AIM: To make a paper scale of given lea: ivities TIVITY! @ nn 423} A thick white paper sheet, pencil, scale with sharp edge: marked in cm and mm, fevicol, a pair, scissors, a paper cutter and thick ivory sheet used by engineering students. THEORY aaa 4 APPARATUS Least count. The minimum observation that can be measured by the instrument accurateyi called the least count of instrument. Range of an instrument. The maximum observation that can be measured by the instrumen is called its range. DIAGRAM _—— Fig. A. Scale of least count 0.2 cm. ‘a EATER eee rg @ a BS 8 Ge) 8 1011.12 48° 14.4 x! - Fig. B. Scale of least count 0.5 cm. PROCEDURE (A) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm 2 ma white paper sheet in the middle along its length engthwise), » Mark in the upper half al i i pte long the length a line PQ (15 cm Jong) by a sharp pencil (Fig A) P MeO mak point on PQ at a datane of LO em sed as 0, 1, 2, z fe as 0,1, 2, up re aan © scanned with OKEN Scanneractivites 113 4, Markethe vertical lines to line PQ at the position of each mark 0, 1,2 ; .-up to 15, 5, Draw another sharp line RS which is parallel to PQ at a distance of 8 mm, 6, Draw another line XY parallel to PQ ata distance of about 25 mim and complete the rectangl rectangle. 7 Now, divide each 1.0 cm interval into five equal divisions on PC king points at eve interval of 2 mm, Mark these points upto 15 cm mark. 'Q by marking points at every 8 Next draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each ofthe point which is separated by 2 mm. N | 9. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm, 10. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen, and write 1, 2,.....15 at each cm mark, Cut the rectangular scale by a sharp paper cutter and paste it on a thick ivory sheet and cut the sheet along the boundary of the rectangle with the help of scissors. accuse: Paper scale of least count 0.2 mm and of the range of 15 cm is ready. (8) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm 1, Repeat steps 1 to 6 asin part A of the above activity. 2. Divide each 1.0 em interval into two equal divisions on PQ by marking points at every interval of 5 mm and mark these points up to 15 cm mark (Fig. B). 3, Draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each of the point which is, separated by 5 mm. 4, Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm. 15 at each cm mark. 5. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen and write 1, 2, 6, Repeat the step 11 as in part A of the Activity 1. 7. Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and of the range of 15 cm is ready. (C) Measure the length of pencil with the paper scale 1, Place one end A of the pencil along the scale (A) in such a way so that A lies * full ne 11cm and read the position of the other end. Repeat the observation by placing the one end A o the pencil at 2 cm mark and take the reading of the other end. 2. Use the second scale (B) of least count 0.5 cm in the similar manner as explained in step 1 and record the observations, OBSERVATIONS Teast count of the scale (A) =. © scanned with OKEN Scanner114 Comprehensive Practical. Physics Table for length of the pencil using scale (A) S.No, | RendingatoneendAofthe | ReadingatotherendB | Lengthofthepencil=a,_ pencil a, (cm) a, (em) (em) Mean length of the pencil =...... m. Table for length of the pencil using scale (B) S.No. Reading atoneendA ofthe | ReadingatotherendB | Length of the pencil=a, I pencil a, (cm) ‘ a, (cm) (cm) | 1, 10 | | 5 2.0 Mean length of the pencil RESULT. 1. The scales of the least count 0,2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made. 2. The length of the pencil, using scale (A) = The length of the pencil, using scale (B) PRECAUTIONS 1. The cm markings should be longer than 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm markings. cm, cm. 2. Final lines and marking should be drawn by using fine-tipped black ink pen. 2. Paper scale should be pasted on the thick ivory paper. 4. Use very sharp pencil for the graduation marks. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. Graduation marks may not be equally separated. 2. The lines showing graduations may not be sharp as required. © scanned with OKEN Scanner7 ™ Comprehensive Practical Phys hoy ‘9 plot a graph for a APPARATUS: 50 100 200 250 300 350 0.08 0.15 0.31 0.40 0.49 os? PROCEDURE (a) To identify dependent and independent variable 1, The load is taken as independent variable and should be taken on X-axis. The extensionis taken as dependent variable and should be taken on Y-axis. (b) To select proper scale for load and extension 2. Find the range of load i.e., 350 ~ 50 = 300 gf and extension i.e., 0.57 - 0.08 = ).49 an. Since the range of load is greater than extension, then load-axis is taken parallel to longer side and extension-axis is taken to smaller side of graph paper. 3. Since, the data have the positive values, then origin is taken at the lower left corner of he graph paper. ; 4, Along the load-axis (X-axis), one small division (1 $.D.) = 5 gf and along the extension-2ts (Y-axis), 1S.D.=0.01cm. (©) To plot the data with error bars 5. Mark the points 50, 100, 150, ..... 350 gf on the load axis and the points 0.10, 0.20, 03 .60 cm on the extension-axis of the graph paper. 6. Forthe first data point, the value of load is 50 gf and extension is 0.08 cm measured with? accuracy of + 0.2 cm, Mark the dot on the graph paper against the load 50 gf and extensi" 0.08 cm and surround it by a small circle as © Corresponding to the load of 50 gf the | error bars are indicated against the upper and lower limiting values of the ‘extension ® 0.08 - 0,02 and 0.08 + 0.02 i., 0.06 and 0.10 cm, The first data point is then comple plotted as ©. 7 Similarly, plot the remaining data points, all the data points should lie in a straight Be In general, a few data points may be of the expected straight line graph. Draw a straight line joining the data points, taking care that the points, which do on the straight line graph are distributed evenly above and below it. °” Write down the title of the graph ie, ‘Graph between load and extension’ and the used along the two axes on the graph-paper. cf pot lie sale © scanned with OKEN Scanneractivities 119 GRAPH _ Graph Between Load and Extension Scale: ‘Along Load Axi, 1§.0. =5 of ‘Along Extensjon Axis, 1 SD. = 0,01 om aX i /1'80, 100 180 200 250 300 350 | " Load (gf) > “The variation between load and extension for the given set of data along with the error bars is as shown in Graph. PRECAUTIONS 1. ‘The scale along the two axes should be properly selected. 2 ‘The data points should be joined with a smooth curve or a straight line (as the case may be), so as to pass through the maximum number of points and the points, which do not lie on the graph, should be distributed evenly above and below it. © scanned with OKEN Scannerjm ~=EXPERIMENT 2 «= AIM: To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and extension, _— APPARATUS Spring, a rigid support, a 50 g or 20g hanger, six 50 g or 20 g slotted weights, a vertical wooden scale, a fine pointer and a hook. —_—_———_— THEORY When a load F is suspended from lower free end of a spring hanging from a rigid support, it increases its length by amount I, then Fol or F= Kl, © scanned with OKEN Scannerra ” stl 143 xis constant of proportionality. Iris called the force constant or the spring constant of the spring. , From above, if Is 1,FeK. Hence, force constant (or spring constant) of a spring may be defined as the force required to sadyee unit extension in the spring. plIAGRAM Rigid > support Vertical Spring. ay scale, Pointer Hook Hanger Slotted 2 woights Fig. Extension of spring. PROCEDURE 1 Suspend the spring from a rigid support: Attach a pointer and a hook from its lower free end. 2 Hanga 50 g hanger from the hook. 5 Set the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes over the divisions on the scale but does not touch the scale, Note the reading of the position of the tip of the pointer on the scale, Record it in loading column against zero load. Gently add suitable load of 50 g or 20 gslotted weight to the hanger. The pointer tip moves down, ‘Wait for few minutes till the pointer tip comes to rest. Repeat step 4. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slotted weights have been added, Now remove one slotted weight. he pointer tip moves up. Repeat step 6. Record the reading in unloading column. ‘©, Repeat step 8 till only hanger is left. Record your observations as given below. © scanned with OKEN Scanner- I Comprehensive Practical Phys OBSERVATIONS Teast count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm, Table for load and extension — To aE =o eae. Serial Loadon Reading of portion of pointer tip | aetenniag No.of | hanger (W) Loading Unloading : Obs, = Applied force | @® | wt) y (cm) 1 0 | 0 6 2 » | u Ls pean 20040 3 u |< 060 | SG ue | i. 200 0 ws | 6. 250-100 qt at | 2 | aoe | i GRAPH —_ Plot a graph between F and | taking F along X-axis and along Y-axis. The graph comes to bea straight line as shown below. | Graph bowen a cooled tea ahd extension Extension (0 in cm a ee ae Appliod force (Fn 9 Fig. Graph between F and L. It is a straight line © scanned with OKEN ScannerElasticity Fis From the graph, change of F from B to C changes I from B and D. It means that 250 g wt produces 2.5 cm extension. Kee oe TAC 250 Hence, K= J = 100gwt perm. RESULT ‘The force constant of the given spring is 100 g wt per cm. [Remember: With this spring, a spring balance of range 1 kg will have a scale of length 10 cm] PRECAUTIONS {, Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently. 2. Reading should be noted only when tip of the pointer comes to rest. 3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface. 4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit. SOURCES OF ERROR 1, The support may not be rigid. 2. The slotted weights may not have correct weight. ‘VIVA VOCE ae Q.1. Define a rigid body. ‘Ans. A body is said to be a rigid body, if it suffers absolutely no change in its form (length, volume or shape), under the action of forces applied on it. Q.2. Define an accelerating force. . An unbalanced force which will produce acceleration in a body, is called an accelerating force. | Q3. Define a deforming force. . A balanced force producing deformation in a body, is called a deforming force. . Define elasticity. property of a deformed body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its original form, when e deforming forces have been withdrawn, is called elasticity. Bodies having this property, are lled elastic bodies. fine a stress. e restoring force per unit area exerted by the molecules of a deformed body. from within the © scanned with OKEN Scanneree BE eI i i xample. In sonometer experiment, vibrations of sonometer board are forced vibrations, sie Pa nt vibrations. ‘The vibrations of a vibrating body, under the influence of a second nant vibrations. The phenomena will continue vibrating even when the ting body of same frequency kept near it, are called reso: iscalled resonance. In this case, the first vibrating body second body is removed, Example. In sonometer experiment, vibrations of sonometer wire, when paper rider falls, are resonant vibrations, (The wire isin resonance with the tuning fork. Both have same frequency). “EXPERIMENT 8 EE AIM: To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant tension Sa cmeidialan, APPARATUS A sonometer, a set of eight tuning forks, ; kghanger, seven ; kg slotted weights, rubber pad, paper rider, metre scale and screw gauge. THEORY / If stretched wire (string) vibrates in resonance witha tuning fork of frequency v, then the string also has same frequency v. If the string has a length I, diameter D, material of density p and tension T, then 1 [T @) © scanned with OKEN Scanner"actical pp au 4 y) am ©. From (1) 1 esau frequency 4. (1) above, i vyl= Constant, or a straight Hine, while Agraph between vand > willbeast NPAs beg hyperbola, tension (1), 7 Relation between length (1) and te 7. From Eq (1 above, FE coh 1 Fel He Te? or A graph between T and Fwill bea straig DIAGRAM Refer Fig. 18.08, PROCEDURE To find the relation between frequency and la 1. Place the sonometer on the table as shdw Test the pulley and make it fricti Put suitable maximum weight in the h: Move wooden bridges P, P outward to fq Take a tuning fork of least frequency 4 to make it vibrate. Bring the tuning ©. Pluck the wire AB from the middle and 7. Listen to sound 2, 3 4. 5, your ear. ve it to vibrate. Produced by tuning fgpleand wire and judge which has less frequency (sound which is grave and has low Pitch, has quency), geerronly. © Since the long wire mayhave lesg frequpney, decrease its length by moving the bridgesinw Check the frequencies again, 9. Goon decreasing the length tll frequefley of vibrating wire AB becomes equal to the frequen) of the tuning fork, forkand 10, Put an inverted shaped paper rider pn the wire AB in its middle. Vibrate tes ao (uch thelowerend ofits handle wit neter board. The wire AB vibrates du and paper rider falls 11, 12. Bring the two bridges closer and then little till rider fas. 13. Note the length ofthe wire ang reco © scanned with OKEN ScannerBE a vibration of Strings and Air Columns 209 v4 Take the remaining five tuning forks, one by one, in order of increasing frequency and repeat steps 5 to 13. 4 Record your observations as given below. oBSERVATIONS Constant tension on the wires, T= _kg. Table for frequency and length a Resonant length ofwire SerialNo. of cree Length Length a Obs. (Gia) increasing | decreasing | Mean. “> I (om) L,(an) 1 (cm) (cm) 1 256 50.1 49.9 - eae =50 | 0.02 2, 288 3. 320 4. 384 5. 480 6. 512 (Note. Observation 1 is given as sample.) CALCULATIONS 1, Find mean length I. 2. Find ; : +, Plota graph between v and I, taking v along X-axis and [along Y-axis. Graph between trequenéy and longth y I Frequency (v) in Hz Graph between frequency (v) and length J. It is a rectangular hyperbola. © scanned with OKEN ScannerComprchensive Practical Phys 1 1 : 3 yand >, taking v along X-axis and = along Y-axis, 4 Plot agraph between vand 7, taking. 7 The gra A n s shown in below. a straight hi Graph between v and 1/! Y Scale: § s 3 « 286" 288320 884 EE 400) SBATEN. Frequency (v) in Hz | Graph between v and VI. It is a straight line. RESULT 1 From the graph, we conclude that vl = constant and v « T ‘his verifies law of length of transverse vibrations of strings. [REE EXPERIMENT 9 Sm it To study the relation, between ‘the length of a given wire and tension for ¢ using sonometer, an APPARATUS Same as given in Experiment g, THEORY Same as given in Experiment g, © scanned with OKEN Scanner