METALS

Metals are the most useful building material in the world. They are found naturally in
underground deposits and mostly found in some special rock samples known as ores.
Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
Metals came from the ores by removing the impurities of it. Metals can be categorized
into two types based on their composition: Ferrous Metals and Non-ferrous Metals.

Ferrous Metals are metals that contain iron as the base of the metal. The word 'ferrous'
comes from the Latin word 'ferrum,' which means 'iron. They are magnetic in nature and
also corrosive. They are also high in carbon content means many ferrous metals are
prone to rusting.

Iron is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. It has a good magnetic property but
oxides easily and does not resist attack by acids and some chemicals. It is known as the
most abundant element in the earth and undergoes different stages or extraction
processes that result in some different types of metals with composition of different
components such as wrought iron, cast iron and steel. The Iron is extracted from iron ore
through the process of Blast Furnace Slag. The Blast Furnace Slag is a nonmetallic
byproduct of iron production that's removed from the top of molten iron during its
extraction from ore.

I. Wrought iron, cast irons & steel

WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron is considered to be pure iron and is produced by removing the impurities of
cast iron. Wrought Iron is produced by repeatedly heating and working pig iron with
tools to deform it to the required shape. It is ductile, malleable, tough, and moderately
elastic.

Uses: It is often used in construction for structural components like beams, trusses, and
girders. It is also used for decorative items like railings, outdoor stairs, fences, and gates.
CAST IRON

Cast Iron is an alloy of iron carbon, which is hard and relatively brittle. It has a
carbon content above 1.7 percent and includes white, gray, and malleable cast iron.
Cast Iron is produced by remelting iron and mixing it with scrap metals and other alloys.
The remelting is done by a furnace known as cupola furnace. It has a good compressive
strength, but poor tensile and shear strength.

Methods of Casting:

1. Sand Casting – It is the most common casting

procedure that uses sand to create a mold and then
pours molten metal into the mold to create the final
product. This manufacturing process is used to create
metal products in a wide range of shapes and sizes.
Its advantages include low set up cost and is cost
effective. It is also ideal for short production run.

2. Shell Mold Casting – is a metal casting process that

uses a mold made of resin-covered sand to create small to
medium parts with high precision. Molten metal is poured
into the mold’s cavity, at which point the mold vaporizes to
create a hard shell.

3. Centrifugal Casting – is a process that uses a

rotating mold to pour molten metal into a mold. The
rotation increases the force that pushes the metal into
the mold's cavities, while centrifugal force holds the
metal against the mold walls.

4. High Pressure Die Casting – It is cheap for

commercial production. Its manufacturing process involves
forcing the molten metal into a mold cavity under high
pressure, creating a cast product that is identical to the
original mold design.
STEEL

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2%

carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and
oxygen. Steel finds extensive use in construction, manufacturing, automotive,
infrastructure, and many other industries due to its excellent mechanical properties,
corrosion resistance, and cost-effectiveness. It is the most widely used material in the
world.

Types of Steel:

1. Carbon Steel
Carbon steel is unique for the notable absence of other elements in its makeup. Though
it only contains 2% carbon or less by weight, its elemental nature makes carbon steel a
strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses. Carbon steel accounts for about
90% of all steel production. Its extreme durability and simplicity are two driving factors for
its popularity.

Types Of Carbon Steel:

Carbon steel can be grouped into three categories: low, medium, and high carbon. Each
type retains the inherent strength of carbon, but its useful purpose will change as the
carbon content increases.

● Low Carbon: A carbon content of 0.30% and under is considered low-carbon

steel. This is the most common and the least expensive type of steel.
● Medium Carbon: A carbon content between 0.31% and 0.60% gives this variety
a higher strength and lower ductility, meaning it’s less moldable under pressure.
● High Carbon: The toughest variety contains more than 0.61% carbon and is
often used to produce extremely tough building materials and tools, like brick
nails and sharp cutting tools like trencher blades.

2. Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel.
It is an iron and chromium alloy that contains at least 10.5% chromium and less than
1.2% carbon. Different types of stainless steel include Martensitic alloys, Ferritic alloys,
Austenitic alloys and Duplex alloys.

3. Alloy Steel

This type of steel is created by adding additional alloying elements like nickel, copper,
chromium, and/or aluminum. Incorporating these elements enhances the steel's
strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, and machinability. Some of the most common
alloys include: Aluminum, Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, Silicon, and Vanadium.

4. Tool Steel
 Tool Steel is a type of high-carbon steel specifically designed for use in the
manufacturing of tools, such as drills, saw blades and tool bits. Tool steel alloys along
with other metals such as tungsten, chromium, and vanadium — improve its strength,
hardness and resistance to wear and corrosion.

II. Non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals are alloys or metals that do not contain any appreciable
amounts of iron. They are used despite their high cost as they provide a wide variety of
properties. Although the production of individual non-ferrous metals is small in
comparison to the iron, the former play an important part in many engineering structure
and industrial processes. The non-ferrous metals and their alloys are used despite their
high cost because they provide a wide variety of properties. Some of the more
commonly used non-ferrous metals are aluminum, copper, tin, zinc, lead and
manganese.

ALUMINUM
Aluminum is silver white in color with a brittle metallic luster on freshly broken
surfaces. It is malleable, less ductile than copper but excels zinc, tin, and lead.
Aluminum is harder than tin. Aluminum is very light, soft, strong and durable, has low
thermal conductivity but is a good conductor of electricity. Aluminum can be riveted and
welded, but cannot be soldered.

Uses Pure aluminum is very soft and is unsuitable for structural purposes. Satisfactory
properties are derived by alloying copper, manganese, zinc, silicon, nickel with
aluminum. It is most suitable for making door and window frames, railings of shops and
corrugated sheets for roofing systems. Aluminum sheets are used over doors in
bathrooms to protect them from getting rot and for stamping into a variety of shapes.
Aluminum powder is used for making paint. Aluminum is extensively used in making
parts of internal combustion engines, airplanes, utensils and packings for medicines,
chocolates, etc. Aluminum alloys are widely used for the manufacture of rolled sections,
such as angles, channels, I-sections, round and rectangular pipes, rivets and bolts.

COPPER
Copper is a bright shining metal of reddish color which turns greenish on
exposure to weather. Copper is malleable and ductile and can be worked in hot and cold
conditions. It is not weldable, except on red heat. It is soft and a good conductor of heat
and electricity. The electrical resistivity of copper having less than 0.1 per cent
non-metallic impurities lies between 0.155–0.159 ohm per meter gram at 20° C. The
resistivity increases with the content of impurities and with the amount of wire drawing.
Its tensile strength is high.
Uses Copper is extensively used for electrical purposes, tubes for condensers and for
other conductors which must withstand corrosion. In buildings copper is used for roofing,
sheeting and damp proofing. Its use is restricted in the appliances and connections used
for water supplies in houses.

ZINC
The most important property of zinc is its resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Ductility is good and it can be deformed into desired shapes. Lead (< 0.1 per cent)
makes the spelter roll easier, however, it softens, weakens and ductility is reduced. Iron
and cadmium embrittle and harden zinc and are, therefore, a detriment in spelter which
is to be rolled or used for galvanizing. They should not exceed 0.02 per cent. Zinc, either
rolled or cast, shows no well defined yield point.

Uses It is used to produce brass, German silver, some of the bronzes, as a protective
coating on iron and steel, boiler tubes, fruit jar covers and cans for resisting corrosion
and for negative pole pieces of batteries.

LEAD
Lead can be scratched even with fingernail, highly malleable and can be rolled
into thin foils. It has a blue gray color and dull metallic luster when freshly fractured.
When exposed to moist air it loses lusture due to oxidation. Its relative density is 11.34
and melting temperature is 327° C. The softness and specific gravity of lead are reduced
because of the impurities such as antimony, arsenic, zinc and copper. Magnesia (2
percent) raises the hardness abruptly.

Uses It finds its principal use in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings
and in batteries.

TIN
Tin is a silvery-white, lustrous, and extremely malleable metal. It is so soft that it
can be cut by a knife. Its specific gravity is 7.3 and it melts at 232° C. It is harder, more
ductile and stronger than lead. Tin is as ductile as soft steel. It is highly resistant to
corrosion and has low tensile strength.

Uses Sheets coated with tin are used to make cans, utensils and furnace pipes. Sheets
coated with lead-tin alloy are used for roofing. Tin is also used for making bronze and
other alloys.

NICKEL
A brittle metal approaching silver in color nickel takes good polish and at ordinary
temperatures does not tarnish or corrode in dry air. It has specific gravity 8.30, when cast
and 8.70, when rolled. Its melting point is 1500° C. It is almost as hard as soft steel, far
more malleable, and when rolled and annealed, is somewhat stronger and almost as
ductile. Nickel resists alkaline corrosion, but gets readily dissolved in nitric acid and
 aquaregia. The presence of carbon, arsenic, and sulphur leads to brittleness. Small
amounts of magnesium render it more ductile whereas iron makes it hard.

Uses Nickel is used in making nickel steels, coin, German silver, wires, as catalyst and
for moisture-proof packings. Nickel is widely used as an alloying element in steel and
cast iron and as an electro-deposited coating over steel to give corrosion protection.
Nickel is also used to form alloys with such elements as copper, chromium and iron.

III. Steel Frame Construction

Steel-framed buildings utilize a skeleton frame construction in which the

walls, floors, and roof are supported by a structural framework of steel beams, columns,
girders, and related structural elements. Steel frames are strong, lightweight, and
durable structures. Some designs rely partly on the skeleton frame for support while
utilizing other systems, such as wall-bearing construction, where walls (masonry,
panelized, etc.) form part of the overall structural system (Kultermann & Spence, 2017).

➢ Structural Steel Design

The design of a structural frame requires extensive engineering analysis. Design

considerations include live and dead loads, as well as lateral loads caused by
earthquakes, wind, rain, and snow. Soil and hydrostatic pressures act horizontally
below grade and must also be considered. The stresses to which steel is subjected
while in use must be considered as the design process continues. Provisions also
must be made for temporary stresses that occur during construction, such as those
 resulting from supporting a crane. Allowable working stresses are regulated by
building codes (Kultermann & Spence, 2017).

➢ Frame Stability

A building using structural steel framing (or concrete or wood) must be designed
to resist wind, live load, and earthquake forces acting upon it. A number of strategies
exist to provide stability to frame structures.

● The rigid frame utilizes moment connections between members to resist

lateral forces. These connections prohibit adjacent members from changing
the geometry between them.

● Braced frames use diagonal members to provide triangulation that braces

the framing from deformations.

● Used often in tall buildings, a rigid core acts as a vertical beam that is
stabilized with a deep foundation. The core is frequently built of reinforced
concrete and houses stairs, elevators, and service chases.

● Flat shear walls of concrete or steel, stiffened in both directions, can be used
to stabilize a structural frame. For very tall, slender buildings, hollow tubes
provide maximum efficiency in resisting wind forces.

● The bundled tube concept combines the inherent strength of individual tubes
in a bundled configuration.

● Mega frames describe structures in which large members constitute the

overriding lateral support of a building (Kultermann & Spence, 2017).

➢ Advantages of Steel Frame Construction

● Durable - Steel frames are some of the most durable materials in

construction. It also has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which is great for
 reducing the overall weight of the structure and minimizing the foundation
requirements.
● Cost-Effective and Environmentally Sustainable - Steel is highly
recyclable which makes it cost-effective since these materials would need
only to undergo a technique called abrasive blasting in order to remove
impurities on the surface. The method is cheap and is effective at removing
corroded portions on the steel alloy, provided that there are no pitted areas.
Furthermore, steel frame construction produces less construction waste
compared to other materials; and recycling the materials makes it
environmentally sustainable.
● Handles Wind Uplift - Unlike other materials, steel frames can withstand
wind uplifts far better. Any pressure variations in the building's exteriors and
interiors will have no effect on the steel frame that has been built as efficiently
as possible. Current occupants of such a building area can be confident that
the structure's roofing and frame components will stay stable.
● Better Fire Rating - Structural steel is an incombustible material that will not
melt even during a building fire. In cases of severe fire emergencies, the steel
framework helps protect a structure and contain the spread of the fire in only
a small location.

IV. Testing of Metals

Engineers and architects must know the capabilities of potentially usable metals.
These are determined by standardized testing that follows the procedures of the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Some of the more frequently used
tests are as follows:

1. Tensile Testing (ASTM E8/E8M)

The ASTM E8 / ASTM E8M standard specifies uniaxial tensile testing of metals
at room temperature and the determination of their characteristics such as yield
strength, yield point, yield point elongation, tensile strength, strain at break, and
decrease in area. These values can be used to predict the material's strength
and toughness. The difference between ASTM E8 and ASTM E8M is the unit of
measurement. ASTM E8 uses inch and pound units of measurement, while
ASTM E8M uses SI units.
2. Hardness Testing (ASTM E18-22)
According to ASTM E18-22, the Rockwell hardness test is an indentation
hardness test in which a validated machine is used for pushing a diamond
spheroconical indenter or tungsten carbide (or steel) ball indenter into a
material's surface. Hardness is determined by measuring the difference in depth
of the indentation as the force on the indenter increases from a specified
preliminary test force to a specified total test force and then returns to the
preliminary test force.

3. Fatigue Testing (ASTM E466)

The ASTM E466 axial load fatigue test is designed for examining the effect of
variations in material, geometry, surface condition, stress, and other factors on
the fatigue resistance of metallic materials subjected to direct stress over a high
number of cycles. The test can also be used to help selecting metallic materials
for use in applications involving repeated direct stress.
4. Bend Testing (ASTM E290)
Bend tests for ductility are a straightforward approach to evaluate the quality of
materials based on their ability to withstand cracking or other surface
imperfections during a single continuous bend. Following bending, the convex
surface of the bend is checked for signs of a crack or surface irregularity. If the
specimen cracks, the material fails the test. When total fracture does not occur,
the product standard specifies the number and size of cracks or surface
imperfections visible to the unassisted eye on the specimen's convex surface
after bending as the failure criterion.

5. Fracture Toughness Testing (ASTM E399)

ASTM E399 testing determines the plane-strain fracture toughness (KIc) of
metallic materials through tests on a variety of fatigue-cracked specimens with a
thickness of 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) or higher. E399 also deals with the measurement
of the specimen strength ratio, which is determined by the greatest load that the
specimen can withstand while maintaining its original dimensions, as well as the
material yield strength.