Intimate Partner Violence in the Black Community

Intimate Partner Violence on women in the Black Community

Penina Pierre

Delaware technical and Community College

NUR340-601 Nursing Research

instructor: Ms Heacoock

4/23/2023

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Intimate Partner Violence in the Black Community

Intimate Partner Violence in the Black women Community

Intimate partner violence or domestic violence is a worldwide and nationwide problem, it

is estimated that “30% of women worldwide have suffered some sort of physical and/or sexual

IPV” and that, “47% of world femicides are carried out by a woman’s intimate partner or by a

family member” (Dalby). A report by the US Department of Justice found that in 2020 856,000

Americans were victims of domestic violence with this number increasing to 910,000 in 2021.

According to the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV), in the US, “1 in 4

women and 1 in 9 experience severe intimate partner physical violence, intimate partner contact

sexual violence, and/or intimate partner stalking,” and, “1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men have

experienced some form of physical violence by an intimate partner”. The impacts of these

abuses range from fearfulness and the use of domestic violence hotlines to physical injury and

the development of post-traumatic stress disorder. With these statistics it is easy to determine

that being victim to domestic abuse or intimate partner violence is unfortunately a common

experience, especially among women. And the rate of these experiences can double for women

who fall into minority groups, such as Black or Afro Caribbean American women, who face

some of the highest domestic violence rates when compared to any other demographic. This

essay seeks to illuminate the facts, information, implications, and causes concerning the

increased rate of intimate partner violence among Black Americans. It also seeks to investigate

the physical and mental effects this has on black women and their children.

Domestic violence in the black community seems to be higher than that of other

demographics with the black community being “overrepresented among victims and

perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV)” (Rice, West Cottman et. al 3) The Ujimma

Community, a national center on Violence against black women, cited a National Intimate

Partner and Sexual Violence Survey made in between 2010-2012 saying that according to the

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survey, “45% of Black women experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or

stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime” and that “the same survey found that 40% of

Black men experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/ or stalking by an

intimate partner in their lifetime.” When it comes to black women more than 50% of them have

reported psychological abuse,40 percent have reported physical abuse, and 17% have reported

sexual abuse (University of Illinois Chicago). In addition “41% of Black women have

experienced physical violence by an intimate partner during their lifetime” compared to, “31% of

White women, 30% of Hispanic women and 15% of Asian or Pacific Islander women.” This

increased risk of violence against black women is well documented. It is estimated that black

women are three times more likely to be killed than their white female counterparts and that

91% of murdered black women knew their killer either as a friend or as a relative, making

“murder by intimate partners [...] among the leading cause of death among young African

American women between the ages of 15 and 45” (University of Illinois Chicago). A final

estimation calculates that at least “more than six million black women are survivors of some

form of IPV” (Rice et al 3). With such a constant barrage of abuse, black women suffer many

mental and physical effects as a result.

The general effects of domestic or intimate partner violence are devastating and

debilitating. According to information provided by the Office of Women's Health (OASH), short

term effects of physical violence on women can range from “minor injuries,” to “serious

conditions” with these minor injuries to serious injuries including “bruises, cuts, broken bones, or

injuries to organs and other parts inside” (OASH) of the body to long term serious conditions

such as traumatic brain injury from falling on or hitting the head. Short term effects of sexual

violence often include pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, vaginal bleeding and pelvic

pain, and nightmares from sexual abuse. In the long-term violence against women is “linked to

many long-term health problems” meaning survivors of abuse can develop diseases and

conditions such as arthritis, asthma, chronic pain, ulcers, heart problems, irritable bowel

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syndrome and pain during sex. According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,

pregnant women who experience intimate partner violence have an “increased risk of low

maternal weight gains, infections, high blood pressure” and are more likely to experience

neonatal complications such as delivering, “preterm or low birth weight babies” or experiencing

neonatal death. The mental health effects are just as dire, with victims of intimate partner or

domestic violence being at higher risk of developing psychological disorders such as

depression, PTSD, and anxiety and with evidence suggesting a “relationship between intimate

partner violence [...] and suicidal behavior” (NCADV). Victims of domestic violence are also “at

higher risk for developing addictions to alcohol, tobacco, or drugs” (NCADV). When it comes to

women it had been found that, “90% of women with substance use problems had experienced

physical or sexual violence” of some kind, reverting to “drugs, drinking alcohol, smoking, or

overeating” in order to cope with the trauma (OASH). And it has been reported that compared to

the non-abused members of their race “black victims of severe IPV were 4.9 times more likely to

report alcohol abuse, 5.1 times more likely to report alcohol dependence, 4.2 times more likely

to report drug abuse, and 6.6 times more likely to report drug dependence” (Rice et al 19).

In general people of color seem to struggle when it comes to healthcare, with Black

Americans being one of many groups that were found to fare “worse than White people across

the majority of examined measures of health and health care and social determinants of health”

(Kaiser Family Foundation). In a survey conducted by Pew Research Black Americans report a

multitude of reasons that contribute to their worser health outcomes, with 63% agreeing that

lack of access to quality healthcare in their communities is a determining factor. They also

overwhelmingly agreed that the quality of their communities and implicit racial bias in healthcare

contributed as well, with 52 percent of black people pointing to the environmental problems in

their communities as a reason for many of their health conditions and agreeing that healthcare

providers are less likely to provide black patients with advanced care (49%) and give black

patients priority (47%). Black women were more likely to report one of the seven negative

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experiences provided and were more adamant about the idea that black health care providers

would provide them with better care. This is not surprising considering the obstacles black

women face in treatment due to the intersection of their gender and race. Women seeking

treatment often suffer from what is known as the “gender pain gap”, where their pain is less

likely to be taken seriously by doctors and medical professionals. According to a Survey

conducted by Healthy Women, “45% of respondents said they didn't think their healthcare

providers took their pain seriously.” This is backed up by evidence that shows that when

experiencing abdominal pain during an emergency room trip men had to “ wait an average of 49

minutes before receiving pain medication” in comparison to women who had to wait “65 minutes

in the same situation” (Healthy Women Website). In some cases pain medication is not even

administered, since women “are more likely than men to receive a sedative prescription instead

of a pain medication prescription” (Healthy Women Website).

Women’s pain is not taken as seriously because of stereotypes that women are

histrionic and more emotional than rational leading medical professionals to believe they are

overexaggerating their pain levels. When it comes to the mistreatment of black women different

stereotypes are in play. The Healthy Women’s website quotes a survey conducted in 2016 that

found that , “ half of medical students and residents believed one of the three erroneous beliefs:

‘Black people's nerve endings are less sensitive than white people's’; ‘Black people's skin is

thicker than white people's’; ‘Black people's blood coagulates more quickly than white people's.’”

These stereotypes are outdated and debunked medical statements that contribute to the lack of

proper treatment for black patients' pain. These beliefs along with stereotypes about black

women being feisty, angry or incredibly physically and mentally strong result in black women

being undertreated for physical pain and possibly life-threatening conditions and health

complications. According to the NCADV only, “34% of people who are injured by intimate

partners receive medical care for their injuries.” The lack of access to quality healthcare black

women face may make it harder to do this, possibly making the percentage even lower for them.

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In addition, the multitude of long-term health problems that arise out of experiencing violence

are less likely to be properly treated and more likely to be fatal, this is especially true of the

complications that pregnant women experience because of intimate partner violence. Quoting

several studies, Endo Found cites that, black women were “3–4 times more likely to die from

pregnancy-related complications [...][and] suffer from a severe disability resulting from childbirth

than White women.” Black infants are also “more than two times as likely to die as White

infants'' (Kaiser Family Foundation). These already high statistics about maternal and infant

mortality rates for black women under normal circumstances show that in the circumstance of

intimate partner violence or domestic abuse the mortality rate for mother and child will be much

worse. In cases of mental health, lack of access to healthcare is most likely also indicative of

lack of access to mental health services. Black community stigma against “airing out dirty

laundry” can also contribute to black women refraining from getting therapy for the mental health

effects that come from intimate partner violence.

However, it is not only adults affected by domestic violence children are too. It is

estimated that at least, “more than 15 million children in the United States live in homes in which

domestic violence has happened at least once” (OASH) and that, “1 in 15 children is exposed to

intimate partner violence each year” (NCADV) with “90% of these children are eyewitnesses to

this violence” (NCADV). Children are deeply impacted by intimate partner violence and

domestic abuse especially since, “30% to 60% of men who abuse their female partner also

abuse their children '' (Descartes). In preschool aged children the mental effects of witnessing

domestic or intimate partner violence is a form of age regression in which, “Young children who

witness intimate partner violence may start doing things they used to do when they were

younger, such as bed-wetting, thumb-sucking, increased crying, and whining” (OASH). They

may also, “develop difficulty falling or staying asleep” and “show signs of terror, such as

stuttering or hiding” in addition to showing signs of severe separation anxiety” (OASH). Young

children are “at increased risk for physical injuries sustained secondary to violence between

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adults'' (Desarte) and sustained more head and face injuries since “ a common practice to block

a forceful blow” for adults “is to hold a child up as a shield” (Descartes). School age children

may experience, “ a lot of headaches and stomachaches'' and can suffer from guilt about their

home situation and low self-esteem, mental states that can lead to not practicing in school

activities, bad grades and “getting into trouble more often” (OASH). This propensity for

troublemaking is more higher for teens, with teens who witness abuse “demonstrating high

levels of aggression” (Descartes) and being more likely to act out by, “fighting with family

members or skipping school” and engaging in, “ risky behaviors, such as having unprotected

sex and using alcohol or drugs''. They are also more likely to get in trouble with the law. These

actions often end with, “academic failure, school truancy, delinquency, and possible substance

abuse” (Descartes) and are more “more common in teen boys who are abused in childhood

than in teen girls.” The higher prevalence of delinquency, aggression, and acting out in teenage

boys in response to abuse in the home spells bad news for black teenage boys, who are often

scrutinized, watched and treated as a threat inside and outside of school. The surveillance of

black boys, especially in the school environment, begins at an early age.

According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children teachers in

preschool and grade school often exhibit implicit racial bias by dulcifying black boys and seeing

them as “older and less innocent than their White peers'' and even their play as being, “more

dangerous, violent, and not developmentally appropriate” (NAEYC) The NAEYC website cites a

2016 study that finds that although, “black children make up only 19% of preschool enrollment

[...] they represent 47% of preschool children receiving one or more out-of-school suspensions”

while, “in comparison, White children represent 41% of preschool enrollment but only 28% of

preschool children receiving one or more out-of-school suspensions” (NAEYC.) This is chalked

up to the prejudicial attitude teachers unconsciously have towards black children, especially

black boys, prompting them to act on “zero-tolerance policies, where even minor “misbehavior,”

[...] triggers automatic penalties that include suspension and expulsion” (NAEYC). These

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instances of suspension, expulsion, and passive aggression from teachers increases as black

boys become older and subsequently impacts their ability to become invested in education and

feel respected. If well-adjusted black teenage boys are being treated this way this in turn means

that black teenage boys who are acting out as a result of problems at home, such as being

witness to domestic or intimate partner violence, are even less likely to be given intervention

and help by teachers. And because of their more outwardly aggressive demeanor they are more

likely to be treated as a threat, an action that only increases the risks for boys going through

abuse and leaves them more vulnerable. This means that black boys are more likely to repeat

the cycle of abuse especially since both black men and women report more aggression towards

their partner based on racial discrimination with black men reporting “more relationship

instability” and committing “higher levels of psychological aggression if they experience higher

levels of racial discrimination” (Rice et al 13-14). Girls on the other hand are “more likely than

boys to be withdrawn and to experience depression” (NCADV) as a response to domestic and

intimate partner abuse.

Children in these situations are, “at greater risk for repeating the cycle as adults by

entering into abusive relationships or becoming abusers themselves” (OASH) A boy who sees

being abused “10 times more likely to abuse his female partner as an adult” and a girl who,

“grows up in a home where her father abuses her mother is more than six times as likely to be

sexually abused than a girl who grows up in a non-abusive home” (OASH). Rape and sexual

abuse are especially risk that are high with black women and when it does happen it is reported

that “Black women are assaulted in more brutal and degrading ways than other women” with

“weapons or objects [being] more often used” and black women being more likely to be “raped

repeatedly and to experience assaults that involve multiple perpetrators” (Richie pg88). The

risks of childhood physical and possible sexual abuse and their long-term effects on the children

who experience them are well documented. In a scholarly study conducted in 1999 about the

impact of interpersonal violence on the suicide rate in middle aged African American women,

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links were found between childhood physical and sexual abuse and higher suicide rates. The

study titled, “Interpersonal Violence and Suicidal Behavior in Middle African American Women”

was a qualitative study, the title of the article does not give any overt clues about the possible

qualitative nature of the study, however the mentioning of interpersonal violence and the

article’s focus on interpersonal relationships hint that the article will be extrapolating information

from interviews, and though the article does not contain interviews it seems to be acquiring data

from personal reports.

Part of the data in the study were records that were taken with permission from a

medical hospital and two state psychiatric facilities in Virginia. The team developed a criterion

for inclusion and diversity in the study requiring patients be, discharged, female, 30 years and

older, and admitting to substance abuse or depressive disorders. The hospitals made sample

charts of the women who met the criteria. The “total sample was 364 women” and the sample

used in this specific study was based on a “subsample of 91 African American women aged 40

to 64 years.” (Manetta,1999 p.514). It was found that, “of the 91 women in the study, 46 women

(50.5%) had engaged in suicidal behavior at some point in their lives” and that, “seventeen of

the women were hospitalized for a current suicide attempt and were found to have had at least

one previous attempt” (1999 p. 515). Among the women, “38.5% of the women reported some

type of abuse in their history” with “women who were physically abused in childhood” being

“more likely to report suicidal behaviors than women who had not physically assaulted in

childhood” (Manetta,1999 pp. 515-516). The study eventually concluded that, “the strongest

relationship of victimization was found in women with histories of childhood physical abuse” and

that, “childhood sexual abuse was reported more often among women with suicidal behaviors”

(Manetta 1999 pp.517-518). Most of the abuse was done by family members, with “a biological

relative more often” being the one who “perpetuated physical abuse” (Manetta,1999 p. 519) and

it was found that “forty–four percent of the women who were physically abused in childhood

were abused by their father” (Manetta,1999 p. 515) a statistic that correlates with the earlier one

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about men who hit their female partners also abusing their children, and that for those who

experienced childhood sexual abuse “an extended family member (brother in-law) perpetuated

sexual abuse” (Manetta,1999 p. 515). They also found that, “African American women who

experienced physical abuse were more likely to have been abused by an ex–partner”

(Manetta,1999 p, 519). As such the physical and sexual abuse that can come from being a girl

dealing with domestic or intimate partner violence can increase suicidal ideation and behaviors

and lead into more abusive relationships in the future.

When it comes to the causes for the prevalent intimate partner violence in the black

community there are several factors that come into play. The factors for domestic violence in

general are outlined in several studies. One such study titled “Prevalence, Associated Factors

and Health Impact of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Different Life Stages” was a

study conducted in Spain that focused on the factors that impact intimate partner violence

among women in Spain. It was a quantitative study, as evidenced by the title’s use of the words

“prevalence” and “factors” which may point to the gathering of objective empirical data and

gathering information in statistics. The study uses another study called “Microsurvey of Violence

Against Women” that took a sample of 10, 171 women in Spain in order to base their samples

off. The Macrosurvey study focused on women who had a partner at some point in life however

the article focused on the women from the sample who had experienced IPV in the last twelve

months (which was the variable), narrowing 10.171 women to 8, 935. This sub sample of 8,935

women from the Macrosurvey study is the focus of the article's research. When it comes to the

results it was figured out that “around 15.6% of women included in our sample had been

exposed to some type of IPV during the past 12 months.” With 12.2 percent of women suffering

psychological IPV and 3.1 percent suffering physical or sexual IPV. It was seen that the

prevalence of all types of IPV was higher in younger women than in women ages 30-50. The

study also found that, “being an immigrant increases the probability of experiencing physical

and/or sexual IPV in adult women and the probability of experiencing psychological IPV in

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young women” and that, “having a higher education level decreases the probability of

experiencing physical/sexual IPV in all stages of life as well as the probability of experiencing

psychological IPV in young women.” Unemployed women had an increased “likelihood of

experiencing both types of IPV” with the association being “statistically significant in adult

women.” Although the study was conducted in a different country and on a different

demographic, their findings generally hold true universally. In the qualitative study mentioned in

the last essay it was mentioned that “considerable controversy exists regarding the frequency of

wife beating among people of African descent” (Manetta, 1999 p. 513) and that it was generally

found that wife battering is “said to be 400% higher among African American women than White

women” a statistic that was lessened and found to be identical to that of whites when, “factors

such as economic status and social class were controlled” (Manetta, 1999 p. 513). One of the

determining factors for black women’s experience of domestic abuse and intimate partner

violence is the societal disadvantages that the black community faces, especially when it comes

to socioeconomic status. The Courbon Place, an institution dedicated to providing safe housing

for domestic abuse victims cites the NCADV in an article named “A Layered Look at Domestic

Violence in the Black Community”, stating that, “by intentionally denying Black people access to

economic opportunities, the ability to build intergenerational wealth, healthcare, education, and

a sense of safety from governmental systems, racist policies increase the prevalence of risk

factors for domestic violence.” An article on the University of Illinois Chicago’s website details

out the odds stacked against black women saying that, “black women are disproportionately

working in low-paying jobs and have less access to economic self-reliance” which means “their

opportunities to leave abusive relationships and/or home environments are diminished.” It is

also found that, “unemployed intimate partners were more likely to murder black women” (Rice

et al 6). It seems that a major contributing factor to the rate of domestic and intimate partner

violence in the black community is systemic factors and discrimination. These systemic factors

go farther than just socioeconomic disadvantage but also into societal perceptions of black

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people, especially by law enforcement. A reluctance to call the police is a major contribution to

domestic violence in the black community, many “Black women feel unsafe to seek state

protection because they fear the consequences of police interventions for themselves (e.g.,

being abused by the police, being arrested, or killed) or for their abusers” (Domestic Violence

Against Black Women, 2023). The dulcification and scrutinization of black boys has already

been discussed, and the effects discussed earlier are even more present when black boys

become adult men, with them often being stereotyped as threatening and facing police violence

as a result. With a lack of support from the law, many black women have to fend for and build

protection for themselves, an act that often ends up in them intentionally or unintentionally killing

their partners in self-defense. It is found that black women are more likely than White women to

be convicted of killing their abusive husbands, this can be chalked up to the fact that although

black men are also hurt by societal views, black women also carry some the burden with

“minority survivors” ending up “getting criminal cases due to trying to protect themselves”

because of “being looked at as the aggressor” (Courbon Place Website). This increased chance

of gaining condemnation from the law instead of support left many “people of color suffering in

silence”. This silence is also perpetuated by the black community who “are often asked to

remain silent about their experiences and/or receive little support from their communities at

large, often justified by the notion that speaking up or seeking help, especially from the state,

contributes to the stigmatization of Black communities in general, and Black men in particular,

as violent” .(Women's leadership and Resource Center, 2023) This can be detrimental, since a

silencing of removal of support by the community can have devastating effects for black women

suffering from intimate partner violence. “Interpersonal Violence and Suicidal Behavior in Middle

African American Women” has mentioned that “to begin healing from the ravages of abuse and

suicidal behavior a support system was needed” (Manetta, 1999 p. 519) for black women, and

that “having a community support system [...] is a buffer against suicidal behavior in African

American women” (Manetta,1999 p. 519). Removing this support could leave black women

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vulnerable to dangerous mental states. The Corban place has already provided a way for the

black community to decrease these risks, by suggesting that the black church, a place where

silence about personal matters is encouraged, can encourage more visibility about intimate

partner violence in the community and provide resources. Many of the solutions to intimate

partner violence in the black community must come with the addressing of systemic problems,

but there are solutions that the black community itself can put into practice to improve the

circumstances of intimate partner violence. One of these solutions includes dismantling

patriarchal and sexist cultural norms that encourage black men to embody violent

hypermasculinity that oppress black women even further by hypersexualizing them and

presenting extreme or degrading violence, sexual or otherwise, as a good way to put them black

women “in their place.” By dismantling these norms in the community, it can make it easier to

address these same perceptions of black women in broader society that serve as the foundation

for many systemic injustices. Further effort, especially in medical and psychological fields, to

address implicit racist bias and incorporate sensitivity training for minority groups can better

alleviate systemic bias, and more programs to give black Americans better access to education

and healthcare can mitigate systemic disadvantages that encourage intimate partner violence.

Though the problem of facing intimate partner violence in the black community is multifaceted,

complex, and exhausting, the strong will of the community to advocate for itself and bring up

discussion can make the world a safer place for Black American women to live in.

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