TURBULENT FREE SHEAR FLOWS

Free — far away from solid boundaries

Shear — a cross-stream (mean) velocity gradient is present

Thin (or “almost parallel”): Cross-stream dimensions (ℓ) much smaller

than length scale in streamwise direction (L). Some type of boundary
layer approximation should apply.

Question: How do profiles of U , uv, 12 uiui etc, behave?

Two velocity scales for the mean flow. Velocity variation along the
flow (Ũ ) versus across the flow (US ). Jets, Wakes, Mixing layers (or
Free shear layers): Fig. 4.1 of T&L.

Jets: a source of momentum. US (x) = centerline velocity. Ũ = US .

Wakes: momentum deficit (max US (x)), behind a body. Ũ = U∞

(U 0 in T&L)

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Basic scale estimates:
 
∂U US
In common with Laminar BL: ∂x ∼O L , V ∼ U S Lℓ

Use 2D RANS equations: Let u2, v 2, uv all be of order U 2

Cross-stream mean momentum equation

 2
∂ 2V

∂V ∂V ∂uv ∂v 2 1 ∂P ∂ V
U +V + + =− +ν +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
Estimate O.M of each term. Let Ũ = US for jet, U∞ for wake.
US ℓ 1 US ℓ US ℓ 1 U2 U2 US ℓ 1 US ℓ 1
Ũ ? ν ν
L L L L ℓ L ℓ L L2 L ℓ2
Use ℓ ≪ L, while expecting U 2/ℓ (turbulence) to be important.
Compare O.M of other terms with this:
 2
ℓ 1 .U 2 Ũ US ℓ
1st conv. term Ũ US ∼
LL ℓ U U L
.U 2  2  2
2 ℓ US ℓ
2nd conv. term US 2 ∼
L ℓ U L
US . U 2 US ℓ ν
Viscous term ν ∼
ℓL ℓ U L Uℓ
If Rl ≫ 1 and ℓ/L ≪ 1, while US and U are of same O.M, the
pressure gradient may be the only one left to provide the balance.
Thus
∂v 2 1 ∂P
≈− ⇒ P /ρ + v 2 = constant
∂y ρ ∂y
i.e. pressure varies cross-stream in the flow. This property is in
contrast to laminar flow in the same geometry.
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Streamwise mean momentum equation

∂ 2U ∂ 2U
 
∂U ∂U ∂u2 ∂uv 1 ∂P
U +V + + =− +ν +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
Estimate O.M of each term, then compare with U 2/ℓ:
US US ℓ US U2 U2 US US
Ũ ? ν ν
L L ℓ L ℓ L2 ℓ2
US . U 2 Ũ US ℓ
1st convective term Ũ ∼
L ℓ U UL
2  2
US . U 2 US ℓ
2nd convective term ∼
L ℓ U L
US . U 2 US ν
Viscous term ν 2 ∼
ℓ ℓ U Uℓ
In a laminar free shear flow there would be no mechanism to sustain
a (mean) pressure gradient in x. But, here from the cross-stream
RANS equation of the form P /ρ + v 2 = constant we obtain
−(1/ρ)∂P /∂x ≈ ∂v 2/∂x
which is O(U 2/L), and negligible compared to U 2/ℓ.

If Rl is high, viscous transport is negligible. Hence we get

∂U ∂U ∂uv
U +V + =0
∂x ∂y ∂y
For wakes, US ≪ Ũ = U∞. This further simplifies to (T&L Eq. 4.19):
∂U ∂uv
U∞ + =0
∂x ∂y

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 ANALYSIS OF SELF-PRESERVING WAKES

If shape of mean velocity profile is to be preserved downstream, then

we would have as self-similar solution, via a dimensionless variable
ξ = y/ℓ(x) where l is a cross-stream length scale to be determined.
∂U ∂uv
U∞ + =0
∂x ∂y
(T&L Eq. 4.19): (Two unknowns in 1 equation. A closure problem.)
2
Assume (U∞ − U )/US = f (y/ℓ); −uv/US = g(y/ℓ).
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ y dl ξ dl
Chain rule : = ; =− 2 =−
∂y ℓ ∂x ℓ dx ℓ dx
Hence
∂U dUS US dl ′
=− f+ f
∂x dx ℓ dx
2
∂uv 2 ∂g 2 ′ ∂ξ US ′
= −US = −US g =− g
∂y ∂y ∂y ℓ
HW 7, Q.2: show that conditions for self-similarity (such that coef-
ficients in ODE for f are all dimensionless constants) are
U∞ℓ dUS U∞ dl
2 = const ; = const .
US dx US dx

Suppose power law variations: US ∝ xm. ℓ ∝ xn. Both conditions

above give n − m − 1 = 0. Need one more equation: to come from
something that is conserved, i.e. independent of x.

Consider momentum integral: no external force acts on the fluid

in wake, downstream of the solid body. (Momentum deficit is only
being spread laterally, from y = −∞ to y = ∞.)
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Integrate the RANS streamwise momentum equation:
ˆ ∞ h i∞
∂
U∞ U dy + uv =0
∂x −∞ −∞
ˆ ˆ
∂ ∂
⇒ U dy = (U∞ − US f ) dy = 0
∂x ∂x
ˆ
US f dy = const ⇒ US ℓ = const, m = −n

We may now take US = Ax−1/2, ℓ = Bx1/2. Substitute back into

∂U ∂uv
U∞ + =0
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂ 2
U∞ (U∞ − US f ) + (−US g) = 0
∂x ∂y
Using chain rule results on last page, should get (HW 7, Q.3)
U∞B U∞B
(ξf )′ = g ′ ⇒ (ξf ) = g
2A 2A
upon integration and application of boundary conditions in the freestream.

A very simple turbulence model

“eddy viscosity”: hypothesis: assume turbulent momentum flux be-

haves analogously as viscous shear stress: down the mean velocity
gradient with length scale ℓ
∂U
−uv = νT ,
∂y
with νT ∝ US ℓ. [It turns out νT = const in this flow.]

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Let’s define a “turbulence Reynolds number” RT = (US ℓ)/νT . We
can write νT = (US ℓ)/RT . Hence,
US ℓ 1
uv = (−US f ′ )
RT ℓ
which gives g = −f ′/RT . With this closure for g, now we need to
solve
U∞ B f′
(ξf ) = −
2A RT
f′ U∞ B
= −αξ where α = RT .
f 2A
The solution is
f = exp − 12 αξ 2

A smooth “Gaussian” curve, with maximum at centerline.

How accurate is this result?

We used the simplest turbulence model (a constant νT ) possible.

Comparison with experiments shows predicted profile is (a) quite
accurate near centerline, but (b) too high at the edges of the flow.

What are the reasons for agreement/disagreement?

Near centerline: flow is well-mixed, neither −uv nor ∂U /∂y vary

strongly with position. Not surprising that νT also varies little there.
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Near edges of the flow: “external intermittency” at the interface,
where conditions are turbulent only part of the time. Actual νT is
smaller near the edges. Smaller νT implies larger RT , thus larger α.
The latter explains steeper decrease of U∞ − U towards the edges.

Expts suggest RT ∼ 12.5, which sounds small for a “Reynolds num-

ber”. That’s because we used US , which is much smaller than U∞.

To complete the solution (for mean velocity) ...

Still need to fix values of ℓ, A, B, etc.

Set α = 1: then f = exp − 12 ξ 2 . Then ℓ becomes the value of y

where f = exp(−1/2) = 0.6. With α = 1, RT = 12.5,

U∞B B 1 2 0.16
= 1/RT ⇒ = = (i)
2A A U∞ RT U∞

Momentum deficit, in terms of momentum thickness (θ):

ˆ ˆ ∞
2
ρU∞ θ = ρU∞ (U∞ − U ) dy = ρU∞US ℓ f dξ
−∞
With the form of f known from above, we get
√ √
θ = (US /U∞)ℓ 2π = AB 2π/U∞ (ii)
√
Multiplying (ii) by (i) gives B = 0.2526√ θ.
Dividing (ii) by (i) gives A = 1.579 U∞ θ.

Finally:

US = Ax−1/2 ⇒ US /U∞ = 1.579 (θ/x)1/2. (Eq. 4.2.18, T&L).

ℓ = Bx1/2 ⇒ ℓ/θ = 0.2526 (x/θ)1/2. (Eq. 4.2.19, T&L).

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 TKE BUDGET FOR TURBULENT PLANE WAKE

Recall from HW 3 the general form of the TKE equation is

 
D1 ∂ 1 1
uiui = − uj p + uiuiuj − 2νuisij −uiuj Sij −2νsij sij ,
Dt 2 ∂xj ρ 2
where D/Dt ≡ ∂/∂t + U j ∂/∂xj .

Assume stationarity in time, U 1 ≫ U 2, homogeneity in x1 (approx)

and x3, and that the flow is “thin”. We obtain
∂ 1 ∂ ∂U 1
U∞ ( 2 uiui) = − (u2p/ρ + 21 uiuiu2) − u1u2 −ϵ
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2
Or, with q 2 as shorthand for uiui, and re-arranging as in in Eq. 4.2.30
in T&L:
∂ 1 2 ∂ ∂U
0 = −U∞ (2q ) − (vp/ρ + 12 q 2v) − uv −ϵ
∂x ∂y ∂y
Advection by mean flow, cross-stream transport by pressure and ve-
locity fluctuations, production by mean shear, and dissipation.

Fig. 4.5 of T&L: How do the relative strengths of these terms vary
with position, across the width of the wake?

Production is zero at y = 0 (symmetry) and y = ±∞ (freestream)

Dissipation is max and nearly constant (well mixed) at y = 0

Turb. Transport: lateral spreading: negative inside, positive outside

Advection: expect ∂ 21 uiui/∂x < 0 near centerline (where turbulence

decays with x), but the sign may reverse far from centerline (due to
lateral spreading).
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 Plane wake: T&L, Fig. 4.5, p. 123.

Axisymmetric wake: Pope, Fig. 5.29, p. 153.

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 WALL-BOUNDED TURBULENT SHEAR FLOWS

Influence of a solid boundary:

No matter how small, viscosity enforces no slip boundary condition.

Wall shear stress is dependent on the mean velocity gradient.

Impermeability causes “normal” velocity fluctuations to be attenu-

ated in near-wall region.

Multiple cross-stream length scales

1. A viscous length scale: ν/w where w is a velocity scale that

characterizes mean velocity gradient due to velocity fluctuations.
This gradient drives the turbulence: hence w may be comparable
to the turbulent velocity scale U.
2. Surface roughness: zero if surface is “aerodynamically smooth”.
Rough surfaces can trigger turbulence but are sometimes also
useful for drag reduction (by “riblets”).
3. Width of the flow: a BL thickness, or half of height of a channel

Clearly, ν/w is important near the wall, unimportant far from the
wall. While for δ (or h) it is just the reverse.

If δ ≫ ν/w (which may occur at high Reynolds number) there may

be a range of values of distance from the wall such that
ν/w ≪ y ≪ δ
neither ν/w nor δ are important. This intermediate region is called
the “inertial sublayer”.
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