IB Chemistry SL

Topic 3 Booklet 1: Structure 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3 .

Name:___________________________

Success criteria:

I can…
- Define ions as electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to achieve a full
valence shell, following the octet rule.
- Predict the charge of an ion based on its group number in the periodic table.
- Identify isoelectronic species, understanding that they have the same number of electrons and similar
electron configurations.
- Recognize redox reactions in the formation of ionic compounds, where electrons are transferred
between atoms.
- Understand the formation of hydride ions when hydrogen gains an electron, and identify their
formula (e.g., H-).
- Explain why most first-row transition metals commonly form 2+ cations due to the loss of their two 4s
electrons.
- Understand the concept of ionization and subsequent ionizations in transition metals due to the
similar energy levels of 3d and 4s subshells.
- Define ionic bonds as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, leading to the
formation of an ionic compound.
- Explain electronegativity as a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons in a covalent bond and
its relation to the ionic character of a bond.
- Calculate the difference in electronegativity between atoms and determine the major type of bonding
present based on the difference.
- Understand the properties of ionic compounds, including high melting and boiling points due to
strong electrostatic forces, and their ability to conduct electricity when molten or in solution.
- Explain the factors affecting solubility of ionic compounds, including the attraction between ions and
solvent molecules.
- Understand the structure of ionic lattices, recognizing them as a three -dimensional network of
alternating cations and anions held together by electrostatic forces.
- Differentiate between covalent molecular compounds and ionic substances, understanding that
covalent compounds primarily form between atoms with an electronegativity difference less than 1.8.
- Identify whether pairs of elements bond covalently or ionically based on their electronegativity
values.
- Apply the rules for drawing Lewis formulas to illustrate the arrangement of valence electrons in
covalent molecules, including the representation of bonding and non-bonding electron pairs.
- Define single, double, and triple covalent bonds and recognizing their impact on bond strength and
length.
- Demonstrate an understanding of coordination bonds in complex ions and molecules, including the
contribution of electrons from atoms involved in the bond and the role of ligands in forming
coordination bonds with transition metal ions.

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Ions (Structure 2.1.1):
Formation of ions

Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. They have the
same electronic structures as noble gases.

Metal atoms form positive ions, while non-metal atoms form negative ions.

How ions form

Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. This loss or gain
leaves a full valence shell – this is called the ___________ rule. So the electronic structure of an ion
is the same as that of a ____________ gas - such as a helium, neon or argon.
Metal atoms and non-metal atoms go in opposite directions when they ionise:
• Cations are ions that have more __________ than electrons, so are positively charged.
• Anions are ions that have more ___________ than protons, so are negatively charged.
Monatomic anions have the suffix – ide. E.g. ________________________
Predicting the charge of an ion
In general elements in group 1, 2 and 13 form 1+, 2+ and 3+ ions respectively.
Elements in groups 15, 16 and 17 form 3-, 2- and 1- ions respectively.
Elements in group 18 (__________ gases) do not form ions.
Write the Schrödinger electron configuration for:
Na: Na+ :

Li: Li+ :

Cl: O2- :

Ca: Ca2+ :
Two different species with same electron configuration are called isoelectronic.

Which of the following pairs of atoms/ions are isoelectronic:

Li and He:

Li+ and He:

Na and Ne:

The formation of an ionic compound from its elements is a redox reaction. A redox reaction involves
the movement of electrons. Consider the formation of sodium chloride from its elements:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
Sodium chloride, NaCl, is made up of sodium cations, Na+, and chloride anions, Cl-.
The half equations are shown below. The first is an oxidation (an atom loses electrons) and the other
is a reduction (the atom gains electrons) and therefore the formation of NaCl from its elements is a
redox reaction:
2Na → 2Na++ 2e- Electron loss = _____________
Cl + 2e →2Cl
2+ -
Electron gain =___________

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 Hydrogen atoms either lose or gain an electron. If

hydrogen loses an electron it forms H+ which as its

charge density is so high it readily combines with

other species e.g. H+ + H2O → H3O+

When Hydrogen gains an electron it called a hydride anion with the formula: __________

Questions:
Determine the charge and formula of the ion formed by each of the following elements.
Ion name Charge Ion Formula Ion name Charge Ion Formula

Aluminium: Nitrogen

Sulfide: Barium

Fluoride: Calcium

Hydride: Beryllium

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Consider the first row of transition elements. Most of them contain two 4s electrons which are lost
when them M2+ ions are formed. This helps to explain why most of these elements commonly form
2+ cations.

Further electron losses (ionizations) occur in many of

these elements because the 3d subshell is similar in
energy to the 4s subshell. Therefore transition
elements can have variable oxidation states/charges.
Ionisation involved the absorption of energy, and if the
amount of energy required to remove another
electron (subsequent ionisation) is small then it could
be energetically favourable if it leads to an exothermic
(energy r__________) process.

Practice questions:
1. Why do ions form?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is a positively charged ion called? ______________
3. What is a negatively charged ion called? _____________

4. Deduce the abbreviated electronconfiguration of each of the

following:
a. Mn2+
b. V3+
c. Cu+
d. Cu2+

5. Zinc only forms 2+ ions.

a. Deduce the full electron configuration of Zn2+

b. Explain why zinc is not a transition element.

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6. The ion of a transition metal has mass number 55, electron configuration [Ar]3d5 and a charge of
2+.
a. Write its symbol using nuclear notation.

b. Identify a 1+ ion that has the same electron configuration as the above.

Ionic bonds (Structure 2.1.2)

Cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other because of their opposite charges.
This results in the formation of an ionic bond. Therefore, if an element forms a cation, and another
forms an anion, they can bond ionically to form an ionic compound.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity (x) is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract a pair of covalently bonded
electrons towards itself.
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group. Nobel gases are not
assigned electronegativity values as they do not attract electrons due to them having a full
____________ shell. This means that _________ is the most electronegative element.
The greater the difference in electronegativity between two elements in a compound, the greater
the ionic character (and strength) of the bond between them. If the difference in electronegativity
between the two elements is above 1.8, the type of bonding in the compound is ionic (but there may
be other types of bonding present).
Fill in the table to determine the difference in electronegativity using the data book.
Atom and its Atom and its Difference in Ionic bond the major bond
electronegativity (x) electronegativity (x) electronegativity present? (yes or no)
Larger x – smaller x =
Li+ 1.0 F- 4.0 4.0-1.0 = 3.0 Yes as 3.0 is greater than
1.8
Na+ Cl-
Mg2+ Ca2+
As S
Be 2+ Cl-
Rb Ga
P Cl
Ca I
Ag Br

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Elements with large differences in electronegativity are generally found at a greater horizontal
distance from each other.
Polyatomic ions
Some ionic compounds contain more than two elements e.g. NH4Cl
is made up of NH4 + and Cl- . These are called polyatomic ions.
You will need to know the names and formulas of these polyatomic
ions →
Naming ionic compounds

They are named according to the following rules:

1. The cation is named first followed by the anion.

2. Cation adopts the name of the parent atom and remains unchanged (except ammonium
(NH4+ )
3. The anion follows and the ending changes to –ide
e.g. oxide, sulphide, nitride, phosphide, chloride
or if it is a polyatomic ion its name is the ions name.
4. The name of the compound does not reflect the number of ions in the formula
Name the following ionic compounds

KCl ________________________________________

𝑀𝑔𝐼2 ________________________________________

AgOH ________________________________________

CaO ________________________________________

𝑁𝑎 2 𝐶𝑂3 ________________________________________

(𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑂 ________________________________________

𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 ________________________________________

𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ________________________________________

Writing the formula of ionic compounds

Method 1
Write the two ions in the ionic compound then begin to write the formula.

The overall charge of the compound is neutral (zero charge). Thus, the overall positive
charge must be equal to the overall negative charge.
Example: magnesium chloride.
𝑀𝑔2+ 𝐶𝑙 − (These two charges are not the same, but 2 chloride ions will give an
overall negative charge of -2. The positive ion already has a + 2 charge.)

Mg2+ Cl- Cl- Count up the total charge: +2,-1,-1 = 0 This adds up to zero!
Therefore the correct answer is: __________________

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Method 2

Step 1 Write the ions side by side 𝑀𝑔2+ 𝐶𝑙−

Step 2 Draw arrows that cross each other 𝑀𝑔2+ 𝐶𝑙−

Step 3 Write the charges at the end of the arrows 1 2

Step 5 Write the number as a subscript unless its one 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2

Write down the formula of these ionic compounds

Potassium bromide ________________________________________

Lead oxide ________________________________________

Aluminium phosphate ________________________________________

Sodium oxide ________________________________________

Ammonium carbonate ________________________________________

Magnesium nitrate ________________________________________

Iron (II) sulphate ________________________________________

Zinc phosphate ________________________________________

Formula of
Cation name Cation Anion name Anion Name of compound
compound

Sodium 𝑁𝑎 + Chlorine 𝐶𝑙 − Sodium chloride NaCl

Silver Iodine

Calcium Bromine

Magnesium Oxygen

Ammonium Chlorine

Hydrogen and
Lead
oxygen

Potassium Carbon and oxygen

Iron (II) Nitrogen

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Ionic lattices and properties of ionic compounds (Structure 2.1.3)
Ionic lattice

Within ionic crystals, the ions are arranged in a lattice structure. This is a __________ dimensional
network of repeating units of cations and anions.

Ionic bonding is non-directional. Each ion attracts all __________ charged ions around it. This means
that the forces of attraction in an ionic lattice is very strong.

Draw a labelled diagram of an ionic lattice:

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Lattice Enthalpy

Enthalpy (H) describes the energy in the system. And ΔH describes the
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Lattice enthalpy (___________) describes how strong the ionic bonds are in
a particular ionic lattice.

More specifically, it is the enthalpy change in ___________ that occurs on

the formation of gaseous ions from one mole of the solid lattice. These
values can be found in the data book.

The process of solid → gas is an endothermic process as energy is

____________.

Lattice enthalpy increases as the energy required to overcome the

_____________________ forces of attraction between ions _____________.

The strength of the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions:

- Increases with increasing ionic charge (e.g. Mg 2+ has a greater ionic charge than Na+ )
- Decreases with increasing ionic radius (can be found in the data book)
1. A) Fill in the following table using the data book:

b) Which ionic compound has the greatest lattice enthalpy?

c) State and explain whether KF or NaF has a greater lattice enthalpy?

d) State and explain whether NaF or CaF 2 has a greater lattice enthalpy?

2. Write equations, including state symbols, that represent the lattice enthalpies of KBr, CaO
and MgCl2

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 3. State and explain whether you expect KF or K 2O to have a lower lattice enthalpy value?

4. State and explain which of the following ionic compounds you expect to have the greatest
lattice enthalpy value: NaCl, MgCl2, Na2O or MgO.

5. Describe and explain the trend in lattice enthalpy of the group 1 chlorides down the group
from LiCl to CsCl.

Properties of ionic substances

The properties of ionic compounds are due to their structural features: they contain
c_______ and a_________ held together by s_________ electrostatic attractive forces in a
lattice.

Volatility

Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to __________________________________.

For an ionic compound to turn into a gas the ______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________.
The volatility of ionic compounds are therefore very low (non volatile). This means that that
they have high boiling points.

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Electrical conductivity
Conduct electricity in the liquid state but not the solid state.

To conduct electricity, substances must contain ____________ particles that are able to
___________.

Solid ionic compounds:_______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

Molten ionic compounds: _____________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

Liquid Solid

Many (but not all) are soluble in water, and the resulting solution is able to conduct electricity:

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Solubility

Dissolving substances and ionisation

- Dissolving occurs when one substance is pulled apart by another or moves into the spaces
within another.
- The solute is the substance that is dissolved and the solvent is the liquid that the solute is
dissolved in.
- Together the solute and the solvent form a homogeneous solution. This means that it has
uniform composition and properties throughout the whole solution. If the solvent is water,
the solution is known as an aqueous solution. When salt is dissolved in water, for example,
an aqueous solution is formed. Our survival is dependent on reactions that occur in aqueous
solutions inside and outside of the cells in our body.
- Ionic compounds are typically soluble in polar solvents such as water, and insoluble in non -
polar solvents such as hexane.
- Solubility is the extent to which a solute dissolves in a solvent. It can also be described in
qualitative terms as follows:

• A soluble substance is one that readily dissolves in a particular solvent.

• An insoluble substance is one that does not dissolve.

Water molecules have a partial negative charge of the oxygen atom – this attracts the __________
(the positive ion). While the partial positive charge of the hydrogen atom in water attracts the

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__________ (the negative ion). This results in the individual ions are pulled out of the solid lattice
and become surrounded by water molecules.

In a non-polar solvent, there is ______ attraction between the ions and the solvent molecules.
Therefore the cations and anions remain within the lattice.

Insoluble ionic compounds

Ionic compounds are insoluble when the ___________________ between the cations and anions in
the lattice are stronger than the association between the ions and the __________ molecules. These
insoluble ionic compounds are known as precipitates.

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Covalent bonds and molecules (Structure 2.2.1)
Covalent molecular compounds are (predominantly) formed between
atoms that have a electronegativity difference less than 1.8.

Ionic substances are always compounds.

Covalent substances are either elements or compounds: When two

non-metal atoms of the same element are bonded together the
electronegativity difference is zero – so they form a covalent bond. The
closer two elements of relatively high electronegativity (e.g. non
metals) are on the periodic table, the more likely a covalent bond
is formed.

Determine whether the following pairs of elements bond

covalently or ionically, by referring to their electronegativity
values:

a. carbon and oxygen _________________________________

b. sodium and oxygen _________________________________

c. carbon and hydrogen _________________________________

d. chlorine and oxygen _________________________________

e. iodine and iodine _________________________________

f. aluminium and fluorine_________________________________

Drawing covalent molecules:

Groups of atoms that are covalently bonded together are called

molecules. The way valence electrons are arranged in a molecule
can be shown using Lewis formulas. In Lewis formulas, pairs of
valence electrons are represented as dashes, pairs of dots or pairs
of crosses, or a combination of all three.

Rules for drawing Lewis formulas

1. Only valence electrons are shown

2. Electrons are arranged in pairs

3. Each pair of electrons shared between two atoms represents a covalent bond

4. Electrons in a bond (termed bonding electrons) are positioned in the region between the two
atoms involved in the bond

5. Non-bonding electrons (also referred to as lone pairs) are positioned away from the region
between the two atoms involved in the bond.

The _________ rule: Many atoms become more stable if they gain an outer shell of 8 electrons by
combining with other atoms (except for hydrogen and helium). Therefore electrons can be shared to

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form covalent bonds to achieve this. Species with odd numbers of valence electrons are also
exceptions to the octet rule.

Following these steps will help you draw Lewis formulas in most cases:

1. Work out the total number of the valence electrons for each atom in the molecule.

2. Divide the total number of valence electrons by two to work out how many pairs of electrons
there are.

3. Arrange the atoms by drawing their symbols on the page. The element with the least number of
atoms is usually found in the centre. Hydrogen atoms always surround the central atom(s).

4. Bond the central and peripheral atoms together by drawing single bonds between them. Each
single bond represents an electron pair.

5. Assign non-bonding pairs of electrons to the peripheral atoms. Keep going until they achieve
noble-gas configurations

6. Assign any remaining electron pairs to the central atom(s)

7. Check that the central atom has a full octet. If it does not, try the following two methods:

• Reassign non-bonding pairs on the peripheral atoms to become additional bonds to the central
atom

• Check that the molecule you are looking at is not an exception to the octet rule

Single covalent bonds: When atoms share 2 electrons, one from each atom a single covalent bond is
formed e.g. Hydrogen and Chlorine.
Double covalent bond: 2 pairs of electrons (4 electrons in total) are shared between two atoms.
Triple covalent bonds: 3 pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms (6 electrons in total).

Drawing Lewis formulas:

Name Molecular Lewis formula Name Molecular Lewis formula
formula formula

Cl2 H2O

O2 NH 3

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 Br2 CO2

N2 CH 4

HCl CH 3 CH 3

PH 3 CH 2 CH 2

Polyatomic ions

Are charged groups of covalently bonded atoms. The charge indicates how many electrons have been
lost or gained. Lewis formulas of polyatomic ions are enclosed in square brackets with the charge
indicated with a superscript outside the brackets.

Draw the Lewis formulas of the following ions:

a) Hydroxide ion (OH-)

b) Carbonate ion (CO3 2-)

c) Hydronium ion (H3 O+ )

SL: At times Lewis formulas may contains atoms with fewer than eight valence electrons.

For example boron trifluoride:

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Question:

Draw the Lewis formula of each of the following:

Name Lewis formula Name Lewis formula

BH3 O2

BeCl2 HCN

+
CH3 CH2O

BCl3 OF 2

AlCl3 O3

HBr CH3Cl

N2H4 NH4+

OCl- NO2+

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Bond order (Structure 2.2.2)

The number of bonded electron pairs between atoms is referred to as bond order.

Single bonds: ________________

Double bonds: ________________

Triple bonds: ________________

As the bond order _______________, the bond becomes stronger. However the bond length
decreases as bond order increases as the atoms are held ______________ together.

Furthermore, the stronger the bond the ________________ its bond enthalpy.

Bond length is defined as the average distance between two bonded nuclei.

Questions:

2.

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3.

Coordination bonds (Structure 2.2.3)

When covalent bonds are formed, atoms involved in the bond contribute electrons to the bond.
Sometimes, both electrons in the covalent bond come from the same atom – this is called a
________________ bond.

For example: H3O+

An arrow is used to show the direction of which atom donated the electron pair to the bond, and
which atom accept the electron pair.

Coordination bonds help explain how bonding occurs in certain molecules. These bonds are
indistinguishable from any other covalent bond.

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Practice questions:
Draw the Lewis formulas of the following molecules, indicating the coordination bonds clearly.

a. ammonium ion, NH4+

b. ozone, O3

c. carbon monoxide, CO

d. ammonia boron trifluoride, NH3 BF3

Coordination bonds in transition metal complexes

Transition metals can form complex ions which contain coordination bonds. They hold together the
central metal cation and the surrounding atoms or groups of atoms, called l___________.

All ligands contain a lone pair of electrons which can be used to form the coordination bond to the
metal ion.

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Revision questions:

1.

2.

3.

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