to the small intestine through the
pancreatic ducts→functions in digestion FOOD POISONING

•Caused by ingesting bacteria or toxins

LARGE INTESTINE
•Bacteria:

•Staphylococcus aureus

•Salmonella

•Escherichia coli

•Symptoms →Nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting &

LARGE INTESTINE diarrhea
•Consists of:
•Severe cases→Death
•Cecum•Colon →Chyme is converted to feces
•Rectum TYPHOID FEVER

•Caused by a virulent strain →Salmonella typhi

•Anal canal
•Can cross the intestinal wall and invade other
•18–24 hours are requiredfor material to pass
tissues
through the large intestine
•Symptoms→Severe fever , headache, diarrhea
CONSTIPATIO
•Usually transmitted through poor sanitation
•Slowmovementoffecesthroughthelargeintestine

•Feces →dry and hard CHOLERA

•Caused by bacterium→Vibrio cholerae

•Increased fluid
absorption •Contaminated water

•Bacteria produce a toxin that stimulated the

secretion of chloride, bicarbonate and water in to
the large intestine→severe diarrhea

•Loses 12-20 L of fluid per day

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 40
•Shock, Circulatory collapse and Death ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

GIARDIASIS •Chemicals that must be ingested

•Caused by a protozoan→Giardia lamblia •Cannot be produced by the body

DIARRHEA •Must be obtained through the diet

•Large secretion of water and ions by the intestinal •Include certain:

mucosa→irritation, inflammation or infection
•Amino acids•Fatty acids
•Moves feces out of the large intestine more
•Vitamins
rapidly
•Mineral
•Speeds recovery
•Water
DYSENTERY
•Few CHO
•Severe form of diarrhea

•With blood or mucus in the feces CARBOHYDRATES

•Carbohydrates are ingested as

•Caused by→Bacteria, Protozoa or amoeba
•Monosaccharides →glucose, fructose, galactose
NUTRITION, METABOLISM AND
TEMPERATURE REGULATION •Disaccharides →sucrose, maltose, lactose

NUTRITION •Polysaccharides →starch, glycogen, cellulose

•Process of body obtains and uses certain
components of food
•Evaluation of food and drink requirements for
normal body function
•Polysaccharides and disaccharides are converted
to glucose →can be used for energy or stored as
glycogen or lipids
LIPIDS

•Includes: Digestion, Absorption, Transportation •Lipids are ingested as triglycerides (95%) or

and Cell metabolism cholesterol and phospholipids (5%)

NUTRIENTS •Saturated

•Chemicals taken in the body that are used: •Unsaturated

•For energy production •Monounsaturated fats →one double bond

•Provide building blocks for new molecules •polyunsaturated fats →two or more double bonds

•Function in other chemical reaction •Triglycerides are used for energy or stored in
adipose tissue

•Cholesterol forms other molecules→Steroid

hormones

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 41
PROTEINS •B12→Cobalamins

•Proteins are ingested and broken down into amino •Pantothenic acid
acids.
•Biotin
•Proteins function:
•Folate
•Protection →antibodies
•Vitamin CVitamin B5Vitamin B7Vitamin
•Regulation →enzymes, hormones B9Ascorbic Acid

•Structure →collagen MINERALS

•Muscle contraction →actin and myosin
•Transportation →hemoglobin, transport proteins
•They also act as receptor molecules
•Inorganic elements essential to the nutrition of
humans
•Play several key roles in overall health and well
being

VITAMINS •Help chemical reaction take place in cells

•Organic molecules •Help muscles contract

•Exist in small quantities in food •Keep the heart beating

•Essential to normal metabolism •Two groups

•Fat soluble vitamins •Major minerals

•Water soluble vitamins •Trace minerals

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS MAJOR MINERALS

•Vitamin A →Retinol Calcium →bone and teeth formation, blood
clotting, muscle activity, nerve function
•Vitamin D →Cholecalciferol, Ergosterol
Phosphorus→bone and teeth formation; energy
•Vitamin E →Tocopherols, Tocotrienols
transfer(ATP);component of nucleic acids
•Vitamin K→Phylloquinone
Magnesium→Coenzyme constituent, bone
formation, muscle and nerve function
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

•Vitamin B Sodium →Osmotic pressure regulation; nerve and

muscle function
•B1→Thiamine
Chloride →Bloodacid-
•B2 →Riboflavin basebalance;hydrochloricacidproductioninstomach

•B3 →Niacin Potassium →Muscleandnervefunction

•B6→Pyridoxine Sulfur→Componentofhormones,severalvitamins,pr
oteins

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 42
TRACE MINERALS BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

•Iodine •Body temperature is maintained by balancing heat

gain and heat loss
•Iron•Zinc
•Heat is produced through metabolism
•Copper
•Heat is exchanged with the environment through
•Fluoride radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation

•Selenium
BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
•Chromium
•The greater the temperature difference between
•Molybdenum the body and the environment, the greater the rate
of heat exchange.
•Manganese
•Body temperature is regulated by a set point in
METABOLISM the hypothalamus.

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

•GlycolysiS

•Gluconeogenesis

•Glycogenolysis

•Glycogenesis

LIPID METABOLISM

•Lipolysis & Lipogenesis

•Oxidation of Fatty Acids

•Biosynthesis of Saturated and Unsaturated FA

•Ketosis & Ketogenesis

•Cholesterol Biosynthesis

PROTEIN METABOLISM

•Transamination

•Deamination

•Glucogenic Amino acids

RHY-ANNE ORTEGA 43