Temperature Measurement

Temperature Measurement
What is Temperature?
• Temperature: A measure proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic motion of
atoms and molecules.
• The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower
temperature region.
• When a high temperature object is placed in contact with a low
temperature object, then energy will flow from the high temperature
object to the lower temperature object, and they will approach an
equilibrium temperature
Kelvin Temperature Scale
• In the early 1800’s William Thomson Kelvin, developed a universal
thermodynamic scale based upon the coefficient of expansion of an
ideal gas.
• Kelvin established the concept of absolute zero, and his scale remains
the standard for modern thermometry.
• Temperature, measured in Kelvin degrees, is directly proportional to
the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. So, when
molecules of a substance have a small average kinetic energy, then
the temperature of the substance is low.
Kelvin Temperature Scale
• At a low temperature gas molecules travel, on average, at slower
speeds than they travel at high temperature.
• Thus, at a low temperature the molecules have, on average, less
kinetic energy than they do at a high temperature.
• • Kelvin is the only true “natural” temperature scale … everything else
is simply a “conversion”
Kelvin Temperature Scale
• On temperature scale Temperature Scale, the Kelvin scale, absolute
zero corresponds to a condition below which temperatures do not
exist.
• At absolute zero, or 0 ° K, molecular motion ceases, This value
corresponds to a temperature of -273.15° on the Celsius temperature
scale.
• The Kelvin degree is the same size as the Celsius degree; hence the
two reference temperatures for Celsius, the freezing point of water
(0°C), and the boiling point of water (100°C), correspond to 273.15K
and 373.15K, respectively
Temperature Measurements
• Liquid bulb thermometers
• Gas bulb thermometers
• Bimetal indicators
• RTD: resistance temperature detectors
• Thermocouples
• Thermistors
• IC sensors
• Optical sensors
• Pyrometers
• Infrared detectors/cameras
 Liquid Bulb Thermometer

• Most common device for temperature measurement

• Thermometry based on thermal expansion
• This is Liquid-in-glass thermometers
• The manner in which a thermometer is calibrated needs to correspond
to how it used.
• Under normal circumstances, … accuracy …limited from ±0.2 to ±2°C.
• Limited Measurement
• Limited Resolution and accuracy
 Gas filled Bulb Thermometer

• The variation in volume or pressure of a gas.

• One common apparatus is a constant volume thermometer.
It consists of a bulb connected by a capillary tube to a
manometer.
Bi-Metallic Thermometers
• If two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients are
bonded them together, they will bend in one direction if the
temperature rises above the temperature at which the boding was
done and in the direction if temperature drops.
• Devices Can be used to
indirectly drive an
electronic Indicator
Bi-Metallic Thermometers
Resistance Temperature Detectors
• Humphrey Davy discovered that metal resistivity had a consistent
temperature dependence.
• Fifty years later, William Siemens proffered use of platinum as
element in a resistance thermometer.
• Platinum is well suited for resistance thermometry because it can
Withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent material
stability.
• As a noble metal, Platinum shows limited susceptibility to
contamination
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
• RTD's are stable and have a fairly wide temperature range,
• RTD capitalizes on the fact that the electrical resistance of a
material changes as its temperature changes.
• RTD’s are subject to inaccuracies from self-heating.
• RTD's rely on the resistance change in a metal.
• The resistance will rise more or less linearly with
temperature.
• Traditionally, RTD's use a length of conductor (platinum,
nickel iron or copper) wound around an insulator.
• RTD's are used to measure temperatures from -196° to 482°
C
Resistance Temperature Detectors
 Resistance Temperature Detectors -Design
• Factors other than temperature that effect
resistance must be minimized.
• Primary effect is strain -
The classical RTD construction using
platinum was proposed by C.H. Meyers in
1932
Helical coil of platinum wound on a
crossed mica web and mounted inside a
glass tube.
Minimized strain on the wire while
maximizing resistance
 Resistance Temperature Detectors -Design
• Film RTD offers substantial reduction in assembly time and has
advantage of high element resistance for a given physical size.
• Small device size means fast response to changes in temperature.
• Film RTD’s are less stable than wire-wound, but are more popular
because of decided advantages in size, production cost and
ruggedness.
Resistance Temperature Detectors -Specs
• Temperature range: -250 C to 700 C
• Resistances: typically 100W (higher available)
• Sizes: from a few mm to a few cm
• Compatibility: glass, ceramic encapsulation
• Available in ready made probes
• Accuracy: ±0.01 C to ±0.05 C
• Calibration: usually not necessary beyond manufacturing
Resistance Temperature Detectors -
Limitations

• RTDs are subject to errors due to rise in their temperature produced

by the heat generated in them by the current used to measure their
resistance
• Power dissipated: Pd=I2R ( I is the current (RMS) and R the resistance
of the sensor)
• Self heat depends on size and environment
• Given as temperature rise per unit power (C/mW)
 Thermistors
• Thermistor: Thermal resistor
• Based on oxides of semiconductors
• Transfer function:

R T =  e /T
 [W] and  [K] are constants
R(T): resistance of the device
T: temperature in K
Relation is nonlinear but Only mildly nonlinear ( is small)
• Negative Temp Coefficient (NTC)
• Positive Temp Coefficient (PTC)
Thermistors Beads type
Chip type
Thermistors - properties
• Temperature range:
• - 50 C to about 600 C
• Ratings and properties vary along the range
• Linearity
• Very linear for narrow range applications
• Slightly nonlinear for wide temperature ranges
• Available in a wide range of sizes, shapes and also as probes of
various dimensions and shapes
• Some inexpensive thermistors have poor repeatability - these must be
calibrated before use
Thermistors - properties
• Self heating errors like in RTDs but:
• Usually small because resistance
is higher
• Current very low (R high)
• Typical values: 0.01C/mW in
water to 1C/mW in air
• Wide range of resistances up to a few
MW
• Repeatability and accuracy:
• 0.1% or 0.25C for good
thermistors
IC Sensors
Thermoelectric sensors - Thermocouples
• Among the oldest sensors
• Some of the most useful and most common they generate electrical
(voltages) directly
• Measure the voltage directly
• But, Very small voltages - difficult to measure
• Often must be amplified before interfacing
• Can be influenced by noise
Thermoelectric sensors - Thermocouples
• Simple, rugged and inexpensive
• Can operate on almost the entire range of temperature from near
absolute zero to about 2700C.
• No other sensor technology matches the range.
• Can be made at the sensing site if necessary
• There are variations in construction/materials
• Metal thermocouples
• Thermopiles - multiple thermocouples in series
• Semiconductor thermocouples and thermopiles
Thermoelectric effect
• The Seebeck effect
• Seebeck effect is the sum of two other effects
• The Peltier effect
• The Thomson effect
• The Peltier effect: heat generated or absorbed at the junction of two
dissimilar materials when an emf exists across the junction due to
the current produced by this emf in the junction.
• By connecting an external emf across the junction
• By the emf generated by the junction itself.
• A current must flow through the junction.
The Seebeck effect
Thermocouples
Thermocouples
• Different alloys are necessary for the extremes in temperatures.
• Many of the thermocouple combinations give a nearly linear output in a wide
• range of temperatures. The number of potential combinations is virtually infinite.
• A few examples are given in the Table below:
Thermocouple types & Color code
Thermocouples: connection
⚫Usually connected in pairs
◼ One junction for sensing
◼ One junction for reference
◼ Reference temperature can be lower or higher than sensing
temperature
Thermocouples (cont.)
• Each connection adds two junctions.
• The strategy in sensing is:
For any junction that is not sensed or is not a reference junction:
• Either each pair of junctions between dissimilar materials are held at the
same temperature (any temperature) or:
• Junctions must be between identical materials.
• Also: use unbroken wires leading from the sensor to the reference
junction or to the measuring instrument.
Reference junctions
Reference junctions must be at constant, known temperatures.
Examples:
Water-ice bath (0C)
Boiling water (100C)
Any other temperature if measured
The output compensated based on this temperature from Seebeck coefficients
Connection without reference
The connection to a voltmeter creates two junctions
Both are kept at temperature T1
Net emf due to these junctions is zero
Net emf sensed is that due to junction (2)
This is commonly the method used
Thermocouples - practical considerations
Choice of materials for thermocouples. Materials affect:
The output emf,
Temperature range
Resistance of the thermocouple.
Selection of materials is done with the aid of three tables:
Thermoelectric series table
Seebeck coefficients of standard types
Thermoelectric reference table
Selection of Thermocouples
Optical Pyrometers
• A temperature measuring device that is used to
measure the temperature of molten metal’s,
overheated material, furnaces otherwise liquids.
• It is temperature detectors which is a non-contact
type.
• The working principle of this optical pyrometer is
to match the object’s brightness of the filament
within the device.
• By using contact type instruments, measuring the
temperature of the highly heated body is not
possible.
Optical Pyrometer -Design

• It consists the lens which focuses the radiated energy from the heated object and
targets it on the electric filament lamp.
• The intensity of the filament depends on the current passes through it.
• Hence the adjustable current is passed through the lamp.
Optical Pyrometer -Design
• The magnitude of the current is adjusted until the brightness of the
filament is similar to the brightness of the object.
• When the brightness of the filament and the brightness of the object
are same, then the outline of the filament is completely disappeared.
 Optical Pyrometer - Limitations
• The working of the pyrometer depends on the intensity of light
emitted by the heated body. Thereby, the pyrometer is used for
measuring the temperature having a temperature more than
700-degree Celsius.
• The accuracy of the pyrometer depends on the adjustment of
the filament current.
• Also, the pyrometer is not used for measuring the temperature
of clean gases.
Infrared Thermometer
Infrared Thermometer