Geographic Information System Skills

for Foresters and Natural Resource

Managers Krista Merry
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 Geographic Information
System Skills for Foresters
and Natural Resource
Managers
Krista Merry
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States

Pete Bettinger
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States

Michael Crosby
Agricultural Sciences and Forestry, Louisiana Tech University,
Ruston, LA, United States

Kevin Boston
Oregon Department of Forestry, Salem, OR, United States
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Dedications

Krista Merry: For Phil. Thank you for your patience.

Pete Bettinger: To Kelly.

Michael Crosby: For a grandfather that told me from a very early age to learn computers. To
amazing parents that encouraged me to go to school and forgot to tell me to stop. For Memaw
and our Saturday conversations. In memory of family and friends who have gone on. To my
brothers, sisters, aunts, uncles, cousins, and friends that remind me my support network is
legion. To my colleagues that let me work with them on very cool and exciting projects. For
Lauren and Aidan that push me to push myself in every aspect of life. To every teacher I’ve
ever had, with a special dedication to Mrs. Kathy Smith a fourth grade teacher in Ellisville, MS,
that said I’d write a book someday (this is maybe not what you meant but I’ve never forgotten
that early faith in me). To the students that have suffered my attempts in honing the craft of
teaching and those that might benefit from this work into the future. Thank you all, this is for
all of you.
Preface

Geographic information systems (GIS) are powerful tools comprised of hardware and soft-
ware components that allow for the collection, visualization, and analysis of spatial data. GIS
is commonly used by forestry and natural resource management professionals to answer
questions about landscape changes, wildlife, recreation, water, and anything with a
geographic location on the Earth. Using spatial databases, such as vector and raster data
models, GIS can answer questions including Where is the best location for a new trail? How
close is this silviculture treatment to an animal den? What proportion of this stand falls within
a streamside management zone? and many others. Further, GIS allows for the creation of
maps, the introduction of remotely sensed data into analysis, and the implementation of
spatial analysis using spatial databases.
Krista Merry was first introduced to GIS during her undergraduate education in geog-
raphy. Software that allowed for GIS processing included a basic graphical user interface
(GUI) but commonly required working within the command line for certain processing
features. Following the frustration of working with early GIS software programs, she swore off
making GIS the focus of her educational and career pursuits. However, later exposure to
remote sensing and advanced GIS processing, along with improvements in commercial GIS
software, illustrated to her how GIS is, at its core, a problem solving tool. GIS brought together
her ability to understand and visualize spatial relationships with the use of GIS databases to
answer questions. Now, her interests focus on projects using GIS to model land cover change
across various landscapes, identify potential forested areas impacted by hurricanes, assess
accuracy of smartphone GPS receivers, and others.
Pete Bettinger was introduced to GIS in the 1980s, when the old form of GIS was
prevalent. In this system, a person drew a map by hand and then associated features on the
map with a tabular (printed) report that contained forest stand conditions (volumes, den-
sities, etc.) that were developed with the assistance of a calculator. Over the next decade, he
gained first-hand experience in the implementation of GIS in forestry, as forest organizations
attempted to develop both centralized and distributed GIS programs. In the late 1990s, he
began to teach GIS to forestry students, knowing that it would become a standard skill needed
by natural resource management professionals which could increase both the accuracy and
efficiency of forest management endeavors. Today, he continues to use GIS for a number of
purposes mainly involving instruction to research, and in many cases his students and col-
leagues are teaching him new ways to use the technology.
Kevin Boston has been using GIS since the mid-1980s in a variety of forestry and natural
resources projects incorporating GIS into conservation and production management projects
from around the world. GIS has been the information core for solving these problems as it
maintains spatial and nonspatial data. He finds it useful for displaying both the problems and
possible solutions that lead to discussions and improvements in the decision making pro-
cesses that support improved natural resource management.
Michael Crosby serendipitous, yet frustrating, introduction to GIS in the spring of 2005.
Sparing the reader humorous and head-scratching anecdotes, he had a patient professor and
lab instructor navigating Esri’s ArcView 3 and ArcGIS somewhere in the 8.2 release of the

xv
xvi Preface

software. In the summer of 2005, he found himself working at the Naval Oceanographic Office
and was allowed to work on incorporating GIS into ocean modeling and mapping efforts. It
was here he began to learn more about remote sensing capabilities and applications and
continued his graduate education in forestry beginning in 2007. There he learned to apply
spatial technologies to forest inventory design and analysis and transitioned into modeling
impacts of extreme weather events on forested ecosystems. He continues his education today
teaching and learning from students and incorporating high-resolution datasets into tree and
forest ecosystem assessment and change.
GIS is a rapidly changing discipline advancing from simply making a map or viewing an
image to the incorporation of newer, finer resolution sources of spatial information that allow
for the development of three-dimensional models of landscape features or the creation of GIS
databases simply using an application (app) on a smartphone. These advances, along with the
value of established GIS processes, make GIS a dynamic field that is important for early career
or seasoned professionals in forestry and natural resources to have comprehensive knowledge
of and basic skill sets to implement analysis in a GIS environment.
This book seeks to introduce readers to several aspects of GIS including components of
GIS and spatial analysis, GIS data models and types of geographic data, coordinate systems
and the role of reference systems in GIS, mapping, creating, collecting, and managing GIS
data, processing different GIS data models, remote sensing, and professional ethics and
practices associated with the use of GIS. Additionally, we provide several case studies that
focus on how GIS can be used to answer questions in a natural resources context. Through
discussion of these topics, we hope to encourage readers to think past basic GIS concepts and
consider more deeply the functionality and implications associated with GIS and GIS
processes.
We hope to engage readers and inspire more in-depth consideration of topics presented
in this book through exercises distributed across each chapter referred to as “reflections,
diversions, inspections, and translations.” Reflections encourage readers to think about ideas
or concepts, usually from a personal perspective, and to organize their thoughts into a
cohesive, short summary. For example, from Chapter 2 we find this reflection:

Reflection 2.1
Imagine that you have recently been hired as a forester for the U.S. Forest Service, and that
you will work on the Ocala National Forest in Florida. What types of GIS databases would the
forest have, or could the forest develop, that would require the use of point data?
Diversions ask readers to take a break from reading the book and use critical thinking to
solve a problem. These may be as simple as a basic spatial analysis question. For example,
readers may be encouraged to organize data and determine the appropriate spatial analysis
process to find a solution. Often, the purpose of a diversion is to develop a plan for answering
a question. As an example of a diversion, the one noted below can be found in Chapter 5.

Diversion 5.4
Use your cellular phone and an application (app) such as Avenza Maps to mark the location
of a few trees outside your home or office. Find a way to save these point positions as a GIS
database that can be opened in GIS software or Google Earth. In general terms, how accurate
(spatially) are the points that represent the trees?
 Preface xvii

Inspections encourage readers to analyze a GIS database or a result of a spatial analysis

function and assess its quality. With inspections, we direct readers to more specific databases
or maps available through the Internet, including on this book’s website (gis-book.uga.edu).
Inspections encourage readers to compare concepts presented in the book to real-world
applications. An example of an inspection from Chapter 3 involves accessing a common
type of map used in the United States.

Inspection 3.3
Access the Placitas (New Mexico) quadrangle map that is available on the book’s website
(gis-book.uga.edu). Alternatively, this map can be accessed through topoView, a service
hosted by the USGS. The Placitas area is northeast of Albuquerque. In which township and
section, would you find Ranchos de Placitas?

The purpose of a translation is to think about hypothetical situations readers may

encounter after being provided with background on a specific subject in the text. For
example, readers might be asked to concisely describe a GIS process to a person in their life
who has little to no understanding of the topic. For example, from Chapter 7, we find this
translation exercise:

Translation 7.1
Imagine you are explaining GIS to your parents or siblings. In general terms, describe for
them the concept of selecting features, and the various ways that this can be accomplished.

General GIS and GIS analysis topics are important in developing knowledge and skills
for the lifelong use of GIS. Many are incorporated into this book. Our goal is to promote skills
and analytical capabilities in the readers of this book. Through the topics presented across the
eleven chapters, we hope to improve the reader’s ability to understand GIS data sources,
identify GIS data types and quality, perform common spatial analysis processes, create GIS
databases, produce a map, and develop the skills necessary to use GIS to analyze real-world
questions related to forestry and natural resources.
 1
Geographic information systems

Introduction
A geographic information system (GIS), in its most basic sense, is a computer mapping
program that integrates spatial data (points, lines, polygons, grid cells that have a
geographic assignment) and tabular data (numbers, text, codes that describe the fea-
tures) and allows sophisticated geographical analyses to occur. The power of a GIS rests
in the fact that it can be used for many more purposes than to simply make a map. More
broadly, a GIS is an entity for collecting, managing, analyzing, and displaying geographic
information (Fig. 1.1). A GIS is geographic in the sense that the work one conducts with it
generally relates to places of interest, whether on Earth, on Mars, underwater, or inside
the human brain. If the places of interest can be associated with a coordinate system,
those rules for defining the positions of things, then they are geographic in nature. A GIS
allows one to make a connection between physically drawn features and their associated
attributes, and this facilitates the development of knowledge about the shape, size,
location, and character of the physically drawn features. This information can be of great
value in understanding the condition of the landscape or water body to which the data
refers. A GIS is considered a system because it is collectively a group of items (hardware
and software) that form an organized entity. As was noted in the third sentence of this
chapter, formal definitions of GIS often suggest that they are capable of gathering,
organizing, and storing data, that they provide the opportunity for people to manipulate
and manage this data, that they have great capacity for complex analysis, and that they
physically consist of the necessary hardware, software, people (human capital), and
communication processes to accomplish some of the most sophisticated geographical
analyses one could imagine (Bolstad, 2012; Jensen and Jensen, 2013; Chang, 2019). A
synthesized combination of these ideas forms a working definition of GIS as a system
that allows for the organization, management, analysis, and visualization of spatial data.
In searching widely for published works on GIS, one may find instances when geographic
information systems and geographic information sciences are used synonymously.
However, geographic information sciences focus on theoretical advances in the field
made through novel academic research and industrial applications (Yuan, 2017;
Goodchild, 2018). Therefore, for the purposes of this book, these concepts will be treated
as separate ideas. Here, we concentrate mainly on the computer-based methods and
means to store, access, analyze, manipulate, and visualize spatial and nonspatial data
(Fig. 1.2), or basic geographic information systems.

Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers. 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90519-0.00007-8
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

FIGURE 1.1 The general processes associated with creating GIS databases and maps that describe a location on
Earth.

When GIS is used for forestry and natural resource management purposes, it inher-
ently involves mapping elements of landscapes and water bodies. These features could
include streams, inventory plots, wildlife habitat patches, recreation areas, or timber
stands, and they all are referenced to a place on Earth. Perhaps aerial or satellite imagery
assist in the development of databases and in the two-dimensional display of the various
resources of interest. Perhaps even global positioning systems (GPS) or physically drawn
features assist in the development and display of the resources of interest. Regardless of
how the data were developed, a GIS can be used in many interesting ways, such as for
representing the three-dimensional aspect of above-ground, underground, or under-
water resources (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4) or for assisting in construction and maintenance
operations (Huang et al., 2021). The Titanic Mapping Project, for example, which con-
cerned the RMS Titanic, a ship lost in 1912, used GIS to map the underwater location of
recovered artifacts and to link these locations to detailed profiles of the ship’s features
(Vrana et al., 2012). Similarly in forestry and natural resource management, one might
use GIS to organize and catalog important features such as wildlife nest locations,
property corners, and hiking trails. Of course, there are many other applications of GIS
that can help develop knowledge, address management concerns, and investigate issues
that have an inherent geographical context (Chen et al., 2015).
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 3

FIGURE 1.2 Year of origin for forested areas of a small portion of the Francis MarioneSumter National Forest,
South Carolina, USA. Credit: Vegetation data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (2021b).

However, even today with the widespread availability of computers and GIS pro-
grams, some maps are still drawn by hand. There are many reasons why people still do
this (convenience, cost, training), but these should not diminish the fact that a well-
developed map can be of value to the purpose for which it was designed. For perspec-
tive, 40 years ago, nearly all forest management maps were hand drawn (Fig. 1.5). GIS
was beginning to mature in the 1970 and 1980s, and adoption of the technology by forest
management organizations as a standard way of making maps really began to take hold
in the 1990s. Today, likely all of the larger forestry and natural resource management
organizations utilize some type of computerized mapping program. Fortunately, there
are many benefits associated with using computerized systems for map development:

The symbology (symbols, colors, text) of a map can be adjusted easily.

Errors within maps can be identified and corrected quickly.

Maps can be reprinted or saved in digital form.
4 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

FIGURE 1.3 A 3-dimensional radar image of Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska, USA, 2012. Credit: U.S. Department
of the Interior, Geological Survey (2012).

Computer-generated maps often have a more professional appearance than hand-

drawn maps.

Map files can be shared with other people who use the same software.

Maps can be saved in various graphics formats without having to scan them.

Within an organization, maps can be developed using consistent data management
protocols and templates.
Employers of forestry and natural resource management professionals generally
expect new employees and recent graduates to know how to use GIS, and to possess
some basic knowledge and skills with respect to computerized mapping technologies
(Merry et al., 2007, 2016). If one were to examine job announcements related to entry-
level forestry positions, one might further understand the importance of these tech-
nologies from an employer’s perspective. Two recent studies of job advertisements for
entry-level forestry positions in the United States suggest a large percentage of entry-
level positions require young professionals to have basic knowledge, experience, or
skill in the use of GIS, along with a basic ability to read and interpret maps (Bettinger
et al., 2016; Bettinger and Merry, 2018).
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 5

FIGURE 1.4 A sea floor map of the Puerto Rico Trench. Credit: U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey
(2006).

Inspection 1.1
Using the Internet, visit the Occupational Outlook Handbook hosted by the U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics and review the duties that conservation scientists and
foresters commonly perform (through the What They Do tab). While your exposure
to the type of work that conservation scientists and foresters do may just be begin-
ning, try to make a list of the types of maps that might support these duties. Then,
compare your list to the lists of others who have also attempted this task.
6 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

FIGURE 1.5 Hand drawn timber sale map from 1983.

In today’s contemporary resource management environment, it is reasonable to find

that a high percentage of forestry and natural resource management professionals use
GIS to support their normal work activities. In one survey of southern United States
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 7

foresters, nearly 60% of the people surveyed acknowledged that they used GIS two or
more days per week, often to navigate across the landscape and to map the boundaries
or edges of properties or recent management activities (Bettinger et al., 2019). Forestry
and natural resource management careers are not unique in this regard, as other similar
natural resource management careers, such as those involving land use planning, may
also require professionals to frequently use GIS (Merry et al., 2008). However, natural
resource professionals who engage in computerized mapping efforts need not be
computer experts. On the other hand, employers are increasingly in need of problem
solvers, people who can be relied upon to access adequate and accurate data and make
timely management decisions based on their use and on an analysis of spatial data.
Therefore, some familiarity with spatial technology, both the theory and the associated
technical skills, is part of the routine education and training of natural resource pro-
fessionals. Educational institutions attempt to instill this knowledge and develop these
skills in their students through GIS courses.
Although it is suggested that natural resource professionals need not be computer
programmers, knowledge of certain basic technical aspects of GIS might be expected of
people who use GIS frequently as part of their job. For example, it would be highly
beneficial for professionals to understand the differences among data models, types, and
formats associated with GIS, how landscape and water features are referenced using
coordinate systems, how to obtain, edit, and manage geographic data, how to employ
basic spatial analysis functions and spatial statistics, and how to effectively communi-
cate a message to other people using maps. Likely, few people employed in a forestry and
natural resource management organization will have extensive knowledge or skill in all
of these areas, but some understanding of these concepts by everyone employed is
important. The goal of this book is therefore to provide insights into the building blocks
of GIS and help develop the skills commonly used in natural resource management. As
one’s career in forestry or natural resource management progresses, additional re-
sponsibilities (managing personnel, resources, etc.) are likely to follow. An under-
standing of the building blocks of GIS and the skills commonly used in natural resource
management are of great value even when others are the ones conducting the spatial
analyses and making the maps. For example, one may find themselves as part of a team
responsible for scheduling management activities on several 100,000 acres of forest
lands, and almost certainly in this case, utilizing a collection of spatial databases to
address the associated tasks (Crosby and Booth, 2011). Or one may find themselves
needing to present information on subjects such as biomass or timber availability during
a meeting with colleagues, and almost certainly in this case too, utilizing a collection of
spatial databases to address the associated questions (Wulder et al., 2008).
Understanding how the final product (the plan, the report, the estimate) is developed is
important even if the technical analyses and procedures were conducted by others.
In managing computerized maps, foresters and natural resource professionals often
edit the shape or location of features (timber stands, roads, etc.), query the associated
databases to answer questions (Which stands are of an age that can be thinned?), and
8 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

regularly manipulate and update graphic features to illustrate management activities

and concerns. Editing spatial features, editing associated attribute tables, and digitizing
landscape features are common tasks for forestry and natural resource management
professionals (Merry et al., 2007, 2016). In one survey of these professionals, the most
frequently developed maps included basic maps indicating the location of a stand of
trees and specific maps indicating areas scheduled for harvest. In association with these
products, ownership boundaries, roads, streams, and management units were the most
frequently used types of GIS databases (Merry et al., 2016).
With time, foresters and natural resource managers will realize that they need
reliable access to a myriad of databases in order to make rapid, accurate, actionable
decisions and to disseminate the outcomes and implications of these decisions to
others. To accomplish this, many people utilize GIS, if not for the types of analyses
that are possible, but at least as a clearinghouse within which the data can be
accessed and displayed. A GIS can be used to plan and store inventory data (Kӧhl
et al., 2006), to integrate data collected with GPS (McConnell et al., 2020), to plan
forest operations (Bettinger and Sessions, 2003; Grigolato et al., 2017) and to analyze
remotely sensed data for management or wildlife habitat assessments (Wulder et al.,
2005; McDermid et al., 2009). A GIS can help address many land management issues
that are of interest to society, to research, and to practice. GIS has become so
ubiquitous in natural resources fields over the last few decades, that when asked what
data might be needed to determine forested areas in need of a thinning treatment,
one’s first inclination may be to turn on the computer and access a vegetation-related
GIS database.
Reflection 1.1
Imagine you have been asked by your employer to determine what forested area(s)
should be thinned in the next year or two. Think about what information you
would need to address this request. For example, what assumptions would
you develop about areas that could be thinned, and what GIS databases might you
need? What would you need to do with the data, in terms of analysis, to arrive at a
reasonable estimate of forest areas to be thinned for your employer? Develop a
short summary of how you would respond to this request, one that points directly
to the specific questions noted here in this reflection exercise.

Brief history of the development of GIS

Although an incredibly enticing technology for young professionals to investigate, the
structures and underpinnings of GIS were developed over 50 years ago. One of the
early efforts to enable the analysis of landscape features through the use of computers
involved comprehensively classifying land in Canada and detailing the capabilities of
lands for both active management and conservation (Goodchild, 2018). In fact, the
very history of GIS is tied to the development of computer systems and the
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 9

management of natural resources, as evidenced by the early work of Roger

Tomlinson’s team at IBM (Tomlinson, 1968) creating a system that gathered, stored,
and analyzed data related to land cover and inventory in Canada. Along with this effort
came the creation of the acronym GIS (Yuan, 2017). Early GIS programs were con-
strained by the processing speed, available storage, and power of the computer sys-
tems that were available; therefore, the use of GIS was relegated to specialists and
researchers in mathematics and statistics, geography, cartography, and computer
science fields (Goodchild, 2018; Coppock and Rhind, 1991). However, GIS by its nature
is interdisciplinary, and as advancements in computing capabilities were made, more
people with widely diverging interests began to incorporate GIS into science, business,
and education. Other interesting developments followed: Chicago’s transportation
system was examined through work at Northwestern University, the U.S. Census
Bureau began to spatially reference addresses, and the U.S. Geological Survey inte-
grated their classic 7.5-minute topographic maps with computer systems. From these
efforts, the promise of GIS became evident for fields spanning the spectrum of plan-
ning, geology, demography, cartography, natural resource management, and others
(Coppock and Rhind, 1991). In the time since Tomlinson began his work, local and
national governments, natural resources organizations in the public and private sec-
tors, and individuals have embraced the opportunities GIS and spatial technologies
present.
Diversion 1.1
Either alone, or as an informal team of your classmates or colleagues, search the
Internet to learn how the following people have been influential in the develop-
ment of GIS as we know it today: Cynthia Brewer, Jack Dangermond, Howard
Fisher, Michael Goodchild, Gerardus Mercator, Ptolemy, Roger Tomlinson, and
Dawn Wright. Then, develop a short summary of the contributions of one or more
of these people to the development of GIS.
In forestry, the push to enable field foresters to use GIS for their daily mapping
needs began in the mid-1990s (Bettinger, 1999). Today, digital mapping through
smartphone applications and Internet-based mapping programs promotes the use of
GIS by nearly everyone (Teixeira, 2018) by making the technology much more acces-
sible. Great advances have been made in computing systems over the last 2 decades,
yet GIS may still be limited today by legacy decisions enacted early in its development,
such as using a planar (flat) surface as the basis for display, development, and analysis
(as it is with paper maps) rather than the curved surface of the Earth (Goodchild, 2018).
Even so, a number of technological advances in the 1990s enabled GIS to be accessible
through Windows-based operating systems (rather than command-line systems, where
one would type a long string of codes to tell a GIS system to perform an operation) and
through computers equipped with increasing central processing unit (CPU) speed and
random-access memory (RAM). Society is increasingly demanding real-time, location-
based services; thus, recent progress in the evolution of GIS involves exploring the
10 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

ability to accommodate Big Data (defined by its volume, velocity (frequency of avail-
ability), or variety) and the various opportunities that might be accommodated by
crowd-sourced data (Wilson, 2015). As computer systems, and our knowledge of the
world in general advance, we are beginning to acknowledge that forestry and natural
resource management GIS data can be collected and analyzed at increasingly finer
scales, giving rise to the term precision forestry. Computer processing speed and data
access are improving with cloud-based platforms; therefore, GIS and spatial analysis
are poised to play an even greater role in the management of natural resources in the
future.
Translation 1.1
Imagine that you are gathered with a group of friends from high school, and they
are interested in what you are learning in college. You mention precision forestry,
and they become intrigued. Develop a short, 100-word (or so) summary of the field
of precision forestry. Write it in a manner that you would offer it to your high
school friends.
In general, a GIS provides an efficient means for collecting, managing, and sharing
data. GIS allows for the classification of management areas by accessibility and status
(Stinson et al., 2019), and by ownership, forest age, dominant species, and so on
(Bettinger et al., 2017). In natural resource management, many types of GIS databases
are beneficial in addressing immediate and longer-term management issues. Some of
these will be described in greater detail later in this book. As brief examples of data
availability in the United States, detailed forest data for national forests can be ob-
tained from the U.S. Forest Service (Fig. 1.6), soils data can be obtained from the U.S.
Natural Resources Conservation Service, wildlife habitat information can be obtained
from various fish and wildlife agencies, and current and historical weather and
climate data can be obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). These databases are all freely and readily available to the
public, and several of these will be referenced throughout this book. Provided also will
be examples of how these data can support forest management and planning.
However, some types of data (e.g., forest types) may be unavailable for privately
owned lands. In these cases, GIS databases may need to be created. Therefore, ex-
pectations of the outcomes of a mapping project should be informed through an
assessment of the needs of the project and an assessment of data available (and
associated quality). Further, depending upon where one works, foresters or natural
resource professionals may use a proprietary GIS system, commercial GIS software, a
free, open-source GIS system, or some combination of these to conduct their work.
Some unique nuances can be found in the use of these systems, but the core concepts
(the theory) should be similar. Therefore, expectations of the outcomes of a mapping
project should also be informed through an assessment of the capabilities of the GIS
software program being used.
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 11

FIGURE 1.6 The location of aspen (Populus spp.) stands in the Chippewa National Forest, Minnesota, USA. Credit:
Vegetation data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (2021a).

Several critical components are necessary to maintain a functioning GIS program. As

has been noted, data is paramount to GIS, as are the people who perform the tasks,
manage the databases, make the maps, ensure scripts (computer programs) are running,
and so on. Two other critical components of GISdhardware and softwaredcan have a
multitude of options, at times making them seem dizzyingly complex.
12 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

FIGURE 1.7 A desktop computerdcentral processing unit (CPU), dual monitors, keyboard, and mouse.

GIS hardware
Hardware refers to, essentially, the physical pieces of equipment that define a computer
(e.g., Fig. 1.7). These components include, but may not be limited to the following:

Computer box or case

Internal hard drives

RAM modules

External storage devices

Motherboard

Graphics card

Sound card

Monitor(s)

Wiring

USB and other ports

CD, DVD, and other drives

Speaker(s)

Microphone

Camera

Mouse

Keyboard

Printer and plotter

Scanner

External power supply or adapter
 Chapter 1
Geographic information systems 13

Many of these components of GIS are the same as the components of a typical
personal computing system found in an office environment. In the case of a laptop
personal computer, many of these components (e.g., monitor, case, keyboard, camera,
speaker, etc.) are closely integrated. In the early stages of the development of GIS,
physical maps were transferred to a computer using digitizing tables or boards. Scanners
were, and still are, necessary for converting hardcopy maps to a digital format. A plotter
might be required for printing large maps, and additional storage (external or internal
hard drives, or cloud storage) may be necessary to host the data. While we now use
cloud-based or Internet services to host and share GIS data, in some instances, GIS data
is still shared or stored using removable media such as a CD (compact disc), DVD (digital
video disc), USB flash drive, or other types of memory devices. Therefore, the ability to
accommodate these through various drives or ports many be important. The hardware
needed to use GIS will depend on the project or data management goals, which may
evolve as GIS skills grow and the scope of projects becomes more complex. In some
instances of employment, such as a land management organization or educational
institution that has an information technology (IT) group, many of the hardware de-
cisions may already have been made. However, if this is not the case, and one needs to
obtain a desktop computer or laptop to use GIS, one that has plenty of speed and
memory will likely be necessary.

GIS software
The other main component of GIS, software, includes many options and opens many
debates regarding their advantages and disadvantages. An organization’s software needs
can be influenced by a number of different issues (Bettinger et al., 2010):

The costs related to the software (purchase cost and annual licenses).

The amount and cost of training that is needed.

Whether the software is well-documented.

Whether the software is user-friendly and intuitive.

Whether assistance is available from the developer or from other online help
platforms.

Whether data requirements are compatible with the data you already developed.

The speed of the software on a new computer.

Whether the necessary spatial analysis tools are available.

Whether a network key is needed, or whether the software can be installed locally.
Many GIS software programs offer a graphical user interface (GUI) that consists of
tools, buttons and icons, and menus to navigate the array of processes they contain.
Other software programs are command- or code-driven and users are required to write
computer programming code or use prewritten programs or modules to execute oper-
ations and process data. Regardless of the interface, many software programs contain
14 Geographic Information System Skills for Foresters and Natural Resource Managers

functions that allow a user to write scripts or codes enabling complex, but repeatable
tasks. As we noted earlier, understanding the basic concepts for analyzing data in GIS
will allow one to more easily adapt work processes across different software program.
Within this book and the accompanying website (gis-book.uga.edu), some help and
guidance will be available for conducting various analytical tasks using different software
programs. However, the interested and motivated professional can find GIS tutorials
both online and via paid services. These can help one obtain additional skills or delve
more deeply into a specific software program.
The following offers an overview of both commercial and open-source GIS programs
with accompanying links to each. No part of the following discussion constitutes an
endorsement of any particular software program over another.

Commercial off-the-shelf software

The first software companies were established in the late 1960s and were soon producing
software products for the interested and capable user. Commercial software is
commonly referred to as off-the-shelf or programs that require an exchange of funds
(money) to obtain a license. There are many GIS software program options available that
work within desktop or laptop personal computing, enterprise, and cloud-based envi-
ronments. Each of these options should be evaluated depending upon the needs and
infrastructure of an organization or institution. For example, a small consulting com-
pany might only need a single desktop GIS program license to meet the needs of their
organization, although this may allow only a single user to use the software at any one
time. A large corporation will almost certainly need a multi-user database or enterprise
license, and perhaps cloud-based software programs that are dedicated to GIS
operations.
Commercial GIS software programs widely accepted in forestry and natural resource
management, typically have long track records of use and development, and often offer
robust training, support, and educational materials. Further, these software programs
often offer different licensing levels, add-ons and extensions, and functionality that can
affect their cost. While some of these require an additional cost, these additional tools
often add significant depth to the capabilities offered by the GIS software program.
Examples of commercial off-the-shelf GIS software include ESRI’s ArcGIS and ArcPro,
Geomedia, IDRISI, and others (Table 1.1).

Open-source software
Open-source GIS software programs are free to the user and contain source code that is
also modifiable. However, people who make modifications to these software programs
often do not have the ability to license the modifications. The introduction of freely
available GIS software programs began in the 1980s with the introduction of the
Geographical Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS) (Neteler et al., 2012). The
proliferation of the Internet expanded the availability and capability of open-source GIS
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
they said very well, That after the abovementioned
Company above stairs had parted, the Deponent met with
the second master of the French vessel and asked him
how it came about that he was so very familiar and so free
in the Company of that gentleman who was a Prisoner,
Oh! said the master in English which he spoke very well,
you are quite mistaken, this is one of our own friends,
Depones that to the best of the Deponent’s remembrance
this Person staid in town about eight or ten days, that
when the Ship was ready to sail Mergie signed a formal
Warrand for Transporting him in the said ship to France,
and a Guard was placed in order to convey him to the
Boat, That the said Person took a formal protest agt.
Mergie for sending him out of the Kingdom against his
Will, and being Interrogate if he understood the said
Protest to be serious Depones that he did not know what
to think of it and was very much surprised when he
considered of all the proceedings in relation to this person
from first to last, how he was upon his first arrival under a
strick Guard afterwards very much at Liberty and last of all
formally sent aboard of the ship to be transported
seemingly against his will, That when this Person was
going into the Boat and taking his leave of other people
upon the shoar he came up to the deponent and
embracing him very kindly, told him that he was very
sensible of his civilities, and would represent his good
Behaviour to people that he did not then think of, Depones
that he remembers when this person was in Stonhyve,
there was an attempt made by the Ludlow Castle, a Ship
belonging to the King’s Navy, to force the harbour by her
boat with about fifty men or thereby, That upon this
Occasion the unknown person above mentioned was very
active in assisting and directing the French crew about the
manner of Planting their Battery and Defending the
Harbour in which he seemed to have skill, Depones that
Mergie at first when this person was committed to the
Deponent’s custody charged him to be very strict in his
Watch over him, but shortly after desired him to be easy
with him and let him go about his business as he pleased
Depones that he would know this person if he saw him
again But that he knew nothing who he was during the
Time of his stay at Stonhyve, that shortly after he heard
from people that came from the south that it was Sir
James Stewart That a few days after the said person
came to Stonhyve Sir Alexander Bannerman came and
waited upon him at the Mill of Stonhyve immediately after
the Deponent received Orders from Mergie not to be strict
in his guard over the said person Depones that when he
saw the said Person so very active in giving directions
about planting the Cannon against the King’s Boat which
attempted the Harbour he did then and not till then
suspect that his being a Prisoner was a Farce.
6. William Herdman ... Being Interrogate concerning
Sir James Stewart Depones that he had occasion to see
and be in company sometimes with a Gentleman who was
said to be a Prisoner, That for several days after his arrival
he was strictly guarded, but after that was left at large to
go where he pleased, That one Black who came over as
Supercargo on board a French vessel and had gone to the
south about three weeks before Returned again in
company with this unknown gentleman, That he said he
had met with this Gentleman upon the Road but did not
know who he was, That the Deponent sincerely believed
this gentleman by his behaviour and conversation to be a
person well affected to the Government, till the Ludlow
Castle, one of His Majesty’s Ships, appeared and
attempted to make the Harbour with her long Boat and
some men on board, upon which occasion the Deponent
observed that this gentleman seemed to be in some hurry
and concern and as the Deponent was passing near to the
Harbour he saw this gentleman and Mr. Black standing
together and heard the said gentleman calling out with an
appearance of solicitude and Keenness to the people who
were driving down Dung to the shore for Defence of the
Harbour, to go faster, or saying something to that purpose
which occasioned in the Deponent a strong suspicion that
he was in reality in the interest of the Pretender’s Party
But after that when he saw him carried down to the ship
like a Criminal with a Guard about him, the Deponent was
confounded and did not know what to think of it, That
sometime thereafter the Deponent heard a Rumor in the
Country that it was Sir James Stewart, after that Mergie
told him that it was Sir James Stewart and Jocked at his
ignorance in Imagining that he was really a Prisoner.
7. John Lawson, Doctor,[642] ... Being Interrogate
concerning Sir James Stewart Depones that sometime
towards the end of 1745 there arrived a ffrench ship in the
Harbour of Stonhyve That one Black who was said to be
supercargo of the said ship came and Lodged in the
Deponent’s House That shortly after his arrival he went
south, and about a fortnight or three weeks thereafter the
said Mr. Black returned and arrived at the Mill of Stonhyve
and in his company there was an unknown Gentleman
who was immediately taken as a Prisoner by Mergie, That
the Deponent had occasion to see the said Gentleman
about an Hour after his arrival and saw Weileyes (? valise)
or a Bagg which the Deponent was told Mergie had
searched, and in which nothing was remarkable but a
small Duck Bagg with some Pistoll Ball in it and a Black
Cockade, That the Deponent observed about three or four
days after his arrival he was more at liberty only John
Maule Writer in Stonhyve was said always to have him in
custody, the Deponent has seen him alone without
anybody looking after him, That some days after his arrival
Sir Alexr. Bannerman came to Stonhyve Depones that he
had a strong Impression from what he heard talked of
frequently that this Person’s Confinement was only a
Farce, That the Deponent heard some time after the said
Gentleman was put on board the French ship that he was
Sir James Stewart of Goodtrees.
 8. John Falconer[643] ... Being Interrogate concerning
Sir James Stewart Depones that a person unknown to
him, said to be a Prisoner of Mergie’s and passed under
the name of Brown lodged in his House, that after the first
three or four days he was left at Liberty to go where he
pleased either upon foot or Horseback upon Parole as the
Deponent heard to Mergie, and the Deponent thinks he
could have easily made his escape if he had a mind the
Deponent has seen him frequently privately in company
with Mergie.
 APPENDIX IV
THE GUILDHALL RELIEF FUND

This fund, in the distribution of which Walter Grossett was

concerned, and of which his brother’s widow and children were the
largest beneficiaries, was probably the earliest example of
systematic organisation for the supply of comforts to soldiers in the
field, to the sick and wounded, and for provision for widows and
orphans.
The fund was instituted at the Guildhall, London, on November
27th, 1745, by Sir Richard Hoare, then Lord Mayor. The minute of
the first meeting aptly declares the intention of the founders:—
‘We whose names are underwritten, in Consideration
of the particular Hardships and Inconveniencies which
may be suffer’d by such Soldiers as now are, or shall
hereafter be employ’d in his Majesty’s Service during the
Winter Season, towards the Suppression of the present
unnatural Rebellion, do hereby voluntarily Subscribe and
pay the several Sums set by us against our respective
Names to be applied towards their Relief, Support, and
Encouragement, in such manner, and in such Proportion,
as shall be deem’d to be most necessary and expedient
by a Committee which shall hereafter be appointed for that
Purpose by Us, or the Major Part who shall be present at
any General Meeting, pursuant to an Advertisement in the
London Gazette.’
The result of the efforts of the Lord Mayor and his associates is
recorded in an admirable report printed in 1747.
The report gives a subscription list. There were exactly five
hundred subscriptions, and the total amount subscribed was
£18,910, 0s. 9d. The largest subscription was that of ‘the Rt. Hon.
Lord Chief Justice, Master of the Rolls, Lord Chief Justice Willes,
Lord Chief Baron Parker, and the Honourable Judges, whose gift
was £1200; the smallest that of the parish of St. Thomas, Southwark,
which gave 10s. 9d. In the List are found subscriptions from the
Prince of Wales, £500; the Mayor, Commonalty, and Citizens of the
City of London, £1000; Governor and Company of the Bank of
England, £1000; John Rich from the Theatre Royal in Covent
Garden, £602, 7s.; the Gentlemen Volunteers of the City of London,
£523, 19s. The City Companies subscribe sums varying from £100
to £300, and it is interesting to find in the list the name of Isaac
Watts, D.D., for a subscription of £5, 5s. The Report, which is an
excellent business document, finishes with the following paragraph:
—
‘In this Manner your Committee propose that the
Conclusion of this Subscription should be agreeable to the
Design of its original Institution; since every Calamity you
can remove, or every Comfort you can bestow on Behalf
of the private Soldier, will be giving them so much new
Strength and Vigour to act in Defence of our Liberties, and
Support of our Constitution; wherein both Interest and
Duty, both publick Safety and publick Charity, may be
jointly urged as Motives to your Benevolence. And as to
what has already been expended, if Relief under
Sickness, if Support under Fatigue, if Encouragement
under Dangers, are to be esteemed Acts of Humanity or
Beneficence, by how much stronger Ties were we called
upon to return such Assistance to those who under the
greatest Hazards and Difficulties were protecting us in the
Enjoyment of every Thing that was dear and valuable: And
your Committee flatter themselves that the Zeal which was
exerted on this Occasion, by the Magistrates, Merchants,
and other Inhabitants of this Metropolis, contributed no
less to dispirit the Enemy, than it did to animate our own
Forces, until they obtained that compleat Victory over the
Rebels, which so happily preserved the Religion, Laws
and Liberties of this Kingdom, the inseparable Blessings
of his Majesty’s Government.’
 Details of the disbursements of the Fund are given in appendices
which are printed below, and are interesting in the present time of
war for the sake of comparison with similar modern activities. They
are printed from an original copy of the Report in the editor’s
possession.
[Appendix No. I. is the List of Subscriptions.]
 APPENDIX No. II
An Account of the Necessaries contracted for, their Patterns
and Price.
STOCKINGS.
Long Hose, furnished by Mr. Stiles, made in
Westmoreland, and by him delivered at 12s. per
Dozen Pair 10,000 Pair.
(Short Hose.) Collected by Mr. Samuel Handley, in
and about London, and by him delivered at the Rate
of 11s. 10d. per Dozen Pair, he declining to make
any Profit thereby 6,504 Pair.
——————
16,504 Pair.
BREECHES.
Contracted for with Messrs. Fullagar and Allen, to be
made of Kersey of the Value of 40s. the Piece, half
of them to be red and half blue, of three Sizes, viz.
2ds, 3ds, and 4ths, at the Rate of 3s. 3½d. each
Pair, with as good Lining, and of the same Make as
the Patterns, delivered in sealed, and all to be
strongly and well sewed, the said Pattern to be the
largest of the three Sizes; Two Thousand Pair, or
upwards, to be delivered each Week, till the Whole
was compleated. 15,000 Pair.
——————
SHIRTS.
Contracted for with Messrs. John and Michael 12,000
Turner, and Mr. Chambers, at the Price of 3s. 6d.
each, all to be made of Scawen’s ⅞ Garlick of the
same Sort and Goodness, with a seal’d Shirt left as
a Pattern; and each Shirt to contain 2 Ells ⅞th of
Cloth, and to be made of the same Size, and in as
good and strong a Manner as the Pattern Shirt, with
the Allowance of 2d. per Shirt for 600 to be made
somewhat better, being intended for the Serjeants,
1,500 to be delivered Weekly until the Whole was
compleated.
——————
WOOLLEN CAPS.
Contracted with the above-named Messrs. Fullagar
and Allen to be made of the same Make and Size
with a sealed Pattern delivered in of blue, red, and
green, the same to be of Long Ells, of 12d. the Yard,
at the Price of 5d. per Cap, the whole Number to be
delivered at Guildhall, on the 1st of January, the
Contract bearing Date the 20th of December, 1745 10,000
——————
BLANKETS.
Contracted for with Messrs. Brooks, sen. and jun. of
Whitney in Oxfordshire, to be nine Quarters wide,
and not above 13s. 6d. per Pair 1,000
——————
WOOLLEN GLOVES.
Furnished by Mr. Stiles, in Westmoreland, and
delivered, being of different Sizes, at the Rate of 5s.
to 6s. and 2d. per dozen Pair, being the prime Cost,
he declining to make any Profit thereby. 12,000 Pair.
——————
 WOOLLEN ANKLE SPATTERDASHERS.
Contracted for with the above-named Messrs.
Fullagar and Allen to be made of three Sizes
agreeable to a seal’d Pattern, both as to the
Goodness of the Cloth, and Manner of Sewing and
Making, with flat Metal Buttons, and the Straps of
Ruffia Drab, of the Price of Eighteen Pence
Halfpenny a Pair 9,100 Pair.
——————
 APPENDIX No. III
Containing an Account of the Distribution of the Sum of 4000l.
amongst the Regiments engaged at Culloden, the Number
on the Spot, and the Sums allowed to each, according to the
Apportionment transmitted by his Royal Highness the Duke.
Sums allowed
Regiments. Numbers on the Spot.
to each.
Serjts. Corps. Drum. Private. l. s. d.
Royal (1st) 30 37 26 420 265 10 11
Howard (3rd) 24 23 16 493 281 0 6¼
Barrell (4th) 20 23 10 365 213 1 8½
Wolfe (8th) 19 22 18 387 225 17 7¼
Pulteney
(13th) 23 26 18 479 276 5 0¼
Price (14th) 22 22 12 339 202 19 6¼
Sackville
(20th) 23 25 14 464 216 10 6½
Campbell
(21st) 22 22 12 336 225 18 5½
Sempil (25th) 20 25 19 487 277 0 11
Blakeney
(27th) 25 22 12 336 204 8 2½
Cholmondeley
(34th) 22 24 15 433 255 8 2½
Fleming
(36th) 26 22 14 376 225 8 0½
Dejean (37th) 23 24 19 474 273 1 2¼
Conway 21 22 16 342 205 6 5
(48th)
Battereau
(disbanded) 24 33 18 384 236 3 1
Argyllshire
Men 32 30 9 430 259 13 8½
—— —— —— —— —— — —
376 402 252 6602 3893 14 0¾
Serjts. Bombr. Gunnr. Matross. Drum
Train 1 9 15 67 3 102 8 0
—— — —
£ 3996 2 0¾
Overplus 3 17 11¼
—— — —
4000 0 0
N.B.—As the Overplus 3l. 17s. 11¼d. could not be divided amongst the
Regiments it was distributed to some few particular Objects.
The above Sums divided in Proportion to the Pay of the several Ranks,
give to each Man as follows, viz.
REGIMENTS. | TRAIN.
Serjeant £0 19 1½ | Serjeant £1 18 3
Corporal 0 12 9½ | Bombardier 1 11 11
Drummer and Private
| Gunner
Man 0 9 6¾ 1 5 7
Matross and
|
Drummer 0 19 1½
 APPENDIX No. IV
Containing an Account of the Needy Widows, and
Orphans of Officers and Soldiers killed at the Battles of
Falkirk and Culloden, who have been relieved by this
Subscription.
Widows and Orphans of Officers.
l
To Lieutenant Colonel Whitney’s Widow 100
Major Brown’s Widow 50
Capt. Grossett’s Widow and 4 Children 150
Capt. Edmonson’s Widow and 1 Child 70
Capt. Launder’s Widow 50
Lieutenant Parry’s Widow and 1 Child 50
Lieutenant Macnaire’s Widow 30
The Widow of Mr. Bourchier and 4 Children 80
—-
580
Widows and Orphans of Serjeants and private Soldiers.
To Hester Mounce (Serjeant’s Widow) and two Daughters 30
Esther Smith, Serjeant’s Widow 17
Ellen Edge (Soldier’s Widow) and five Children 25
Bridget Moore and two Children 20
Jane Fishborne and one Child 15
Widow Nickle and four Children 30
Widow Cole and two Children 20
Widow Perkins and one Child 15
Widow Richards and two Children 20
Widow Gale and two Children 20
Widow Salisbury 10
Widow Newsham and three Children 25
Widow Craig and one Child 15
Widow Combes and one Child 15
Widow Wright and four Children 30
Widow Herbert and two Children 20
Widow Bolton 10
Two Orphans of John Johnson 10
Nineteen other Widows of private Men belonging to the
Glasgow Regiment, at 5l. each 95
Forty Six Orphans at 3l. each 138
——
In all £1160
——-
 APPENDIX No. V
Containing an Account of the particular Disbursements.
l. s. d.
To Messrs. Stiles for 10,000 Pair of long Stockings,
and for Wrappers, Package, &c. 508 10 0
To Mr. Handley for 6500 Pair of short ditto, with
Charges of Delivery 321 5 2
To Messrs. Fullagar and Allen for 15,000 Pair of
Breeches 2468 15 0
To Messrs. John and Michael Turner for 6000
Shirts 1052 10 0
To Mr. Abraham Chambers for 6000 ditto 1052 10 0
To Messrs. Fullagar and Allen for 10,000 Caps 208 6 8
To Messrs. Brookes, sen. and jun. for 1000
Blankets 337 10 0
To Messrs. Stiles for 12,000 Pair of Woollen
Gloves, with the Wrappers, &c. 289 18 8
To Messrs. Fullagar and Allen for 9100 Pair of
Spatterdashers. 322 5 10
To the Right Honourable Stephen Poyntz, Esq. for
the Use of the Duke’s Hospital 300 0 0
To the Maimed and Wounded Soldiers from
Preston-Pans 150 0 0
To Mr. Cuthbert Smith, Mayor of Newcastle, for the
Use of the sick Soldiers in those Parts 300 0 0
To ditto, for his Disbursements 26 13 10
To Mr. Alderman Winterbottom, for Package of
Goods sent to Scotland 87 4 6
To his Royal Highness the Duke, for the maim’d
and wounded at Falkirk 300 0 0
To his Royal Highness the Duke—To be
paid for distinguished Acts of Service £1000
To his Royal Highness the Duke—To be
divided amongst the Regiments
engaged at Culloden 4000
} 6000 0 0

To his Royal Highness the Duke—To be

given to the Subalterns 1000
To Mr. Luke Bell, the Committee’s Agent, for his
Trouble and Subsistence in Scotland, in looking
after the Goods sent thither 124 9 2
To the Widows and Orphans of several Officers
and Soldiers 1160 0 0
To several Soldiers by particular
Recommendations 20 1 0
To Mr. Ford, the Committee’s Secretary, his Bill of
Disbursements for Insurance of Goods to Scotland,
printing Advertisements, Postage of Letters, and
other incident Expences 209 18 3
To ditto, as a Gratuity, for himself and Clerk 200 0 0
To the Chamberlain’s Clerks, Hall-Keepers,
Messengers and Attendants 117 15 0
——————
15,557 13 1
Proposed by the Committee to allow.
 l. s. d.
To St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital 1000 0 0
To St. Thomas’s 1000 0 0
To the General Hospital at
Bath 1000 0 0 Being
To the three Infirmaries of } the
Ballance
3352 7 8
London, Westminster, and
Hyde-Park-Corner. 300 0 0
To Expences attending the
closing of Accounts and
printing the Report. 52 7 8
——————
Total of the Money Subscribed 18,910 0 9
——————
 APPENDIX V
CARDINAL YORK’S MEMORIAL TO THE POPE
[644]

This document, which belongs to the Earl of Galloway, is printed

by his kind permission. The manuscript bears the following
endorsement:—
‘Cardinal of York’s Memorial presented to Pope
Clement 13th on the absurdity of the See of Rome in
refusing to acknowledge the title of the Cardinal’s Brother
(Charles Edward) to the Crown of England on the death of
their father in 1766.
‘This paper was given me by my revered Relative, Dr.
John Cooke, President of C.C.C., who was at Rome at this
time, and well known to Cardinal York, tho’ a firm
Protestant, in early life he was a friend to the legitimate
Succession.—It is not improbable that he copied this from
the original manuscript.
V. T.
‘June 16, 1825.’
A letter from the Hon. Charles Stewart, fellow of All Souls,
afterwards the Bishop of Quebec, to his brother, the eighth Earl of
Galloway, dated Nov. 26th, 1825, explains that the initials on the
endorsement are those of the Rev. Vaughan Thomas, at one time of
Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Mr. Thomas desired that the
manuscript should be given to Lord Galloway, whom he considered
to be the proper person to possess so interesting a Stuart document.

MEMORIA
 Sopra la necessità indispensabile, nella quale si trova
la Santa Sede di dover riconoscere per unici, e legittimi
Successori del Regno d’Inghilterra la Real Casa Stuarda,
e sopra la Incoérenza ed assurdi, che ne seguirebbero dal
fare il contrario con poco decoro della Santa Sedi
Medesima.
Chi stende la memoria si dichiara di non voler aprire
un libro appoggiando i suoi Raziocinj su i fatti pubblici e
notorj.
Niuno nel Mondo ignora qualmente il Rè Giacomo
Secondo fù cacciato dal suo Regno unicamente in odium
Religionis. Gl’istissi Fanton della di lui espulsione erano i
primi a non mettere in controversia due principj infallibili. Il
primo, che il Regno d’Inghilterra era di sua natura
successivo; Il Secondo che la Real Persona di Giacomo
Secondo fosse il legittimo Successore: Per ritrovare
adunque un apparente pretesto di cacciarnelo senza
distruggere il diritto della successione che secondo le
leggi è inalterabile, per servire ai loro disegni misero fuori
le stabilimento già fatto per legge nel Regno della
Religione Anglicana; e piantando per Massima, che
l’essere il Rè Cattolico fosse un imminente e continuo
péricolo della distruzzione e sovversione di tal legge,
fecero un Decreto di Parlamento in cui pretendendo di
Spiegare lo Spirito della legge di successione dichiarono
nel tempo stesso, che non potesse essere atto a
succedere chiunque fosse della Religione Cattolica o
ricusasse di conformassi alla Religione dominante.
In Virtù dunque di questo atto fù ingiustamente, ed
iniquamente cacciato Giacomo Secondo e la sua prole
cattolica dal suo regno e chiamato a succedere il più
prossimo erede Protestanti, il che ha prosequito fino a dì
nostri non solamente nelle Persone delle due Figlie dell’
istisso Giacomo Secondo per essere Protestanti ma
ancora nelle Persone dei Principi della casa d’Hannover,
per essere questi i più prossimi Eredi Protestanti; in prova
di che chiunque è ben informato delle Storie di Principi di
questo secolo, sà, che la Principissa Anna, da loro
chiamata Regina, volendo favorire Giacomo terzo suo
Fratello ad esclusione della casa di Hannover spedi
persone accreditate per indurlo a dichiararsi Protestante
ed in questa maniera togliere l’unico impedimento, che
ostasse al possesso del di lui Regno, ma quella
medesima assistenza speciale di Dio, che diè forza a
Giacomo Secondo suo Padre di Sagrificare trè Regni per
la S. Fede, diè altresi forza al di lui Figlio di ricusare
corragiosamente si fatta proposizione per ricuperarli.
Ciò presupposto è cosa indubitata, che anche a Giorni
nostri la S. Sede non canonizza niun trattato di Pace, a cui
per mezzo de’ suoi Ministri non intervenga, e molto meno
approva qualunque atto, che possa essere o direttamente
o indirettamente lesivo de’ suoi dritti e della S. Chiesa, il di
cui Capo è il Sommo Pontefice Vicario di Gesù Cristo;
Anzi a Misure, che se ne danno le occasioni, vi si fanno
contro le dovute proteste. Or’ chi può mettere in dubbio, o
negare, che possa darsi un Decreto pubblico più
direttamente contrario alla nostra S. Fede, e
conseguentamente più lesivo dei dritti della S. Madre
Chiesa di quello di cui si tratta; per mezzo del quale viene
privato dei diritto della successione chiunque porta
impresso il fortunato carattere di essere di lei figliuolo.
Quindi e che i sommi Pontefici principiando da Innocenzo
11o di Santa Memoria giudicarono non essere uopo di fare
alcuna esplicita protesta contro di un si iniquo decreto
servendosi e bastandogli in luogo di questa il continuato
riconoscimento, che ha fatto la S. Sede della Casa Reale
Stuarda per gli unici e legittimi successori del Regno, in
consequenza di che veniva la S. Sede medesima a
risguardare per nullo il Decreto stesso che per indiretto e
tacitamente averebbe approvato sempre che soltanto
negato avesse ai legittimi Successori Cattolici il dovuto
riconoscimento.