Chapter 20

Development, Heredity, and Aging

Prenatal Development
The human lifespan is usually considered the period between birth and death; however,
the 9 months before birth are a critical part of existence.
The prenatal period, the period from conception to birth.
The prenatal period can be divided into three parts.
1. During approximately the first 2 weeks of development, the primitive germ layers
are formed.
2. From about the second to the eighth week of development, the major organ
systems come into existence.
3. During the last 7 months of the prenatal period, the organ systems grow and
become more mature.

Embryo:
• fertilization to 8 weeks of development
Fetus:
• week 8 to birth
Clinical age:
• based on last menstrual period (LMP)
Developmental age:
• begins with fertilization (14 days after LMP)

Fertilization:
• union of sperm cell and oocyte (egg) along with chromosomes
• capacitation: makes sperm capable of releasing enzymes to reach secondary
oocyte
 • secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis
• zygote: results from fusion of sperm and oocyte (contains 46 chromosomes)

Early Cell Division

18 to 36 hours after fertilization zygote divides to form 2 cells
Process of cell division continues for 2 days
Number of cells increases but size of zygote remains the same

Blastocyst
Morula:
• forms 2 to 3 days after fertilization
• contains 12 to 16 cells
• help support placenta
Blastocyst:
• day 6
• when cavity begins to appear in mass of cells
• contains inner cell mass, stem cells, trophoblast
Development of Blastocyst and Implantation
Implantation of Blastocyst
Days 7 to 8 after ovulation, the endometrium of uterus is prepared for implantation
Blastocyst attaches itself to uterine wall
Trophoblast cells digest uterine tissue and blastocyst burrows into uterine wall

Development of the Placenta

After blastocyst burrows into uterine wall, trophoblast cells become chorion which
helps form placenta
Placenta:
• structure derived from embryonic and maternal tissues where fetus and mother
are attached
Chorionic villi:
• finger-like projections in endometrium
Lacunae:
 • cavities filled with maternal blood
Embryonic and maternal blood supply are separate
Nutrients and waste products must cross a semipermeable barrier between the two
circulations.
Umbilical cord:
• connecting stalk between placenta and embryo
• contains blood vessels that carry blood from embryo to placenta and from
placenta to embryo

Interface between Maternal and Fetal Circulation

Maternal Hormonal Changes

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG):
• secreted by chorion
• transported to maternal ovary
• causes corpus luteum to remain functional
• reaches peak at week 8 to 9 after fertilization
• pregnancy tests detect HCG in blood or urine
Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by corpus luteum and help form placenta
during first 3 months
Estrogen and progesterone secretions increase throughout pregnancy

Hormone Concentration Changes During Pregnancy

Formation of Germ Layers

Amniotic cavity:
• forms after implantation
• new cavity inside inner cell mass
• causes part of inner cell mass to separate as a flat disk, embryonic disk
• where embryo will grow
Amniotic sac:
• inside amniotic cavity
• filled with amniotic fluid to protect embryo
Ectoderm:
• outside layer adjacent to amniotic cavity
Endoderm:
• inside layer opposite amniotic cavity
Yolk sac:
• third cavity
• in endoderm

Primitive Streak
Primitive streak:
• structure that establishes central axis of embryo
• forms when ectoderm cells migrate to center of the embryonic disk
• 14 days after fertilization
Mesoderm:
• third germ layer
Gastrulation:
• cell migration and formation of mesoderm
Notochord:
 • cordlike structure forms central axis

Early Embryo and Surrounding Structures in the Placenta

Primitive Streak and Germ Layers

Derived Tissues from Germ Layers

Endoderm:
• lining of digestive tract
• lining of lungs
• lining of hepatic, pancreatic, and other exocrine ducts
• thymus gland
• thyroid gland
• parathyroid glands
• tonsils

Mesoderm:
• dermis of skin
• heart and blood vessels
• kidneys
• gonads
• muscle
• bones (except facial)
• microglia

Ectoderm:
• epidermis of skin
• tooth enamel
• lens and cornea of the eye
• nasal cavity
• brain and spinal cord
• melanocytes
• adrenal medulla
Neural Plate and Tube
Neural plate:
• 18 days after fertilization
• ectoderm overlying notochord thickens
Neural folds:
• edges of neural plate rise and come together
Neural tube:
• neural folds meet in midline and fuse
• also called neuroectoderm
• becomes brain, spinal cord, parts of peripheral nervous system

Formation of the Neural Tube

Formation of General Body Structures

Limb buds:
• form arms and legs
• day 28
• day 35 zones of cells die forming fingers and toes
Face develops by fusion of 5 growing masses called processes

Development of the Face

Development of Organ Systems

Organogenesis:
• when organ systems develop
• weeks 2 to 8
Gastrointestinal tract begins forming about day 28
Heart develops from 2 blood vessels about day 21 and starts to beat

Development of the Digestive Tract

Embryonic Digestive and Urinary Systems

Formation of the Heart
Growth of the Fetus
The embryo becomes a fetus about 8 weeks after fertilization.
The beginning of the fetal period is marked by the beginning of bone ossification.
In the embryo, most of the organ systems are developing, whereas in the fetus the
organs are present.
During the fetal period, the organ systems enlarge and mature.

Late Embryo and Fetus

Parturition:
 • process where baby is born
• usually occurs at 40 weeks
• uterus starts to contract
• cervix thins

Stages of Labor
First stage:
• dilation phase
• takes about 24 hrs.
• amniotic sac ruptures “water breaking”

Second stage:
• expulsion phase
• cervical dilution until baby exits

Third stage:
• placental stage
• expulsion of placenta

Parturition
 Factors that Influence Parturition

The Newborn
Respiratory and circulatory changes:
• forced gasps of air occur when baby is born
• lungs inflate, assisted by surfactant
• changes in lung pressures leads to closure of the foramen ovale and separation
of heart into 2 pumps (right and left)
• closure of the ductus arteriosus
• clamping of the umbilical cord causes closure of the umbilical veins and arteries
leading to closure of the ductus venosus

Circulation in the Fetus

Circulation in the Newborn

Digestive Changes:
• meconium can be present in amniotic fluid
• meconium is a greenish waste containing mucous from the GI tract and bile
from the liver
• the neonate usually loses 5 to 10% of its total body weight during the first few
days of life
• becomes capable of digesting lactose
Lactation:
 • production of milk by mammary glands
• estrogen and progesterone levels fall after delivery
• prolactin stimulates milk production
• colostrum is high protein “premilk” which contains many antibodies

Hormonal Control of Lactation

Life Stages
Germinal period:
• fertilization to 14 days
Embryo:
• 14 to 56 days after fertilization
Fetus:
 • 56 after fertilization to birth
Neonate:
• 1 month to 1 to 2 years
Infant:
• 1 month to 1 to 2 years
Child:
• 1 to 2 years to puberty (11 to 14)
Adolescent:
• puberty to 20 years
Adult:
• 20 years to death

Aging
Cell division occurs rapidly during early development and slows with age
Neuronal loss is greatest early in life and neurons aren’t replaced
Collagen becomes rigid and less flexible
Skeletal muscle fibers peak and 20 to 35 and decline with less activity
Cardiac muscle cells lose elasticity and blood flow decreases

Death
• permanent cessation of life functions
• causes vary from heart stopping, kidney
• failure, brain death

Genetics:
study of heredity
Chromosomes:
• genes with DNA
• all cells (except sex cells) contain 46 pairs
Karyotype:
• display of chromosomes
Autosomal chromosomes:
• 22 pairs
• all chromosome but sex chromosomes

Females have two X chromosomes

Males have one X and one Y chromosome
Gametes:
• sex cells
• sperm and egg
• produced by meiosis
Homologous chromosomes:
• chromosomes that contain the same complement of genetic information from
each parent
X sperm produce females (XX)
Y sperm produce males (XY)

Human Karyotype
A karyotype is a display of the chromosomes in a somatic cell.
There are 22 pairs of autosomes, which are all the chromosomes except the sex
chromosomes, and there is one pair of sex chromosomes.
The sex chromosome pair of a normal female consists of two X chromosomes (XX) in
each somatic cell, whereas the sex chromosome pair of a normal male consists one X
and one Y chromosome (XY).
 Inheritance of Sex

Genes:
• functional unit of heredity
• consists of portion of DNA
Alleles:
• similar genes on homologous chromosomes
Homozygous:
• 2 alleles are identical for a particular trait
Heterozygous:
• 2 alleles are different
Dominant and Recessive Genes
Dominant:
• gene that is expressed
• written as capital letters
Recessive:
• gene that is not expressed
• written as lower case letters
Genotype:
• alleles a person has a for a given trait
Phenotype:
• expressed gene (person’s appearance)

Pedigree of a Simple Dominant Trait

Sex-Linked Traits
Sex-linked traits:
• traits affected by genes on sex chromosomes
• most are X-linked
• Example–hemophilia A (person lacks certain clotting factors)

Inheritance of an X-Linked Trait: Hemophilia

Genetics
Incomplete dominance – a genetic condition in which a dominant allele does not
completely mask the effects of the recessive allele.
Codominance – a genetic condition in which two alleles combine to produce an effect
without either of them being dominant or recessive.
Polygenic traits – those traits determined by the expression of multiple genes on
different chromosomes.

Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders are caused by abnormalities in a person’s genetic makeup—that is, in
his or her DNA.
They may involve a single gene or an entire chromosome.
Some genetic disorders result from a mutation, a change in a gene that usually
involves a change in the nucleotides composing the DNA.

Genetic Counseling
Genetic counseling includes predicting the possible results of matings involving carriers
of harmful genes and talking to parents or prospective parents about the possible
outcomes and treatments of a genetic disorder.
With this knowledge, prospective parents can make informed decisions about having
children.
The first step in genetic counseling is to attempt to determine the genotype of the
individuals involved.

Genetic counseling includes predicting the possible results of matings involving carriers
of harmful genes and talking to parents or prospective parents about the possible
outcomes and treatments of a genetic disorder.
With this knowledge, prospective parents can make informed decisions about having
children.
The first step in genetic counseling is to attempt to determine the genotype of the
individuals involved.