LESSON 6: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeletal system components:

•Bones

•Tendons

•Ligaments

•Cartilages
Skeleton:
Functions of Skeletal System:
•Axial Skeleton
•Support
•Skull
•Protection
•Hyoid bone
•Movement
•Vertebral column
•Storage
•Thoracic cage
•Blood cell
production •Appendicular skeleton

•Limbs
Skeletal System: Gross Anatomy:
•Girdles
Axial Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton Axial Skeleton:

•Forms the upright axis
of the body

•Protects the brain, the

spinal cord, and the vital
organs housed within
the thorax

Includes:

•Skull

•Hyoid Bone

•Vertebral column

•Rib cage

Skull:
•Cranium Major functions:

•Protects the brain •It supports the weight of the

head and trunk
•Supports the organs of
vision, hearing, smell, •It protects the spinal cord
and taste
•It allows spinal nerves to
•Provides a foundation exit the spinal cord
for the structures that
take air, food, and •It provides a site for muscle
water into the body attachment

•It permits movement of the

head and trunk

Vertebral column
Regions:
•7 cervical vertebrae
Hyoid Bone:
•12 thoracic vertebrae
•No direct bony attachment to the skull
•5 lumbar vertebrae•
•Provides an attachment point for some tongue
muscles and for important neck muscles that 1 sacral bone
elevate the larynx during speech or swallowing •1 coccygeal bone

Rib cage (thoracic cage):

•Protects the vital organs within the thorax

•Forms a semirigid chamber

•12 pairs of ribs

Vertebral column: •7 pairs →true ribs or vertebrosternalribs
•Usually consists of 26 bones→vertebrae
•5 pairs →false ribs

Appendicular Skeleton:
•Upper limbs

•Lower limbs

•Girdles

Bones and Bone Tissue:

Bone

•Consists of:

•Extracellular bone
matrix

•Bone cells

Bone Matrix:
•35% organic

•65% inorganic
materialsOrganic material:

•Collagen

•ProteoglycansInorganic
material:

•Hydroxyapatite→Calcium
phosphate crystal
Collagen and mineral components are responsible for Osteocytes:
the major functional characteristics of bone

Bone Cells:
•Osteoblasts

•Osteocytes

•Relatively inactive

•Possible for them

to produce the components needed to maintain the
bone matrix

Osteoclasts:

•Bone-destroying cells

•Reabsorption of bone that mobilizes crucial Ca2+ and

phosphate ions for use in many metabolic processes.

•Osteoclasts

•Each cell type has different functions & origin

Osteoblasts:
•Bone forming cells

•Produces collagen and proteoglycans Classifications of

•Releases matrix vesicle Bone:

•Calcium
WOVEN AND
LAMELLAR BONE
•Phosphate

•Ossification/ Osteogenesis→formation of bone by

osteoblasts
SPONGY AND COMPACT BONE

Spongy and Compact Bone:

Woven bone:

•Collagen fibers are

randomly oriented in many
directions •Immature bone

•Formed during:•fetal
development •repair of a
Spongy Bone:
fractureBone remodeling
→process of removing old •Cancellous or
bone and adding new bone Trabecular bone

•Woven bone is remodeled to form lamellar bone •Porous; Inner bone

Lamellar Bone: •Less bone matrix

•More space than

compact bone

•Consists of
interconnecting rods
or plates of bone →trabeculae

Compact bone & spongy (cancellous bone):

•Mature bone •Central or haversian canals →Parallel to long axis

•Organized thin sheets/layers →Lamellae •Lamellae→concentric, circumferential, interstitial

•Osteon or Haversian system→Central canal, contents,

associated concentric lamellae and osteocytes
•Perforating or Volkmann’s canal→Perpendicular to •Shaft
long axis
•Compact bone

EPIPHYSIS

•End of the bone

•Cancellous bone

EPIPHYSEAL PLATE

•Growth plate

EPIPHYSEAL LINE

•Bone stops growing in length

Osteon:
MEDULLARY CAVITY
•Haversian SystemConsists of
•Red marrow
•Single central canal
•Yellow marrow
•Associated concentric lamellae
PERIOSTEUM
•Osteocytes
•Outer bone surface

Long bones:

•Longer than they are wide

•Most of the bones of the

upper and lower limbs are
long bones.Parts:

•Diaphysis

•Epiphysis

•Periosteum

•Endosteum

•Articular cartilage

8 types:
ENDOSTEUM
DIAPHYSIS
•Thin connective tissue membrane lining the inner IRREGULAR BONES:
cavities of bone
•Mixed shape
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
•Examples:
•Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering a bone where it
forms a joint (articulation) with another bone. •vertebrae

Short bones:

•Round or nearly cube-shape

•Contains mostly spongy bone

•Thin compact bone

•Examples:

•bones of the wrist (carpal bones) & ankle (tarsal •facial bones

bones) Bone Development:

Flat bones: •Bone forms in two patterns:

•Thin, flattened shape & usually curved •Intramembranous ossification

•Contain an interior framework of spongy bone •Endochondral ossification

sandwichedbetween two layers of compact bone
Intramembranous Ossification:
•Examples:

•Skull

•Ribs

•Breastbone
(sternum)

•shoulder blades (scapulae)

•Takes place in •Calcification
connective
tissue
membrane

•Begins at
8thweek of
embryonic
development

•Completed by
2 years of age
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
Endochondral Ossification:
•Nutrition

Bone Growth

•Growth in Bone Length

•Growth at Articular Cartilage

•Growth in Bone Width

•Vitamin D
Growth in Bone Length
•Necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines
•Appositional growth
•Insufficient causes rickets and osteomalacia
•New bone on old bone or
cartilage surface •Vitamin C

•Epiphyseal plate zones •Necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblast

•Resting cartilage •Deficiency results in scurvy

•Hormones

•Growth hormone from anterior pituitary

•Thyroid hormone required for growth of all tissues

•Sex hormone as estrogen and testosterone

•Proliferation Bone Remodeling

•Coverts woven bone into lamellar bone

•Hypertrophy
•Bone constantly removed by osteoclasts and new bone
formed by osteoblasts
 •Increase secretion of growth hormone

DWARFISM
•Abnormallysmallbodysizeduetoimpropergrowthatthee
piphysealplates

•Decrease secretion of growth hormone

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System

•Bone matrix is lost, and the matrix becomes more Rickets
brittle.
•Growthretardation
•Spongy bone loss results from thinning and loss of
•Duetonutritionaldeficienciesinminerals(Ca2+)orvitamin
trabeculae
D
•Compact bone loss mainly
•Resultsinbonesthataresoft,weak, and easily broken
occurs from the inner surface
of bones and involves
formation of fewer osteons.

•Loss of bone increases the risk for fractures and causes

deformity,loss of height, pain, stiffness, and loss of
teeth

Bone Disorders
Growth and Developmental DisordersBacterial
InfectionsDecalcification

Growth and Developmental Disorders

GIGANTISM
•Abnormallyincreasedbodysizeduetoexcessivegrowthat
theepiphysealplates
OSTEOMYELITIS →Reductioninoverallquantityofbonetissue
•Boneinflammationoftenduetoabacterialinfectionthatm
ayleadtocompletedestructionofthebone

•Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli,
and Serratia marcescens

Cartilage
Bone Tuberculosis
•3 Types:
•Typically,alungbacteriumthatcanalsoaffectbone
•Hyaline cartilage
•Simply a form of TB thathe spine, the longbones, and
the joints •Fibrocartilage

•Elastic cartilage

Hyaline cartilage

•Consists of chondroblasts, chondrocyte, lacunae,

perichondrium

ARTICULAR CARTILAGE

•Hyaline cartilage that covers the ends of bone

•Form joints,

•Has no perichondrium, blood vessels, or nerves

Decalcification

•Osteomalacia

→Softeningofadultbonesduetocalciumdepletion→cause
dbyvitaminDdeficiency Cartilage Growth

Decalcification

•Osteoporosis
APPOSITIONAL GROWTH •Fibrous joints

•Occurs only on the surface of the tissue •Cartilaginous joints

•Hard tissue •Synovial joints Classified

according to their degree of
•Calcified tissues
motion

Interstitial growth •Synarthroses →non-movable

joints
•Occurs throughout the tissue

•Soft tissues •Amphiarthroses →slightly movable joints

•Uncalcified cartilage •Diarthroses →freely movable joints

Fibrous Joints

•Consist of two bones that are united by fibrous

connective tissue

•Have no joint cavity

•Exhibit little or no movement

•Example: Sutures, Syndesmoses, Gomphoses

Joints (articulations)
•Portions of bones that join togetherClassification
based on Structure
Cartilaginous joints
•Unite two bones by means of either hyaline cartilage
or fibrocartilage

•Synchondroses→contains hyaline cartilage

•Symphyses→contains fibrocartilage

Knee Joint
•Modified hinge joint

•Meniscus: Fibrocartilage
articular disk

Synovial Joints •Cruciate ligaments →ACL and

PCL
•Contain synovial fluid
and allow considerable •Collateral ligaments →Fibular
movement between and Tibial
articulating bones

Temporomandibular Joint

•TMJ

•Combination plane and ellipsoid joint

•TMJ Disorders

•Cause most chronic orofacial pain

 •Lyme’s Disease→Tick vector

•Causedbyabacterialinfectionthataffectsmultipleorgans,
includingthejoints

•Borrelia burgdorferi

•Canleadtochronicarthritis

Joint Disorders
•Gout

•Groupofmetabolicdisorders

Effects of Aging on Joints •Leadtoincreasedproductionandaccumulationofuricacid

crystalsintissues,includingjointcapsules
•Tissue repair slows
•Canleadtoarthritis
•Production of synovial fluid declines
LESSON 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
•Ligaments and tendons become less flexible

•Decrease in ROM MUSCULAR SYSTEM FUNCTION

• Body movement
Joint Disorders
• Maintenance of posture
•Arthritis
• Respiration
•Osteoarthritis →Mostcommontypeofarthritis
gradualdegenerationofajointwithadvancingage • Production of body heat
•Rheumatoid→Generalconnectivetissue
• Communication
autoimmunedisorderthatpredominantlyaffectsjoints
• Constriction of organs and vessels

• Heartbeat

PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
• Contractility - Ability of a muscle to shorten with force

• Excitability - Capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus

• Extensibility - Muscle can be stretched to its normal resting

length and beyond to a limited degree

Joint Disorders • Elasticity - Ability of muscle to recoil to original resting

length after stretched
•Joint infection
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE • Muscle fasciculi → bundles
Skeletal Muscle • Endomysium → surrounds muscle
• Voluntary fibers

• Striated • Perimysium → surrounds fasciculi

• Nuclei multiple and peripherally located • Epimysium→ surrounds muscles

• Attached to bones • Fascia→ CT sheet within the body

• Muscular fascia→ surrounds

individual muscles and groups of
muscles

CARDIAC MUSCLE SMOOTH

• Involuntary

• Striated

• Single nucleus centrally located HISTOLOGY OF MUSCLE FIBERS

• Heart • Sarcolemma → plasma membrane of a muscle fiber.

• Sarcoplasm → cytoplasm
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Involuntary • Transverse tubules (T tubules) → tube like
invaginations of the sarcolemma
• Lack striations
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum → highly organized SER
• Single nucleus centrallylocated
• Cisternae – expanded chambers of SR, store Calcium
• Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, eyes, glands,
and skin

ACTIN MYOFILAMENTS

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE • Composed of 2 strands of Fibrous actin (F actin)

• Consists of skeletal muscle fibers

• Tropomyosin molecules

• Troponin molecules
• The two strands of F actin are coiled to form a double • Isotropic band (I band) → Consists actin myofilament
helix • Globular actin (G actin) → globular units only; Z disks

• Anisotropic band (A band)→ Actin and myosin overlap

MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS • H zone→ Portion that actin and myosin do not

• Composed of myosin molecules that consists of : overlap; myosin only

• 2 Myosin heavy chains • M line→ Dark line; middle of H zone; holds myosin
myofilament in place
• 2 Myosin heads

MYOSIN HEADS 3 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES:

TITIN
1. Can bind to active sites on the actin molecules to form
crossbridges • Attaches to Z disks

2. Attached to the rod portion by a hinge region that can • Extends along myosin myofilaments to the M line
bend and straighten during contraction
• Helps hold myosin in position
3. ATPase enzymes→ which break down adenosine
triphosphate (ATP & releasing energy

SARCOMERES

• Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle

• Smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of

contracting

Z DISK
• Filamentous network of protein forming a disk-like
PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS
structure
SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL
•Holds actin myofilaments
• Relax muscle→ sarcomeres lengthen
• Muscle contract → sarcomeres shorten ( more actin & • Phases
myosin overlaps)
• Depolarization
• Myosin head attaches to active site on actin (cross
bridge) • Inside plasma
membrane
• Pull actin towards center, then detaches
becomes less negative
• Thin filaments slide toward center of sarcomere
• Repolarization
• Thick filaments are stationary
• Return of resting

PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE membrane potential

• Nervous system

• Controls muscle contractions through action

potentials

• Resting membrane potentials

• Membrane voltage difference across membranes

(polarized)
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
• Inside cell more negative and more Potassium
• Link between NS and muscle
• Outside cell more positive and more Sodium
• Motor neuron – control
• Must exist for action potential to occur skeletal muscle fibers

ION CHANNELS
• Responsible for membrane permeability and the resting
membrane potential.
• Presynaptic terminal
• Two types of membrane channels produce action
potentials: • Acetylcholine (Ach) – chemical
released by neuron to communicate with other cells
• Ligand-gated
• Triggers change in sarcolemma which triggers
• Example: Neurotransmitters
contraction
• Voltage-gated channels

• Open and close in response to small voltage change across

plasma membrane NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

• Responsible for producing action potentials • Synapse or NMJ

• Presynaptic terminal
ACTION POTENTIALS
• Synaptic cleft • Involves:

• Postsynaptic • Sarcolemma
membrane or motor
end plate • Transverse or T
tubules
• Synaptic vesicles
• Terminal
• Acetylcholine → Neurotransmitter cisternae

• Acetylcholinesterase → Degrading enzyme in synaptic • Sarcoplasmic

cleft reticulum

Steps: 1. Signal arrives at neuromuscular junction • Calcium

2. Acetylcholine is released which then binds to • Troponin

receptors on the sarcolemma

3. Movement of sodium and potassium ions through ion

channels results in depolarization

4. Action potential travels down T tubules

5. Calcium is released and contraction begins

EXCITATION AND CONTRACTION COUPLING

• Mechanism where an action potential causes muscle
fiber contraction

MUSCLE TWITCH

• Muscle contraction in response to a stimulus that

causes action

potential in one or more muscle fibers

• Phases: prolonged period

• Lag or latent

• Contraction

• Relaxation

STIMULUS LENGTH AND MUSCLE CONTRACTION

• Each subsequent contraction is
• All or none law for muscle fibers

• Contraction of equal force in response to

stronger than previous until all

each action potential equal after few stimuli

• Sub-threshold stimulus MULTIPLE-WAVE SUMMATION

• Threshold stimulus • As frequency of action potentials

• Stronger than threshold increase, frequency of contraction

• Motor units increases
• Single motor neuron and all • Incomplete tetanus
muscle fibers
• Muscle fibers partially relax between
innervated
contraction
• Graded for whole muscles

• Strength of contractions range

• Complete tetanus
from weak
• No relaxation between contractions
to strong depending on stimulus
• Multiple wave summation
stren
• Muscle tension increases as

contraction frequencies increase

MULTIPLE MOTOR UNIT SUMMATION TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

• A whole muscle contract with a small or large force • Isometric→ No change in length but tension increases
depending on number of motor units stimulated to
contract.

TREPPE
• Graded response

• Occurs in muscle rested for • Postural muscles of body

• Isotonic → cause a change in muscle length but no SMOOTH MUSCLE
change in muscle
• Visceral
tension.
• More common
oConcentric → Overcomes opposing resistance and
• Autorhythmic
muscle shortens
• Occurs in sheets
oEccentric → Tension maintained but muscle lengthens
• includes the smooth
• Muscle tone → Constant tension by muscles for long
muscle of the digestive,
periods of time
reproductive, and urinary tracts

• Multiunit
FATIGUE • Normally contracts only when stimulated by nerves
• Decreased
capacity to work or hormones

• Cells or groups of cells act as independent units

• Reduced
efficiency of • Sheets→ walls of blood vessels
performance
• Small bundles →arrector pili muscles & iris of the eye
Types:
• Single cell → capsule of the spleen
• Psychological

• Depends on emotional state of individual

• Muscular CARDIAC MUSCLE

• Found only in the

• Results from ATP depletion
heart
• Synaptic
• Autorhythmic
• Occurs in NMJ due to lack acetylcholine
• Striated
ENERGY SOURCES
• Single nucleus
•ATP provides immediate energy for muscle
• Connected by
contraction from 3 sources:
intercalated disks
• Creatine phosphate

• Anaerobic respiration EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE

• Reduced muscle mass
• Aerobic respiration
• Increased time for muscle to contract in response to
nervous stimuli
• Reduced stamina FIBROMYALGIA

• Increased recovery time • Non-life-threatening

• Loss of muscle fibers • Widespread pain in skeletal

• Decreased density of capillaries in muscle muscles with no known cure

• Chronic muscle pain syndrome

SARCOPENIA
• Muscle atrophy

• Age-related reduction in muscle mass and regulation MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY

of muscle
• Enlargement of skeletal muscle due to an increased
Function number of myofibrils

• Occurs with increased muscle use

• Cardiac muscle → Hypertension

MUSCLE ATROPHY
MUSCLE DISORDERS
MUSCLE SORENESS • Decrease in muscle size
due to a decreased number
• Following vigorous exercise of myofilaments
• Can last for several days • Occur due to disuse of a
• Common in untrained people
muscle

• Highly repetitive eccentric • Paralysis

muscle contractions produce
• Cardiac muscle → chronic
pain more readily than
concentric contractions do heart failure

CRAMPS DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

• Painful

• Spastic contractions of skeletal muscle

• Usually due to a buildup of lactic acid

• LACK OF DYSTROPHIN TENDINITIS
RESULTS IN PROGRESSIVE
• Inflammation of a tendon or its attachment point due
MUSCULAR WEAKNESS AND
to overuse of a skeletal muscle
MUSCLE CONTRACTURES
• Caused by mutations in the gene
on the X chromosome

• Dystrophin gene → responsible for

producing dystrophin

• Dystrophin → Links actin

myofilaments within myofibrils to
integral proteins in the sarcolemma
of the muscle fiber and to linking
proteins

MYASTHENIA GRAVIS

• Production of antibodies that

bind to acetylcholine receptors

• Destroying the receptor

• Reduced number of receptors

• Muscles exhibit a degree of

flaccid paralysis or are extremely
weak