Handbook of Smart Photocatalytic

Materials: Fundamentals, Fabrications

and Water Resources Applications
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
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 Handbook of Smart
Photocatalytic Materials
 Handbook of Smart
Photocatalytic Materials
Fundamentals, Fabrications, and Water
Resources Applications

Edited by

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

Department of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences,
The New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, United States

Ajay Kumar Mishra

Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability Research Unit,
University of South Africa, South Africa
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xi

Section I Introduction (fundamentals of photocatalytic

processes) 1
1. Advanced materials for photocatalytic applications:
the challenge ahead 3
V.N. LAD AND Z.V.P. MURTHY

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Photocatalytic materials 3
1.3 Factors governing efficient photocatalysis 4
1.4 Fields of applications of photocatalytic materials 4
1.5 Challenging issues 5
1.6 Summary 5
References 6

Section II Green synthesis of photocatalysts

materials 9
2. Green synthesis of TiO2 and its photocatalytic activity 11
MANVIRI RANI AND UMA SHANKER

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Environmental concern of organic pollutants 12
2.3 Limitations of traditional methods and need for green
synthesis 16

v
vi Contents

2.4 Characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles 17

2.5 Green synthesis of TiO2 17
2.6 Laboratory synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles 25
2.7 Photocatalytic mechanism 26
2.8 Applications of TiO2 nanomaterials 26
2.9 Summary 40
2.10 Conclusions and future scope 40
References 41
Further reading 54

Section III Metal oxides photocatalytic materials 63

3. Design and application of various visible light responsive
metal oxide photocatalysts 65
MILICA HADNADJEV-KOSTIC, TATJANA VULIC, JASMINA DOSTANIC AND
DAVOR LONCAREVIC

3.1 General introduction and objectives 65

3.2 Photocatalysis—mechanisms and kinetics 66
3.3 Metal oxide based photocatalysts and their application 71
3.4 Synthesis of metal oxide photocatalysts 76
3.5 Modification of the metal oxide semiconductors 82
3.6 Conclusion and perspectives 88
Acknowledgment 89
References 89

Section IV Metal-organic frameworks photocatalytic

materials 101
4. Immobilization of semiconductor photocatalysts 103
VIORICA PARVULESCU, MADALINA CIOBANU AND GABRIELA PETCU

4.1 Introduction 103

 Contents vii

4.2 Why immobilized semiconductors? 105

4.3 Effects of the support on semiconductor properties 105
4.4 Effect of immobilization on reaction mechanism 125
4.5 Effect of immobilization on photocatalytic performances 129
4.6 Conclusions 132
References 133

Section V Plasmonics and hybrids photocatalytic

materials 141
5. Plasmon-sensitized TiO2 nanomaterials as
visible light photocatalysts 143
WEI ZHOU

5.1 Introduction 143

5.2 Noble metal plasmon-sensitized TiO2 nanomaterials 145
5.3 Nonnoble metal plasmon-sensitized TiO2 nanomaterials 156
5.4 Metal metal alloy plasmon-sensitized TiO2 nanomaterials 162
5.5 Metal compound plasmon-sensitized TiO2 nanomaterials 163
5.6 Conclusion and outlook 167
Acknowledgments 168
References 168

6. Plasmon-sensitized semiconductors for photocatalysis 175

M. SAKAR AND LEELAVATHI ANNAMALAI

6.1 Introduction 175

6.2 Mechanism of plasmonic photocatalysis 177
6.3 Synthesis of plasmonic photocatalysts 178
6.4 Applications 185
6.5 Conclusion and outlook 196
Acknowledgments 197
References 197
viii Contents

Section VI Photocatalytic materials for water

resources 207
7. Photocatalytic materials-based membranes for efficient
water treatment 209
NUR HASHIMAH ALIAS, NOR AZUREEN MOHAMMAD NOR,
MOHAMAD AZUWA MOHAMED, JUHANA JAAFAR AND
NUR HIDAYATI OTHMAN

7.1 Introduction 209

7.2 Various fabrication and structure modification of
photocatalytic membrane 213
7.3 Recent application in treating various hazardous pollutants 219
7.4 Conclusion 224
References 225

8. Current photocatalytic systems for intensified water

purification applications 231
G. THEODORAKOPOULOS, C. ATHANASEKOU, G.EM. ROMANOS AND
S.K. PAPAGEORGIOU

8.1 Introduction 231

8.2 Using polymers for photocatalytic systems fabrication 234
8.3 Morphology of current photocatalytic systems 238
8.4 Applications and performance 246
8.5 Concluding remarks 262
References 262

9. Visible light driven perovskite-based photocatalyst

for wastewater treatment 265
NURSYAZWANI YAHYA, ATIKAH MOHD NASIR, NUR ATIQAH DAUB, FARHANA
AZIZ, ARIF AIZAT, JUHANA JAAFAR, WOEI JYE LAU, NORHANIZA YUSOF,
WAN NORHAYATI WAN SALLEH, AHMAD FAUZI ISMAIL AND MADZLAN AZIZ

9.1 Introduction 265

9.2 Conventional methods of HA removal in wastewater 267
9.3 Advanced oxidation process for wastewater treatment 270
9.4 Perovskites 278
 Contents ix

9.5 Selection of synthesis method of LaFeO3 nanoparticles 279

9.6 Effects of chelating agents 282
9.7 Dual chelating agents 287
9.8 Effects of calcination temperature 290
9.9 Parameters affecting the photocatalytic degradation 290
9.10 Conclusion 292
Acknowledgments 292
References 292

10. Wastewater treatment using TiO2-based photocatalysts 303

SUMAN DUTTA

10.1 Introduction 303

10.2 Mechanism of photocatalysis 304
10.3 Role of oxygen as electron scavenger 305
10.4 Modification of photocatalyst 306
10.5 Photoreactors for wastewater treatment 313
10.6 Reuse of photocatalysts 320
References 321

11. Graphene-based hybrid photocatalysts: a promising

route toward high-efficiency photocatalytic water
remediation 325
CORRADO GARLISI, SAMAR AL JITAN, FRANCESCO PARRINO AND
GIOVANNI PALMISANO

11.1 Introduction 325

11.2 Graphene properties 326
11.3 Design strategies and synthesis methods 332
11.4 Applications 338
11.5 Conclusion and outlook 350
References 351

Index 361
List of contributors

Arif Aizat Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), School

of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Nur Hashimah Alias Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia; Department of Oil and Gas
Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah
Alam, Malaysia

Leelavathi Annamalai Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering,

Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States

C. Athanasekou Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, N.C.S.R.

“Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece

Farhana Aziz Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC),

School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Madzlan Aziz Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC),

School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Madalina Ciobanu “Ilie Murgulescu” Institute of Physical Chemistry,

Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Nur Atiqah Daub Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Jasmina Dostanic Department of Catalysis and Chemical Engineering,

Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, Serbia

Suman Dutta Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology (ISM) Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India

xi
xii List of contributors

Corrado Garlisi Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of

Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Center for
Membrane and Advanced Water Technology, Khalifa University of Science and
Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Milica Hadnadjev-Kostic Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi

Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Ahmad Fauzi Ismail Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Juhana Jaafar Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC),

School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia

Samar Al Jitan Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of

Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

V.N. Lad Chemical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National

Institute of Technology—Surat, Surat, Gujarat, India

Woei Jye Lau Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC),

School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Davor Loncarevic Department of Catalysis and Chemical Engineering,

Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, Serbia

Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of

Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

Z.V.P. Murthy Chemical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai

National Institute of Technology—Surat, Surat, Gujarat, India

Atikah Mohd Nasir Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Nor Azureen Mohammad Nor Advanced Membrane Technology Research

Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia
 List of contributors xiii

Nur Hidayati Othman Department of Oil and Gas Engineering, Faculty of

Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia

Giovanni Palmisano Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University

of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Center for
Membrane and Advanced Water Technology, Khalifa University of Science and
Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

S.K. Papageorgiou Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, N.C.S.R.

“Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece

Francesco Parrino Department of Industrial Engineering, University of

Trento - Via Sommarive, Povo, Italy

Viorica Parvulescu “Ilie Murgulescu” Institute of Physical Chemistry,

Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Gabriela Petcu “Ilie Murgulescu” Institute of Physical Chemistry, Romanian

Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Manviri Rani Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur, India

G.Em. Romanos Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, N.C.S.R.

“Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece

M. Sakar Centre for Nano and Material Sciences, Jain University, Bangalore,
India

Wan Norhayati Wan Salleh Advanced Membrane Technology Research

Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Uma Shanker Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar,

Jalandhar, India

G. Theodorakopoulos Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, N.C.S.

R. “Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece; School of Chemical
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens ,9 Iroon Polytechniou
street, Zografou, Athens, Greece

Tatjana Vulic Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Novi
Sad, Serbia

Nursyazwani Yahya Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
xiv List of contributors

Norhaniza Yusof Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre

(AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Wei Zhou School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Qilu

University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, P.R. China;
Key Laboratory of Functional Inorganic Material Chemistry, Ministry of
Education of the People’s Republic of China, Heilongjiang University, Harbin,
P.R. China
 1
Advanced materials for
photocatalytic applications:
the challenge ahead
V.N. Lad, Z.V.P. Murthy
C HE MI C A L E N G I N E E RI NG D E P AR T ME NT , S A RD A R V A L L A B H BH A I NAT I O N A L I N S T I T U T E OF
TECHNOLOGY— S U RAT , S UR A T , G U J A R AT , INDI A

1.1 Introduction
Photocatalysis is associated with the excitation of the valence electron into the conduction
band where the excited electrons can reduce the surface-adsorbed species. The valence
band holes act as oxidizing agents. Separation of the photogenerated electrons and holes
governs the efficiency of photocatalysis [1]. The radiation of energy greater than or equal to
the bandgap of the semiconductor is adsorbed in semiconductor photocatalysis. Some of the
photogenerated electrons and holes are required to reach the surface of the semiconductor
where they must react with the adsorbed electron acceptor and the electron donor,
respectively.

1.2 Photocatalytic materials

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has received much attention as a photocatalytic material. TiO2 parti-
cles as well as films have been studied since more than a couple of decades due to its higher
stability, photocatalytic activity, and capability to degrade various organic pollutants [2]. The
two important polymorphs of the TiO2, namely anatase and rutile, have bandgaps of 3.26
and 3.06 eV at low temperature, respectively [3 6].
The visible region photocatalytic activity of anatase TiO2 can be enhanced by nitrogen
doping [7,8]. Carbon-doped [9], boron-doped [10], and sulfur-doped TiO2 [11] have also
been found to be efficient photocatalysts. Not only the large specific surface area but the
remarkable change in their optical absorption spectra makes nanosized semiconductor parti-
cles as a promising candidate to be used as photocatalysts [12]. Although many materials
such as TiO2 [13], SrTiO3 [4,14], WO3 [15], ZnO [16], ZnS [17], Bi2S3 [18], GaN [19], and
CdS [20] have been evaluated as heterogeneous semiconductors, the oxide-based materials
have been found to be more stable, active, and environmentally compatible. Often, the
Handbook of Smart Photocatalytic Materials. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819051-7.00001-4
© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
4 Handbook of Smart Photocatalytic Materials

photocatalytic materials are interpreted to offer oxidation ability but some photocatalysts
also offer selective oxidation as well as reduction [21].

1.3 Factors governing efficient photocatalysis

Attributes of the increased photocatalytic activity of the nanomaterials are [22]:
• formation of p n heterojunctions with suitable band edge positions;
• promotion of interfacial reaction by provision of large surface area; and
• improvement of light absorption with a significant red shift in the absorption wavelength.

Primo et al. [23] have presented a review on titania-supported gold nanoparticles for their
photocatalytic activity and reported better stability of the titania-supported gold nanoparti-
cles. The chemical modification of the graphene results in functionalized materials that offer
distinct optical and electronic characteristics, which make them suitable materials for cataly-
sis, drug delivery, energy storage, and so on [24 27]. Graphene-based photocatalysts have
been discussed by Xiang et al. [28] in their review. Graphene-based photocatalytic materials
have been synthesized by a variety of methods including hydrothermal method [29 31],
solution mixing [32 34], and microwave-assisted solution-phase synthesis [35]. Katayama
et al. have reported the product analysis method and the reaction rate analysis method for
the evaluation of photocatalytic oxidation and reduction abilities of the photocatalytic mate-
rials [21].

1.4 Fields of applications of photocatalytic materials

Even though the photocatalytic materials are being used mainly for environmental pollution
control, hydrogen production by splitting the chemicals, water detoxification [36], and degra-
dation of organic chemicals for specific applications; they are also commercially used for
photocatalytic coatings for air purification [37,38]. Antimicrobial coatings, air purification
materials, self-cleaning surfaces, antifogging glass, and water purification by photocatalysis
are the major application fields of oxidative photocatalysis. On the other hand, photoreduc-
tion of water and metal ions are also important applications of the photocatalytic reduction.

1.4.1 Doped nanomaterials

It has been observed by many researchers that doping may result in newly occupied states
above the valence band maximum, resulting in the reduction of the effective bandgap and
increased absorption in the visible range. Zimbone et al. [1] found that the doping of tita-
nium dioxide with antimony ions resulted in an increased degradation photoactivity of meth-
ylene blue dye of more than one order. They [1] also observed the increase of the activity in
laser-irradiated sample due to the trapping of the holes near the surface of antimony-doped
titanium dioxide.
 Chapter 1 • Advanced materials for photocatalytic applications: the challenge ahead 5

1.5 Challenging issues

The recombination of the photogenerated electrons and holes followed by bandgap illumina-
tion is the limiting factor for the efficacy of the photocatalytic process [2].
It is now well accepted globally that the predominant factor responsible for climate change
is the increased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere [39]. In order to meet the solution
for unwanted alteration in the climatic conditions, it is desirable to maintain the concentra-
tion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Considering the carbon present in the excess car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere, as a source of carbon for producing valuable hydrocarbons,
offers a promising solution for controlling CO2 levels in the atmosphere. But the chemical
potential of carbon dioxide makes it difficult to convert it into valuable hydrocarbons. Being a
very stable molecule, it is difficult to do reduction of carbon dioxide [40].
Taking advantage of the sunlight for the reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide to valu-
able hydrocarbons is also a challenge. Hence, nontoxic photocatalytic materials in abundant
existence may be an important vehicle for the transformation of the unwanted carbon diox-
ide into chemicals with good energy potential. Even though the bandgap of 3.2 eV limits
the absorption of titanium dioxide to the ultraviolet region, which makes it utilize only 4%
of the entire solar spectrum, a decrease in its bandgap is essential for its effective use as a
photocatalyst [22].
The energy efficiency and lower quantum yield of photocatalytic processes are challeng-
ing due to the reduced overlap of the solar spectrum with the activation range of common
materials used as photocatalysts [13]. Park et al. [22] have proposed a mesoporous p n
heterojunction composite material without metal cocatalyst sensitization. They used p-type
cuprous oxide and cupric oxide, coupled with n-type titanium dioxide. They synthesized
mesoporous CuxO TiO2 composite photocatalysts using a facile experimental approach,
synthesis of copper oxide nanocomposites, followed by mixing with titanium chloride and
oxidation. They found a red shift in the light absorption for their composite photocatalyst
material with increased optical absorption, which resulted in a higher yield of methane with
11.1 and 22 times higher production rate than that of pure copper oxide and titanium
dioxide, respectively [22]. The limitation in the absorption of light in the ultraviolet region,
and poor selective adsorption of the photodegradation reaction products on to the surface of
the photocatalytic materials are also challenging issues to design efficient photocatalytic
materials. The composite photocatalytic materials containing magnetic iron oxide nanoparti-
cles need to be studied for enhanced photocatalytic performance and stability in aqueous
media. Recovery of photocatalytic materials after the photocatalytic reactions is also
important for some environmental pollution controlling and hygienic reasons, especially for
food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic products.

1.6 Summary
Being highly appealing and having wide applicability of the photocatalysis process, the
photocatalytic materials have very much potential for the future catalysts for green synthesis.
6 Handbook of Smart Photocatalytic Materials

Environmental compatibility of many photocatalytic materials makes them potential

candidates as eco-friendly catalysts. Doping of suitable materials also makes them unique in
characteristic features suitable for a variety of applications. The growing interest of the tech-
nological advancement tends toward the use of solar energy and paradigmatic renewable
energy; such photocatalytic nanomaterials will serve as a very useful tool for processing
many materials with better conversion and selectivity in different processes.

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Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pen and pencil sketches of Faröe and
Iceland
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Pen and pencil sketches of Faröe and Iceland

With an appendix containing translations from the
Icelandic and 51 illustrations engraved on wood by W.
J. Linton

Author: Andrew James Symington

Illustrator: W. J. Linton

Translator: Ólafur Pálsson

Release date: October 23, 2023 [eBook #71936]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Longman, Green, Longman, and

Roberts, 1862

Credits: Charlene Taylor, Gísli Valgeirsson, Bryan Ness and the

Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEN AND

PENCIL SKETCHES OF FARÖE AND ICELAND ***
 PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES
OF

FARÖE AND ICELAND.

“To the ocean now I fly,

And those northern climes that lie
Where Day never shuts his eye.”

Comus.
THE GREAT GEYSER IN ERUPTION.—See page 117.
 PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES

OF

FARÖE AND ICELAND

WITH AN APPENDIX

CONTAINING TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ICELANDIC

AND 51 ILLUSTRATIONS ENGRAVED ON WOOD BY W. J. LINTON

BY

ANDREW JAMES SYMINGTON

Author of “Harebell Chimes,” “The Beautiful in Nature, Art, and Life,” &c.

LONDON
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS
1862
 TO

LAURENCE EDMONDSTON, Esq., M.D.,

OF SHETLAND,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL AND WERNERIAN SOCIETIES,

EDINBURGH;
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL AND MANCHESTER
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES, ETC.,

THIS VOLUME

IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED BY HIS SON-IN-LAW

A.J.S.

May 1862.
 PREFACE.

The greater part of this volume consists of a diary jotted down in presence of
the scenes described, so as to preserve for the reader, as far as possible, the
freshness of first impressions, and invest the whole with an atmosphere of
human interest.
The route taken may be thus shortly indicated: Thorshavn; Portland Huk; the
Westmanna Islands; Reykjavik; the Geysers; then, by sea, round the south
coast of the island, with its magnificent Jökul-range of volcanoes; along the
east coast, with its picturesque Fiords, as far north as Seydisfiord; and thence
home again, by the Faröe Isles.
The aim, throughout, has been both to present pictures and condense
information on matters relating to Faröe and Iceland. In obtaining the latter I
have had the advantages of frequent intercourse with Icelanders, both personal
and by letter, since my visit to the North in the summer of 1859, and would
here mention, in particular, the Rev. Olaf Pálsson, Dean and Rector of
Reykjavik Cathedral; Mr. Jón Arnason, Secretary to the Bishop, and Librarian;
Mr. Gísli Brynjúlfsson, the Icelandic poet and M.P.; Mr. Sigurdur Sivertsen, a
retired merchant, and Mr. Jacobson.
And so too with the Faröese.
I acknowledge obligations to Dr. David Mackinlay of Glasgow, Dr. Lauder
Lindsay of Perth, and several other friends who have visited Iceland and
rendered me assistance of various kinds. Thanks are also due to Mr. P. L.
Henderson, for transmitting, by the Arcturus, letters, books and newspapers to
and from the north.
The Appendix comprises thirteen Icelandic stories and fairy tales translated by
the Rev. Olaf Pálsson; specimens of old Icelandic poetry; poems on northern
subjects in English and Icelandic; information for intending tourists; a
glossary; and lastly, a chapter on our Scandinavian ancestors—treating of race,
history, characteristics, language and tendencies. This paper, originally intended
for an introduction, may be perused either first or last, at the option of the
reader. There is also a copious Index to the volume.
The illustrations, engraved by Mr. W. J. Linton, are all from original drawings
by the writer, with the exception of half a dozen,[1] taken from plates in the
large French folio which contains the account of Gaimard’s Expedition.
Should these pages induce photographers and other artists to visit this strange
trahytic island resting on an ocean of fire in the lone North Sea, or students to
become familiar with its stirring history and grand old literature, I shall feel
solaced, under a feeling almost akin to regret, that this self-imposed task—
which, in spite of sundry vexatious delays and interruptions, has afforded me
much true enjoyment—should at length have come to an end.
A.J.S.
May 1862.
 CONTENTS.

PAGE
PREFACE v
LEITH TO THORSHAVN 1
WESTMANNA ISLANDS—REYKJAVIK 35
RIDE TO THE GEYSERS 69
REYKJAVIK 143
JÖKUL-RANGES AND VOLCANOES ON THE SOUTH COAST 160
Kötlugjá’s Eruptions 163
Icelandic Statistics 180
Eruption of Skaptár Jökul 187
Volcanic History of Iceland 193
THE EAST COAST. BREIDAMERKR—SEYDISFIORD 197
Seydisfiord, by Faröe, to Leith 208

APPENDIX.

I. Icelandic Stories and Fairy Tales

Stories of Sæmundur Frodi called the learned.
I. The dark School 219
II. Sæmund gets the living of Oddi 221
III. The Goblin and the Cowherd 222
IV. Old Nick made himself as little as he was able 224
V. The Fly 224
VI. The Goblin’s Whistle 225
Fairy Tales
Biarni Sveinsson and his sister Salvör 226
Una the Fairy 235
Gilitrutt 240
Hildur the Fairy Queen 244
A Clergyman’s daughter married to a Fairy Man 253
 The Clergyman’s daughter in Prestsbakki 256
The Changeling 257

II. Specimens of old Icelandic Poetry

From the “Völuspá” 260
From the “Sólar Ljód” or “Sun Song” 262
From the Poems relating to Sigurd & Brynhild 265
“The Hávamál” or “High Song of Odin” 265

III. Poems on Northern Subjects

The Lay of the Vikings, by M.S.E.S. 278
Do. Translated into Icelandic by the Rev. Olaf Pálsson 279
The Viking’s Raven, by M.S.E.S. 281
Death of the Old Norse King, by A.J.S. 286
Do. Translated into Icelandic by the Rev. Olaf Pálsson 287

IV. Information for intending Tourists 289

V. Glossary 292

VI. Chapter on Our Scandinavian Ancestors 293

INDEX 309
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
1. The Great Geyser in Eruption Frontispiece.
2. Little Dimon—Faröe 1
3. Foola 10
4. Naalsöe 15
5. Thorshavn, the capital of Faröe 20
6. Fort, at Thorshavn 23
7. From Thorshavn—showing Faröese Boats 27
8. Hans Petersen; a Faröese boatman 28
9. Basalt Caves—South point of Stromoe 32
10. Portland Huk—looking south 35
11. Needle Rocks or Drongs—off Portland Huk 38
12. Bjarnarey 43
13. Westmanna Skerries 43
14. Cape Reykjanes—showing Karl’s Klip (cliff) 45
15. Coast near Reykjavik 45
16. Eldey 46
17. Icelandic shoes, snuff-box, distaff, head-dress, & fishermen’s two-thumbed 53
mits
18. Reykjavik, from behind the town 67
19. Icelandic Lady in full dress, from a Photograph 68
20. View on the Route to Thingvalla 69
21. Ravine 73
22. Descent into the Almannagjá 81
23. Almannagjá 82
24. Fording the Oxerá 83
25. Priest’s House at Thingvalla 84
26. Althing and Lögberg from behind the church 87
27. Lake of Thingvalla from the Lögberg 89
28. Waterfall of the Oxerá as seen from the Lögberg 90
29. Vent of Tintron 94
30. Cinder-range of Vari-coloured Hills 95
31. Crossing the Bruará 104
32. The Great Geyser 129
33. Skaptár Jökul 134
34. Mount Hekla 135
35. Lake of Thingvalla from the north-west 139
36. Icelandic Farm, two hours’ ride from Reykjavik 142
37. Music in an Icelandic home (playing the langspiel) 145
38. Common Gull (Larus canus) 159
39. Oræfa Jökul, the highest mountain in Iceland 160
40. Snæfell Jökul, from fifty miles at sea 161
41. Part of Myrdals Jökul and Kötlugjá range 184
42. Oræfa Jökul, from the sea 185
43. Entrance to Reydarfiord—east coast 197
44. Near the entrance to Hornafiord 198
45. Mr. Henderson’s Factory at the head of Seydisfiord 202
46. Farm House, Seydisfiord 206
47. Seydisfiord, looking east towards the sea 207
48. Brimnæs Fjall 208
49. Naalsöe—Faröe 212
50. Entrance to the Sound leading to Thorshavn 213
51. Stromoe—Faröe, looking north-east from below the Fort at Thorshavn 216
 LITTLE DIMON—FARÖE.

PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES

OF

FARÖE AND ICELAND.

 LEITH TO THORSHAVN.

Can Iceland—that distant island of the North Sea, that land of Eddas and
Sagas, of lava-wastes, snow-jökuls, volcanoes, and boiling geysers—be visited
during a summer’s holiday? This was the question which for years I had
vaguely proposed to myself. Now I wished definitely to ascertain particulars,
and, if at all practicable, to accomplish such a journey during the present
season.
Three ways presented themselves—the chance of getting north in a private
yacht—to charter a sloop from Lerwick—or to take the mail-steamer from
Copenhagen. The first way seemed very doubtful; I was dissuaded from the
second by the great uncertainty as to when one might get back, and the earnest
entreaties of friends, who, with long faces, insinuated that these wild northern
seas were not to be trifled with. However, the uncertainty as to time, and the
expense, which for one person would have been considerable, weighed more
with me than any idea of danger. Of the mail-steamer it was difficult to obtain
any information.
One morning, when in this dilemma, my eye fell on an advertisement in the
Times, headed “Steam to Iceland,” informing all whom it might concern that
the Danish mail-steamer “Arcturus,” would, about the 20th of July, touch at
Leith on its way north, affording passengers a week to visit the interior of the
island, and would return to Leith within a month. I subsequently ascertained
that it was to call at the Faröe and Westmanna Isles, and that it would also sail
from Reykjavik round to Seydisfiord, on the east of Iceland, so that one might
obtain a view of the magnificent range of jökuls and numerous glaciers along
the south coast.
The day of sailing was a fortnight earlier than I could have desired, but such an
opportunity was not to be missed. Providing myself with a long waterproof
overcoat, overboots of the same material—both absolutely essential for riding
with any degree of comfort in Iceland, to protect from lashing rains, and when
splashing through mud-puddles or deep river fordings—getting together a
supply of preserved meats, soups, &c. in tin cans, a mariner’s compass,
thermometer, one of De La Rue’s solid sketch-books, files of newspapers, a
few articles for presents, and other needful things, my traps were speedily put
up; and, on Wednesday the 20th of July, I found myself on board the
“Arcturus” in Leith dock.
It was a Clyde-built screw-steamer, of 400 tons burden. Captain Andriessen, a
Dane, received me kindly; the crew, with the exception of the engineer, a
Scotchman, were all foreigners. In the first cabin were eight fellow-passengers,
strangers to each other; but, as is usual at sea, acquaintanceships were soon
formed; by degrees we came to know each other, and all got along very
pleasantly together.
There was only one lady passenger, to whom I was introduced, Miss Löbner,
daughter of the late governor of Faröe, who had been south, visiting friends in
Edinburgh. Afraid of being ill, she speedily disappeared, and did not leave her
cabin till we reached Thorshavn. Of our number were Professor Chadbourne,
of William’s College, Massachusetts, and Bowdoin College, Maine, U.S.; Capt.
Forbes, R.N.; Mr. Haycock, a gentleman from Norfolk, who had recently
visited Norway in his yacht; Mr. Cleghorn, lately an officer in the Indian army;
Mr. Douglas Murray, an intelligent Scottish farmer, from the neighbourhood
of Haddington, taking his annual holiday; Dr. Livingston, an American M.D.;
and Capt. B——, a Danish artillery officer, en route from Copenhagen to
Reykjavik.
There were also several passengers in the second cabin, some of whom were
students returning home from their studies in the Danish universities.
There was a large boat to be got on board, for discharging the steamer’s cargo
at Iceland, which took several hours to get fastened aloft on the right side of
the hurricane deck—with the comfortable prospect of its top-heaviness acting
like a pendulum, and adding considerably to the roll of the ship, should the
weather prove rough.
Shortly after seven P.M. we got fairly clear of the dock. Strange to think, as the
last hawser was being cast off, that, till our return, we should hear no
postman’s ring, receive no letters with either good tidings or annoyances—for
we carry the mail,—and see no later newspapers than those we take with us!
Friends may be well or ill. The stirring events of the Continent, too, leave us to
speculate on changes that may suddenly occur in the aspect of European
affairs, with the chances of peace, or declarations of war.
However, allowing such thoughts to disturb me as little as possible, and
trusting that, under a kind Providence, all would be well with those dear to me,
hopefully, and not without a deep feeling of inward satisfaction that a long
cherished dream of boyhood was now about to be realised, I turned my face to
the North.
A dense mist having settled on the Frith of Forth, the captain deemed it
prudent to anchor in the roads. During the night it cleared off, and at five
o’clock on Thursday morning, 21st July, our star was in the ascendant, and the
“Arcturus” got fairly under way.
The morning, bright and clear, was truly splendid; the day sunny and warm;
many sails in sight, and numerous sea-birds kept following the ship.
Breakfast, dinner, and tea follow each other in regular succession, making, with
their pleasant reunions and friendly intercourse, a threefold division of the day.
On shipboard the steward’s bell becomes an important institution, a sort of
repeating gastronomical chronometer, and is not an unpleasant sound when
the fresh sea-air has sharpened one’s appetite into expectancy.
The commissariat supplies were liberal, and the department well attended to
by a worthy Dane, who spoke no English, and who was only observed to smile
once during the voyage. Captain Andriessen’s fluent English, and the obliging
Danish stewardess’ German, enabled us all to get along in a sort of way;
although the conversation at times assumed a polyglot aspect, the ludicrous
olla-podrida nature of which afforded us many a good hearty laugh.
The chief peculiarities in our bill of fare were lax or red-smoked salmon; the
sweet soups of Denmark, with raisins floating in them; black stale rye-bread;
and a substantial dish, generally produced thrice a day, which, in forgetfulness
of the technical nomenclature, we shall venture to call beef-steak fried with
onions or garlic—that bulb which Don Quixote denounced as pertaining to
scullions and low fellows, entreating Sancho to eschew it above all things when
he came to his Island. At sea, however, we found it not unpalatable. There
must ever be some drawbacks on shipboard. One of these was the water
produced at table, of which Captain Forbes funnily remarked, that it “tasted
badly of bung cloth—and dirty cloth, too!” But, such as it was, the Professor
and I preferred it to wine.
Thus much of culinary matters, for, with the exception of a few surprises,
which, according to all our previous ideas, confused the chronology of the
dishes—making a literal mess of it—and sundry minor variations in the cycle
of desserts proper, the service of one day resembled that of another.
There was only wind enough to fill the mainsail, and in it, on the lea side of
the boom, as if in a hammock, sheltered from the broiling sun, I lay resting for
hours. Off Peterhead, we saw innumerable fishing boats—counted 205 in one
fleet. Off Inverness, far out at sea, we counted as many, ere we gave in and
stopped. Their sails were mostly down, and we, passing quite near, could
observe the process of the fishermen shooting their nets; the sea to the north-
east all thickly dotted with boats, which appeared like black specks. A steamer
was sailing among them, probably to receive and convey the fish ashore.
Perilous is the calling of the fisherman! Calm to-day, squalls may overtake him
on the morrow—
“But men must work, and women must weep,
Though storms be sudden, and waters deep,
And the harbour bar be moaning.”

As the sun went down, from the forecastle we watched a dense bank of cloud
resting on the sea; its dark purple ranges here and there shewing openings,
with hopeful silver linings intensely bright—glimpses, as it were, into the land
of Beulah. Then the lights and shadows grandly massed themselves, gradually
assuming a sombre hue; while starry thoughts of dear ones at home rose,
welling up within us, as the daylight ebbed slowly away over the horizon’s rim.

Friday morning, July 22.—Rose at seven; weather dull; neither land, sky, nor sail,
visible; our position not very accurately known. At four in the morning the
engine had been stopped, the look-out having seen breakers a-head—no
observation to be had. Our course to the North Sea lay between the Orkney
and Shetland Islands. After breakfast it cleared, and on the starboard bow, we
saw Fair Isle, so that our course was right, although we had not known in what
part of it we were.
There was cause for thankfulness that the Orkneys had been passed in safety.
Where the navigation is intricate and requires care at best, our chances of
danger during the uncertainty of the night had doubtless been great. The south
of the Shetland Isles also appeared to rise from the sea, dim and blue, resting
on the horizon, like clouds ethereal and dreamlike.
At 11 o’clock A.M., sailing past Fair Isle, made several sketches of its varied
aspects, as seen from different points. Green and fair, this lonely island lies
about thirty miles south-west of the Shetland group, and in the very track of
vessels going north.
It has no light-house, and is dreaded by sailors; for many are the shipwrecks
which it occasions. Before now, we had heard captains, in their anxiety, wish it
were at the bottom of the sea. Could not a light be placed upon it by the
Admiralty, and a fearful loss of life thus be averted?
The island contains about a hundred inhabitants, who live chiefly by fishing
and knitting. They are both skilful and industrious. During the winter months,
the men, as well as the women, knit caps, gloves, and waistcoats; and for
dyeing the wool, procure a variety of colours from native herbs and lichens.
True happiness, springing as it ever does from above and from within, may
have its peaceful abode here among those lonely islanders quite apart from the
noise and bustle of what is called the great world, although the stranger sailing
past is apt to think such places “remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow.”[2]
Ere long we could distinguish the bold headland of Sumburgh, which is the
southern extremity of Shetland; and a little to the north-west of it, by the aid
of an opera-glass, Fitful Head,[3] rendered famous by Sir Walter Scott as the
dwelling place of Norna, in “The Pirate.”
Last summer I visited this the most northern group of British islands, famed
alike for skilful seamen, fearless fishermen, and fairy-fingered knitters; for its
hardy ponies, and for that soft, warm, fleecy wool which is peculiar to its
sheep.
Gazing on the blue outline of the islands, I now involuntarily recalled their
many voes, wild caves, and splintered skerries, alive with sea gulls and
kittiwakes. The magnificent land-locked sound of Bressay too, where her
Majesty’s fleet might ride in safety, and where Lerwick—the capital of the
islands, and the most northerly town in the British dominions—with its quaint,
foreign, gabled aspect, rises, crowning the heights, from the very water’s edge,
so that sillacks might be fished from the windows of those houses next the
sea. Boating excursions and pony scamperings are also recalled; the Noss
Head, with its mural precipice rising sheer from the sea to a height of 700 feet,
vividly reminding one of Edgar’s description of Dover Cliff, in “Lear,” or of
that which Horatio pictured to Hamlet—