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SCIENCE - BIOLOGY
- LESSON 1: Species
SCIENCE -
and Evolution BIOLOGY
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What is a A species is a group of

organisms that are able to
breed with each other to
species? produce fertile offspring.

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Speciation is the evolutionary process by

Speciation which populations evolve to become distinct

species.
The process by which one species splits into
two or more separate species.

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Artificial Process where we choose to breed

organisms with desirable features
Eg different breeds of dogs are all one
Selection species and were produced by natural
selection

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Individuals that are poorly adapted to their

Natural environment are less likely to survive and
reproduce, meaning that their genes are less
likely to be passed to the next generation
Selection Given enough time, a species will gradually
evolve…

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Each species has individuals

Variation showing variation (they have

slight differences) if
reproduction is sexual
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Between and within a species

there is competition (e.g. for
Competition food; water; space; mates;
shelter etc…)

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The better adapted individuals

Adaptation are more likely to survive (better

at living within their environment)
‒ survival of the fittest

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Able to These survivors are more likely to

pass on their genes, so their
offspring are more likely to
Reproduce express the beneficial traits

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Evidence for Fossils

Comparative anatomy
DNA and protein structure
evolution Distribution of current species
Embryology

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Fossils Show Changes over

geological time.

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Comparative Identification of homologous

structures. (similar structure
anatomy but different function)
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Common genes between species with

DNA and similar anatomy.
The more closely related the species
Protein structure is, the more closely their base pairs
will be.

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Distribution of Isolation has created highly unique species.

Called a distribution map
Eg our land mass separated 40 million years
current species ago which is why we have different animals

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Embryo development can be

Embryology similar through common genes.

Eg all vertebrates look very
similar during embryonic stage

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LESSON 2 - Species and LESSON 2 - Species and

Evolution Evolution
(A Closer Look at Evolution) (A Closer Look at Evolution)

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Earth has a high level of biodiversity due to the evolution of

all species over time.
Where did all the The tree of life is used to describe how this has occurred:
- The tree of life or universal tree of life is a metaphor,
model and research tool used to explore the evolution of life
species come from? and describe the relationships between organisms, both
living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859).

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Remember Darwin s finches: Different species of

Evolution due to
natural selection
finches evolved as they adapted to the food sources
available.
Finches that were able to eat were able to survive.
This process was natural selection as only the fittest
survived.
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What is needed to Speciation requires:

Variation - there must be differences in the population

become a new Isolation - different groups of the same species are

separated and cannot breed with each other.
Selection - isolated groups can no longer breed successfully
species? if they come into contact.

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How does this all There are factors that cause natural selection to occur.
Selective agents are biotic or abiotic factors that act on the
population.

(natural selection) Biotic examples: disease, competition, predator

Abiotic examples: temperature, soil nutrients
Selective pressure is a measure of how much the selective
happen? agent affected the population.
Example: death, infertility

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LESSON 3 & 4 - LESSON 3 & 4 -

Introduction to DNA Introduction to DNA
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DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.

DNA DNA is made from nucleotides.

Each nucleotide has 3 parts.
Sugar
Phosphate
Nitrogenous base

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DNA DNA is not simply found in single chains or strands.

DNA is found as a double strand in cells.
2 complementary strands of DNA bond together due to the complementary
base pairs and twist into what is called a double helix structure.
The 2 complementary strands bond together because of the complementary
base pairs.

Structure The complementary base pairs of DNA are:

Adenine and Thymine
Cytosine and Guanine

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DNA codes for proteins that determine the

What does characteristics of the organism.
Characteristics such as:
Appearance
DNA code for? Ability to fight infection
Sometimes behaviour
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Genes
Genes are units of inheritance
Genes are segments of DNA connected together.
Genes carry the information for making all the
proteins required by all organisms.
Genes are found in the nucleus, structured as
chromosomes.

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One molecule of DNA forms one chromosome.

Chromosomes are small molecules of DNA that each
Chromosomes - have a set of genes on them, rather than all the genes
being on one long DNA molecule.
organisation of DNA Body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Sex cells (oocytes, spermatocytes) have 23 unpaired
singular chromosomes.

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Proteins form parts of cells, regulate many cell

Why are proteins activities and even help defend against disease.
Examples:
Your heart muscle contains proteins to enable the
so important? heart to contract and pump blood around the body.
Enzymes are also very important proteins.

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So where are There are 46 chromosomes in each of your somatic cells.

Those 46 chromosomes carry 20,000 ‒ 24,000 genes.
Each gene is located at a particular spot on a particular
chromosome which is called its locus.

your genes? Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called
linked genes.

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What is a A genome is the total set of genes in an

individual or cell.
The study of genomes is called genomics.

genome? The genome size is often described in terms

of the total number of base pairs (or bp).

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Different Human genome = approx 3

billion base pairs
Fruit fly genome = 160 million
Genomes base pairs
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LESSON 5 & 6: LESSON 5 & 6:

Characteristics and Characteristics and
Inheritance Inheritance
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Human Male Karyotype:

23rd chromosome - XY
Female Karyotype:
Karyotype 23rd chromsome - XX

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When there is more than one possible characteristic

Genes and for a particular gene, the different possibilities are
called alleles.
Alleles are variations of genes.
In Mendel s work it showed that pea plants have two
Alleles alleles for flower colour, the red dominant allele and
the white recessive allele.

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Writing The dominant allele is always written with a capital

letter. Eg R
The recessive allele is always written with a lower
case letter. Eg r

Alleles RR or Rr = red flowers because the red is dominant

rr = white flowers because the white is recessive

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If the code has two of the same case

Homozygous and letters such as RR or rr =
homozygous
Heterozygous If the code has two different case
letters such as Rr = heterozygous

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Alleles
Half of your alleles come from mum and half come from dad
(egg and sperm)
This means that fertilisation determines which
characteristics are present in each of the offspring.
Punnet squares are used to determine the possible types of
offspring that could result from a cross.
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Punnet The top row = possible gametes produced by

one of the parents
The side column = possible gametes
produced by the other parent
Squares In each square is a possible outcome of
fertilisation.

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Genotypes and A genotype is a genetic code for your characteristics

(invisible code in your DNA)
eg. RR, Rr or rr
A phenotype is the visual appearance or traits produced by

Phenotypes the genetic code

(what we can see looking at organisms)
eg red flowers or white flowers.

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Types of Complete Dominance

(already looked at)
Incomplete Dominance
Inheritance Co-Dominance

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Complete One trait is fully

Dominance expressed.
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Incomplete Some alleles show what is called incomplete dominance,

which the appearance of a heterozygous individual is of
blending of the two alleles.
Because neither is dominant we use 2 different letters

Dominance Eg A black dog (BB) crossed with a white dog (WW) gives a
grey dog (BW)

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Some alleles show what is called

co-dominance, which is when an organism
shows both characteristics of the parents.
Co-Dominance Eg ‒ A black dog (BB) crossed with a white
dog (WW) will result in offspring that is black
and white spotted (BW).
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Your 2 sex chromosomes determine which sex you

Sex are.
All eggs produced by a female contain the X
chromosome (because females are XX)
Half the male s sperm contains an X chromosome
determination and the other half contains a Y chromosome
(because males are XY)

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LESSON 7: LESSON 7:
Pedigrees Pedigrees
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Pedigree ‒ pictorial family tree where individuals who

show a particular disease or characteristic are

Pedigrees marked.
Pedigrees can be used to find patterns of
inheritance.
Different symbols are used to draw pedigrees.

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Analysing Analysis of pedigrees can

determine whether a
characteristic is dominant or
Pedigrees recessive.