AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.

Ravichandran

AIRCRAFT

The basic components of an aeroplane include the fuselage, wings, tail assembly, landing
gear and Engine. The fuselage houses the pilot, passengers, and cargo. The wings are shaped to
provide the lift that enables the plane to fly. Movable ailerons on the wings control banking
(rolling). The tail assembly includes movable parts, the rudder and elevators, that control pitching
and turning motions. The fin and the horizontal stabilizer are fixed, and increase stability during
flight. The landing gear enables the plane to roll along the runway during take-off and landing.
Light, single-engine planes such as this one are popular with private pilots.

COMPONENTS OR PARTS OF AN AIRPLANE AND THIER FUNCTIONS:

The airframe consists of the FUSELAGE, ENGINE & EMPENNAGE
FUSELAGE: This is the main component of the airplane, the wings, and the empennage. Or in
other words, this is to form the basis for attachment of other parts to accommodate pilot, crew,
passenger, cargo, fuel tanks, ammunitions, etc,.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

ENGINE: This provides the necessary thrust to get the aircraft into the air and provides a
sustained flight.

When the engines are mounted from the wings, they are usually housed in a type of shroud
called a nacelle.

WINGS OR MAIN PLANE: Its main purpose is to provide the lift required to maintain the
aircraft in flight. It provides the attachment points for ailerons and flaps. The left and the right
wings are so identified as you would see them from inside the airplane facing forward. It may
also be used for housing fuel tanks, guns, ammunitions, under carriage and other accessories.
Most modern airplanes have single WINGS mounted either above or below the fuselage. Most
but not all high-winged airplanes have wings that are supported by STRUTS.

STRUTS allow for a lighter wing but at the expense of more drag (resistance to motion through
the air).

The AILERON and FLAPS are control surface hinged surfaces, usually at the trailing edge of
the wings and tail that can be rotated up and down.

The AILERON provides the lateral control of an aircraft. It controls the rolling motion of an
aeroplane around the axis of the fuselage. They are operated by the rotation of the control wheel
or by the left-right movement of the stick. When the left aileron is deflected downward and the
right aileron is deflected upward, lift is increased on the left wing and decreased on the right
wing, causing airplane roll to the right. The ailerons are coupled so that when one swings up the
other swings down.

The function of a FLAP is to increase the lift force on the airplane. Some airplanes are designed
with flaps at the leading edge of the wings as well as at the trailing edge.

EMPENNAGE (sometimes called the tail feathers) is the tail assembly consisting of the
horizontal stabilizer, the elevators, the vertical stabilizer, and the rudder.
TAIL PLANE: It is also known as horizontal stabilizer. It assists the longitudinal stability of the
aircraft. It is also provides the attachment points for elevators.

ELEVATORS are used to adjust, or control, the pitch (nose up/down attitude) of the airplane.
The elevators are connected to the control wheel or stick of the airplane and are moved by the
forward and backward motion of the control. When the elevator deflected downward, the lift on
the tail is increased, pulling the tail up and the nose of the airplane down. On some airplanes the
entire horizontal stabilizer is the elevator, as shown in Figure 1.2. This is called as stabilator.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

FIN: It is also known as vertical stabilizer. It assists the directional stability of the aircraft. It is
also provides the attachment points for Rudder.

The RUDDER is a control surface that can turn the nose of the aircraft to the right or left.
That is, it is used to make small directional changes and in turns. Two pedals on the floor operate
the rudder, used to provide directional control.

Most airplanes have small hinged sections on the trailing edge of the elevators and
sometimes on the rudder called TRIM TABS as shown in Figure 1.2. These tabs move in the
opposite direction to the control surface. The purpose of the trim tabs is to reduce the necessary
force on the control wheel, called a yoke, for the pilot to maintain a desired flight attitude.

CONTROL SURFACES: The hinged portions on the inboard part of the trailing edge of the
wings are the FLAPS. These are used to produce greater lift at low speeds and to provide
increased drag on landing. This increased drag helps to reduce the speed of the airplane and to
steepen the landing approach angle.
UNDER CARRIAGE: It is also known as LANDING GEAR or alighting gear. It is structure
on which the aircraft is supported on ground, while taking off and landing

Small airplanes have two configurations of LANDING GEAR. Tricycle landing gear has
the main landing gear just behind the centre of balance of the airplane and a steerable nose gear
up forward. The tail dragger has the main landing gear forward of the centre of balance and a
small steerable wheel at the tail. The nose gear and the tail wheel are steered with the rudder
pedals.

Flight controls - Definition

Aircraft flight controls allow a pilot to guide his plane to the destination. This article
describes controls used on a fixed wing aircraft of conventional design. Other fixed wing
aircraft configurations may use different control surfaces but the basic principles remain. The
controls for rotary wing aircraft (helicopter or autogyro) are completely different.

AXES OF MOTION
An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes which are perpendicular to each other and
intersect at the plane's centre of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot must be
able to control rotation about each of them.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Vertical - The vertical axis passes through the plane from top to bottom. Rotation about this axis
is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircraft's nose is pointing, left or right. The primary
control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a secondary effect on yaw.

Longitudinal - The longitudinal axis passes through the plane from nose to tail. Rotation about
this axis is called bank or roll. Bank changes the orientation of the aircraft's wings with respect to
the downward force of gravity. The pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing
and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift causes bank rotation around the longitudinal
axis. The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on
bank.

Lateral - The lateral axis passes through the plane from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this
axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction the aircraft's nose is pointing. The
elevators are the primary control of pitch.

It is important to note that these axes move with the aircraft, and change relative to the earth
as the aircraft moves. For example, for an aircraft whose left wing is pointing straight down, its
"vertical" axis is parallel with the ground, while its "lateral" axis is perpendicular to the ground.

Main Control Surfaces

The main control surfaces are attached to the airframe on hinges so they may move and
deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the air stream generates an
unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.

Ailerons - Ailerons are mounted on the back edge of each wing near the wingtips, and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the
left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a
lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to
rise. This causes the plane to bank left and begins to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns the
ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The plane will continue to turn until opposite aileron
motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.
Elevators - An elevator is mounted on the back edge of the horizontal stabilizer on each side of the
fin in the tail. They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the
elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push
down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack
which generates more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and
stops the change of pitch.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Rudder - The rudder is mounted on the back edge of the fin in the tail. When the pilot pushes the
left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right.
Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw right. Centering the
rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw.

Secondary Effects of Controls

Ailerons: The ailerons primarily control bank. However because the air underneath a wing is
denser than that above it, the lowering aileron causes more drag on its side than the rising aileron.
Using ailerons causes a small amount of yaw to occur. This is more pronounced for light aircraft
with long wings, such as gliders. It is usually counteracted by the pilot with the rudder.

Rudder: Using the rudder causes one wing to move forward faster than the other. Increased speed
means increased lift, and hence rudder use causes a small roll effect. For this reason ailerons and
rudder are generally used together on light aircraft.

Turning the aircraft:

Unlike a boat, turning an aircraft is not normally carried out with the rudder. Instead the
ailerons are used to bank the aircraft. The forces on the plane cause the aircraft to turn in the
same direction as the bank, with a steeper bank causing a faster turn. While this is happening the
nose of the aircraft has a tendency to drop, and the aircraft may also yaw, so the nose is not
pointing in the direction it is flying. The elevators are used to counter act the first, and the rudder
to counter act the second.

Alternate Main Control Surfaces:

Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example instead of
elevators at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tail plane may change angle. Most supersonic
aircraft will have a fully-moving tail. Some aircraft have a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving
parts at the back of those combine the functions of elevators and rudder. Delta wing aircraft may
have "elevons" at the back of the wing, which combine the functions of elevators and ailerons.

Secondary control surfaces Trimming

Trimming controls allow a pilot to balance the lift and drag being produced by the wings
and control surfaces over a wide range of load and airspeed. This reduces the effort required to
adjust or maintain a desired flight attitude.
Trim Tabs –
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Trim tabs are used to adjust the position of an associated main control surface. They are
often hinged to the back edge of the control surface with a control in the cockpit. Some trim tabs
on light aircraft are fixed sheets of metal that can be bent while the aircraft is on the ground but
cannot be controlled in flight. Both types function by redirecting the air stream to generate a force
which holds the main control surface in the desired position. Because they are furthest from the
pivot point of the main control surface, their small aerodynamic effects are magnified by leverage
to achieve the deflection of the main surface.

Trimming Tail Plane –

Except for very light aircraft, trim tabs on elevators are unable to provide the force and
range of motion desired. To provide the appropriate trim force the entire horizontal tail plane is
made adjustable in pitch. This allows the pilot to select exactly the right amount of positive or
negative lift from the tail plane while reducing drag from the elevators.

Control Horn –
A control horn is a section of control surface which projects ahead of the pivot point. It
generates a force which tends to increase the surface's deflection thus reducing the control pressure
experienced by the pilot. Control horns may also incorporate a counterweight which helps to
balance the control and prevent it from "fluttering" in the air stream. Some designs feature separate
anti-flutter weights.

In the simplest cases trimming is done by a mechanical spring which adds appropriate force
to the pilot's control.
Other Controls or the Secondary controls
Spoilers - On very high lift/low drag aircraft like sailplanes, spoilers are used to disrupt airflow
over the wing and greatly reduce the amount of lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude
without gaining excessive airspeed. Spoliers are sometimes called "lift dumpers".

Flaps - Flaps are mounted on the back edge of each wing near the wing roots. They are deflected
down to increase the effective curvature of the wing and produce additional lift, and also reduce the
stalling speed of the wing. They are used during low speed, high angle of attack flight like descent
for landing.

Slats are extensions to the front of a wing for lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce the
stalling speed by altering the airflow over the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats
(e.g. as on the Fieseler Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL capabilities, but compromise
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

higher speed performance. Retractable slats, as on most airliners, allow higher lift on take off, but
retract for cruising.

Air brakes - these are used on high speed aircraft and are intended to increase the drag of an
aircraft without altering the amount of lift. Airbrakes and spoilers are sometimes the same device -
on most airliners for example, the combined spoiler/airbrakes act to simultaneously remove lift and
to slow the aircraft's forward motion. They are deployed on landing to assist braking the aircraft and
to ensure that it stays on the ground. Mechanical braking of the wheels is assisted by both functions
- the weight of the aircraft carried by its wings is transferred to the undercarriage when the lift is
dumped, so there is less chance of a skid, and the airbrake effect increases the form drag of the
aircraft.

Flight instruments – Definition

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot
information about the aircraft's attitude, speed and height.
Most aircraft have these Six basic flight instruments:
Altimeter
Gives the aircraft's height (usually in feet or meters) above some reference level (usually
sea- level) by measuring the local air pressure. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure
(referenced to sea level) which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings.

Attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon)

Shows the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether
the wings are level and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a
primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots
are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Airspeed indicator
Shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots) relative to the surrounding air. The indicated
airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude and humidity) in order to
obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed over the ground.

Vertical speed indicator

Also sometimes called a variometer. Senses changing air pressure and displays that
information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent, usually in feet per minute.
Magnetic Compass
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. While reliable in steady level flight
it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, diving, or accelerating due to the
inclination of the earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the gyrocompass is also used for aircraft
operation. For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to correct the direction indicated (which
points to a magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true north or south (which points to the
earth's axis of rotation).

Turn and bank indicator

Also called the turn and slip indicator. Displays direction of turn and rate of turn.
Internally mounted inclinometer displays 'quality' of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly
coordinated, as opposed to an uncoordinated turn, wherein the aircraft would be in either a slip or
a skid. Replaced in the late sixties and early seventies by the newer turn coordinator, the turn and
bank is typically only seen in aircraft manufactured prior to that time.

In addition to the above six basic instruments, the following instruments are essential in
modern aircrafts:
Turn coordinator (Optional)
Displays rate and direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling; displays rate and direction
of turn while the aircraft is not rolling. Internally mounted inclinometer also displays quality of
turn. Replaced the older turn and bank indicator.

Heading indicator (Optional)

Also known as the directional gyro, or DG. Sometimes also called the gyrocompass,
though usually not in aviation applications. Displays the aircraft's heading with respect to
magnetic north. Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift
errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to
the magnetic compass.

ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
1. Engine RPM (OR) Tachometer
2. Oil Pressure Indicator
3. Oil Temperature Indicators
4. Exhaust Gas Temperature
5. Engine Pressure Ratio
6. Manifold Pressure Indicator
7. Cylinder Head Temperature Indicator
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

8. Fuel Quantity Indicators:

A. Mechanical Quantity Indicators
B. Resistance Quantity Indicators
C. Capacitan Quantity Indicators
9. Fuel System Monitoring Instruments
A. Fuel Pressure Gauge
B. Fuel Flow Meter
FLIGHT VEHICLES CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

Definitions:
All types of air supported vehicles can be called as aircraft. It is a man made device
which can

fly.

a) In theory of flight,
(i) the object that flies (aeroplanes)
(ii) the medium through which it flies (air)
(iii) the interaction between the object (airplane) and the medium (air)
b) Type of aircraft: These can be divided into:
(i) Lighter than air aircraft, e.g. balloons and airships
(ii) Heavier than air aircraft, e.g. gliders, helicopters and aeroplanes
c) They can also be divided into 3 groups with different consideration in view namely,
Land planes (which can take off from and can land on ground)
(i) Sea plane (which take off from and land on sea)
(ii) Amphibians (which can take off from and land on both ground and sea)
d) Depending on the number of wings, aeroplane may be monoplane(one wing on
each side) and biplanes (two wings on each side)
e) On the basis of number of engines used, aeroplane can be divided into single
engine or multi- engine aeroplanes.
f) On the basis of the type of engines used, aeroplane can divided into propeller
driven or jet planes.
g) On the basis of the speed an aeroplane may be sub-sonic (with a speed below that
of sound), sonic (with a speed equal to that of sound), super sonic (with a speed
more than that of sound)
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Heavier than air aircraft

Heavier than air aerodynes, including autogyros, helicopters and variants, and
conventional fixed-wing aircraft: Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion
engine in the form of a piston engine (with a propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or
turboprop), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air.

The movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly.
Exceptions are gliders which have no engineand gain their thrust, initially, from winches or
tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. That is, in order to maintain their forward
speed they must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground).
Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide both lift and
thrust. The abbreviation VTOL (vertical take off and landing) is applied to aircraft other than
helicopters that can take off or land vertically. Likewise, STOL stands for Short Take Off
and Landing.

Lighter than air aircraft

Lighter than air aerostats: hot air balloons and airships. Aerostats float in air in the
same way that a ship floats in water, by displacing the air around the craft with a lighter gas
(helium or hydrogen), or hot air. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an
airship has some means of controlling forward motion and steering, while balloons simply
drift with the wind.

ORNITHOPTER
An ornithopter (from Greek ornithos "bird" and pteron "wing") is an aircraft that flies by
flapping its wings. Designers seek to imitate the flapping-wing flight of birds, bats, and insects.
Though machines may differ in form, they are usually built on the same scale as these flying
creatures. Manned ornithopters have also been built, and some have been successful.

The machines are of two general types: those with engines and those powered by the
muscles of the pilot. Perhaps because the prevailing technology is fixed-wing aircraft, people are
mainly aware of the failed attempts at flapping-wing flight. This article describes only the more
successful attempts.

The first ornithopters capable of flight were constructed in France in the 1870s. Gustave
Trouvé's 1870 model flew a distance of 70 meters in a demonstration for the French Academy of
Sciences. The idea of constructing wings in order to resemble the flight of birds dates to the ancient
Greek legend of Daedalus (Greek demigod engineer) and Icarus (Daedalus's son). One of the first
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

recorded – still dilettante – attempts with gliders were those by the 11th century monk Eilmer of
Malmesbury (recorded in the 12th century) and the 9th century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas (recorded in
the 17th century); both experiments ended with lasting injuries to their pilots.[1] Roger Bacon,
writing in 1260, was among the first to consider a technological means of flight. In 1485, Leonardo
da Vinci began to study the flight of birds. He grasped that humans are too heavy, and not strong
enough, to fly using wings simply attached to the arms. Therefore he proposed a device in which
the aviator lies down on a plank and works two large, membranous wings using hand levers, foot
pedals, and a system of pulleys.
The first ornithopters capable of flight were constructed in France in the 1870s.
Gustave Trouvé's 1870 model flew a distance of 70 meters in a demonstration for the French
Academy of Sciences. The wings were flapped by gunpowder charges activating a bourdon tube.
Jobert in 1871 used a rubber band to power a small model bird. Alphonse Penaud, Hureau de
Villeneuve, Victor Tatin, and others soon followed with their own designs.

CLASSIFICATION AIRCRAFT
Classification by Configuration
Location and type of Landing Gear
Classification by Power Plants
Types of Fuselage
Classification by Purpose
CLASSIFICATION BY CONFIGURATION
POSITION OF THE WING
Low Wing
Mid Wing
High Wing
NUMBER OF WINGS
Mono Plane
Bi Plane
Tri Plane
SHAPE OF THE WINGS
Straight Wing
Delta Wing
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Diamond wing
Swept wing
Gull shaped wing
POSITION OF THE WINGS
10. Conventional Wing
11. No Tail or Tail Less
12. Horizontal Tail Located Above The Vertical Tail
13. Canard Type
POSITION OF THE WING

HIGH WING MID WING LOW WING

LOW WING: The main plane is designed below the fuselage of the aircraft

MID WING: The main plane is designed at the mid position of the fuselage of the aircraft

HIGH WING: The main plane is designed at the top of the fuselage

NUMBER OF WING

MONO PLANE BIPLANE TRIPLANE

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

The figure shows a Monoplane, has a single set of wings with a horizontal stabilizer and vertical
stabilizer at the back of the aircraft which have become conventional configuration. The aircraft
have straight wing or swept wing.

The figure shows a BIPLANE has two set of wings mounted one above the other. The Wright
brothers called this a double decker.

The figure shows a TRIPLANE has three set of wings mounted one above the others.

Advantages and disadvantages of BIPLANE over MONOPLANE

Aircraft built with two main wings (or three in a triplane) can usually lift up to 20 percent
more than can a similarly sized monoplane of similar wingspan. Biplanes will therefore typically
have a lower wingspan than a similar monoplane, which tends to afford greater manoeuvrability.
The struts and wire bracing of a typical biplane form a box girder that permits a light but very
strong wing structure.

On the other hand there are many disadvantages to the configuration. Each wing negatively
interferes with the aerodynamics of the other. For a given wing area the biplane produces more drag
and less lift than a monoplane.

SHAPE OF THE WING

DELTA WING SWEPT WING GULL SHAPED WING DIAMOND

WING

STRAIGHT WING VAIABLE SWEPT WING

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

SWEPT WING: WING SWEEP is a design feature that reduces the aerodynamic drag at speed
near to or above the speed of sound. Most high speed aircraft have some type of swept wing: swept
forward and swept backward.

Swept forward wings have combined aerodynamic and structural features that tend to cause
the wing to twist and fail structurally. High strength composite materials have of today, swept
forward wing can be strong enough to resist this problem.

Conventional wing Horizontal located above canard wing no tail or tail less
Vertical tail

horizontal tail less vertical tail less T tail

CANARD type wing: The horizontal stabilizer is mounted ahead of the wing rather than at the
rear of the plane. This is defined as canard configuration. The horizontal stabilizer in this location
is called canard surface. The reason for not widely used is, the designer feels that a canard surface
has a destabilizing on the plane.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

NON RETRACTABLE RETRACTABLE NOSE WHEEL

TAIL WHEEL

LOCATION AND TYPE OF LANDING GEAR

A. RETRACTABLE
B. NON RETRACTABLE
C. NOSE WHEEL
D. TAIL WHEEL

CLASSIFICATION BY POWER PLANTS

POWER PLANT TYPES - PISTON ENGINE
TURBO PROP
TURBO JET
TURBO FAN
TURBO SHAFT
ROCKET
NUMBER OFENGINES - SINGLE ENGINE
TWO ENGINE
MULTI ENGINE

LOCATION OF THE ENGINE – NOSE

FUSELAGE
JET ENGINE SUBMERGED IN WING
PYLON MOUTING

TYPES OF FUSELAGE - ROUND

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

SQUARE
OVAL

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE- CIVIL

CARGO
MILITARY–BOMBERS, FIGHTERS,
INTERCEPTORS

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

A control system is a collection of mechanical and electronic equipment that allows an aircraft to be
flown with exceptional precision and reliability.
A control system consists of cockpit controls, sensors, actuators (hydraulic, mechanical or
electrical) and computers
A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the
respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control
an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they
change speed.

Fig.1.1 Basic Control System

h) Aileron, B) Control stick, C) Elevator, D) Rudder.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or
stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to control an aircraft
safely during flight. Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the
secondary control system and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve the
pilot of excessive control forces.
Autopilot
Autopilot is an automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set
course. It can be directed by the pilot, or it may be coupled to a radio navigation signal. Autopilot
reduces the physical and mental demands on a pilot and increases safety. The common features
available on an autopilot are altitude and heading hold.

The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos
connected to the flight control system. The number and location of these servos depends on the
complexity of the system. For example, a single-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis and a servo actuates the ailerons. A three-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about
the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes. Three different servos actuate ailerons, elevator, and
rudder. More advanced systems often include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode.
Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids through a flight director.

The autopilot system also incorporates a disconnect safety feature to disengage the system
automatically or manually. These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems, global
positioning systems (GPS), and flight computers to control the aircraft. In fly-by-wire systems, the
autopilot is an integrated component.

Additionally, autopilots can be manually overridden. Because autopilot systems differ widely in
their operation, refer to the autopilot operating instructions in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or
the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH).
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fig AUTO PILOT

Conventional Flight Control System Components

Push Pull Rods

Fig PUSH PULL ROD

Turnbuckles
A turnbuckle, stretching screw or bottle screw is a device for adjusting the tension or length
of ropes, cables, tie rods and other tensioning systems.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fig TURNBUCKLES
Torque Tube
A tube in an aircraft control system that transmits a tensional force from the operating control to the
control surface. Torque tubes are often used to actuate ailerons and flaps.

Fig TORQUE TUBE

Bell Crank
A double lever in an aircraft control system used to change the direction of motion. Bell cranks are
normally used in aileron controls and in the steering system of nose wheels

Fig BELL CRANK

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fairleads
A fairlead is a device to guide a line, rope or cable around an object, out of the way or to stop it
from moving laterally. Typically a fairlead will be a ring or hook. The fairlead may be a separate
piece of hardware, or it could be a hole in the structure.

Fig FAIRLEADS

Mechanical Flight Control System

It uses a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, tension cables, pulleys, counterweights, and
sometimes chains to transmit the forces applied from the cockpit controls directly to the control
surfaces.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fig

Direct mechanical control

As mentioned in the introduction, the linkage from cabin to control surface can be fully mechanical
if the aircraft size and its flight envelop allow; in this case the hinge moment generated by the
surface deflection is low enough to be easily contrasted by the muscular effort of the pilot.
Two types of mechanical systems are used: push-pull rods and cable-pulley.
In the first case a sequence of rods link the control surface to the cabin input. Bell-crank levers are
used to change the direction of the rod routings: sketches the push-pull control rod system between
the elevator and the cabin control column; the bell-crank lever is here necessary to alter the
direction of the transmission and to obtain the conventional coupling between stick movement and
elevator deflection (column fwd. = down deflection of surface and pitch down control).
From this simplified description the main requirements of a push-pull rod system are clear. First of
all the linkage must be stiff, to avoid any unwanted deflection during flight and due to fuselage
elasticity. Second, axial instability during compression must be excluded; the instability load P for a
rod is given by:
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran
2
π EI
P=
λ
Where:
E = Young modulus;
I = cross-section moment of inertia;
λ = reference length.

Fig Push Pull rod for elevator control

The reference length is linked to the real length of the rod, meaning that to increase the instability
load the length must be decreased, or the rods must be frequently constrained by slide guides, or the
routing must be interrupted with bell-cranks.
Finally a modal analysis of the system layout is sometimes necessary, because vibrations of the rods
can introduce oscillating deflections of the surface; this problem is particularly important on
helicopters, because vibrations generated by the main rotor can induce a dramatic resonance of the
flight control rods.
The same operation described before can be done by a cable-pulley system, where couples of cables
are used in place of the rods. In this case pulleys are used to alter the direction of the lines, equipped
with idlers to reduce any slack due to structure elasticity, cable strands relaxation or thermal
expansion. Often the cable-pulley solution is preferred, because is more flexible and allows
reaching more remote areas of the airplane. An example is sketched in figure, where the cabin
column is linked via a rod to a quadrant.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fig Cables and pulleys system for elevator control

Hydraulic control
When the pilot’s action is not directly sufficient for a the control, the main option is a powered
system that assists the pilot.
A few control surfaces on board are operated by electrical motors: as already discussed in a
previous chapter, the hydraulic system has demonstrated to be a more suitable solution for actuation
in terms of reliability, safety, weight per unit power and flexibility, with respect to the electrical
system, then becoming the common tendency on most modern airplanes: the pilot, via the cabin
components, sends a signal, or demand, to a valve that opens ports through which high pressure
hydraulic fluid flows and operates one or more actuators.
The valve, that is located near the actuators, can be signalled in two different ways: mechanically or
electrically; mechanical signalling is obtained by push-pull rods, or more commonly by cables and
pulleys; electrical signalling is a solution of more modern and sophisticated vehicles and will be
later on discussed.
The basic principle of the hydraulic control is simple, but two aspects must be noticed when a
powered control is introduced:
1. the system must control the surface in a proportional way, i.e. the surface response (deflection)
must be function to the pilot’s demand (stick deflection, for instance);
2. the pilot that with little effort acts on a control valve must have a feedback on the maneuver
intensity.

The first problem is solved by using (hydraulic) servo-mechanisms, where the components are
linked in such a way to introduce an actuator stroke proportional to the pilot’s demand; many
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

examples can be made, two of them are sketched in fig. 6.4, the second one including also the
hydraulic circuit necessary for a correct operation.
In both cases the control valve housing is solid with the cylinder and the cabin column has a
mechanical linkage to drive the valve spool.

Fig. Classic hydraulic servomechanisms

In the first case, the cylinder is hinged to the aircraft and, due to valve spool displacement and ports
opening, the piston is moved in one direction or the other; the piston rod is also linked to the valve
spool stick, in such a way that the piston movement brings the spool back towards its neutral
position; when this is reached, the actuator stops, then obtaining a deflection that is proportional to
the demand.
In the second case the piston is constrained to the aircraft; the cabin column controls the valve spool
stick; this will result in a movement of the cylinder, and this brings the valve housing again towards
the valve neutral position, then resulting in a stroke proportional to the pilot’s demand. The
hydraulic circuit also includes an emergency valve on the delivery segment to the control valve; if
the delivery pressure drops, due for instance to a pump or engine failure, the emergency valve
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

switches to the other position and links all the control valve inlets to the tank; this operation
hydraulically unlocks the system, allowing the pilot for manual actuation of the cylinder.
It is clear now that the pilot, in normal hydraulic operating conditions, is requested for a very low
effort, necessary to contrast the mechanical frictions of the linkage and the movement of the control
valve: the pilot is then no more aware of the load condition being imposed to the aircraft.
For this reason an artificial feel is introduced in powered systems, acting directly on the cabin
control stick or pedals. The simplest solution is a spring system, then responding to the pilot’s
demand with a force proportional to the stick deflection; this solution has of course the limit to be
not sensitive to the actual flight conditions. A more sophisticated artificial feel is the so-called Q
feel. This system receives data from the pitot-static probes, reading the dynamic pressure, or the
difference between total (pt) and static (ps) pressure, that is proportional to the aircraft speed v
through the air density ρ:

1 2
Pt − P s = ρv
2

This signal is used to modulate a hydraulic cylinder that increases the stiffness in the artificial feel
system, in such a way that the pilot is given a contrast force in the pedals or stick that is also
proportional to the aircraft speed.
Servo Tabs
•In large aircrafts the control surfaces are operated by power operated hydraulic actuators controlled
by valves moved by control yoke and rudder pedals. An artificial feel system gives the pilot
resistance that is proportional to the flight loads on the surfaces.

•In the event of hydraulic system failure, the control surfaces are controlled by servo tabs in a
process known as manual reversion.

•In the manual mode the flight control column moves the tab on the c/surface and the aerodynamic
forces caused by the deflected tab moves the main control surface

Flight Control Surfaces On An Modern Advanced Aircraft

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Fig
Fly –By –Wire System (FBW)

•The term "fly-by-wire" implies a purely electrically-signaled control system

• It is a computer-configured control, where a computer system is interposed between the operator

and the final control actuators or surfaces

•It modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters

•These are carefully developed and validated in order to produce maximum operational effect
without compromising safety
FBW – Introduction

•The FBW architecture was developed in 1970’s

•Initially starting as an analogue technique and later on transformed into digital.

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

•It was first developed for military aviation, where it is now a common solution

•The supersonic Concorde can be considered a first and isolated civil aircraft equipped with a
(analogue) fly-by-wire system

•In the 80’s the digital technique was imported from military into civil aviation by Airbus, first with
the A320, then followed by A319, A321, A330, A340, Boeing 777 and A380 (scheduled for 2005).

•This architecture is based on computer signal processing

A fly-by-wire (FBW) system replaces manual flight control of an aircraft with an electronic
interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires
(hence the fly-by-wire term), and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at
each control surface to provide the expected response. Commands from the computers are also
input without the pilot's knowledge to stabilize the aircraft and perform other tasks. Electronics for
aircraft flight control systems are part of the field known as avionics.

Fly-by-optics, also known as fly-by-light, is a further development using fiber optic cables.

OPERATION

•The pilot’s demand is first of all transduced into electrical signal in the cabin and sent to a group of
independent computers (Airbus architecture substitute the cabin control column with a side stick)

•The computers sample also data concerning the flight conditions and servo-valves and actuators
positions

•The pilot’s demand is then processed and sent to the actuator, properly tailored to the actual flight
status.

•The flight data used by the system mainly depend on the aircraft category; in general the following
data are sampled and processed:
– Pitch, roll, yaw rate and linear accelerations

– Angle of attack and sideslip

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

– Airspeed/Mach number, Pressure, Altitude and radio altimeter indications

–Stick and pedal demands

–Other cabin commands such as landing gear condition, thrust lever position, etc.

•The full system has high redundancy to restore the level of reliability of a mechanical or hydraulic
system, in the form of multiple (triplex or quadruplex) parallel and independent lanes to generate
and transmit the signals, and independent computers that process them

Fig FLY BY WIRE SYSTEM

FBW – Basic Operation

•When a pilot moves the control, a signal is sent to a computer, this is analogous to moving a game
controller, the signal is sent through multiple wires (channels) to ensure that the signal reaches the
computer.

•When there are three channels being used this is known as 'Triplex'.

•The computer receives the signals, performs a calculation (adds the signal voltages and divides by
the number of signals received to find the mean average voltage) and adds another channel.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

•These four 'Quadruplex' signals are then sent to the control surface actuator and the surface begins
to move.

• Potentiometers in the actuator send a signal back to the computer (usually a negative voltage)
reporting the position of the actuator.

•When the actuator reaches the desired position the two signals (incoming and outgoing) cancel
each other out and the actuator stops moving (completing a feedback loop).

Fig FLY BY WIRE BASIC OPERATION

FBW – Stability

•Three gyroscopes fitted with sensors are fitted in the aircraft to sense movement changes in the
pitch roll and yaw axes.

•Any movement (from straight and level flight for example) results in signals being sent to the
computer which again moves the relevant control actuators, however, the input is done without the
pilot's knowledge; the cockpit controls do not move

FBW – Safety and Redundancy

AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed (four independent channels) in order to prevent loss of
signals in the case of failure of one or even two channels. High performance aircraft that have FBW
controls (also called CCVs or Control-Configured Vehicles) may be deliberately designed to have
low or even negative aerodynamic stability in some flight regimes, the rapid-reacting CCV controls
compensating for the lack of natural stability

Pre-flight safety checks of a fly-by-wire system are often performed using Built-In Test Equipment
(BITE). On programming the system, either by the pilot or ground crew, a number of control
movement steps are automatically performed. Any failure will be indicated to the crews.

FBW – Advantages

•Flight envelope protection (the computers will reject and tune pilot’s demands that might exceed
the airframe load factors)

•Increase of stability and handling qualities across the full flight envelope, including the possibility
of flying unstable vehicles

• Turbulence suppression and consequent decrease of fatigue loads and increase of passenger
comfort. Use of thrust vectoring to augment or replace lift aerodynamic control, then extending the
aircraft flight envelope. Drag reduction by an optimized trim setting

•Higher stability during release of tanks and weapons Easier interfacing to auto-pilot and other
automatic flight control systems

•Weight reduction (mechanical linkages are substituted by wirings).

•Maintenance reduction and reduction of airlines’ pilot training costs (flight handling becomes very
similar in a whole aircraft family)

Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW)

•A digital fly-by-wire flight control system is similar to analog system. However, the signal
processing is done by digital computers and the pilots literally can "fly-via-computer".
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

• Increases in flexibility of the flight control system, since the digital computers can receive input
from any aircraft sensor (such as the altimeters and the pitot tubes).

• Increase in electronic stability - system is less dependent on the values of critical electrical
components in an analog controller

•The computers "read" position and force inputs from the pilot's controls and aircraft sensors.

•They solve differential equations to determine the appropriate command signals that move the
flight controls in order to carry out the intentions of the pilot

•The programming of the digital computers enables flight envelope protection.

Aircraft designers precisely tailor an aircraft's handling characteristics, to stay within the overall
limits of what is possible given the aerodynamics and structure of the aircraft.

•Flight-control computers continuously "fly" the aircraft; pilot's workloads can be reduced

•In military and naval applications, it is now possible to fly military aircraft that have relaxed
stability.

Better maneuverability during combat and training flights and “carefree handling" because stalling,
spinning. And other undesirable performances are prevented automatically by the computers

•Enable inherently unstable combat aircraft, such as the F-117 Nighthawk and the B-2 Spirit flying
wing to fly in usable and safe manners

DFBW - Redundancy

•If one of the flight-control computers crashes - or is damaged in combat; or suffers from "insanity"
caused by electromagnetic pulses - the others overrule the faulty one (or even two of them), they
continue flying the aircraft safely, and they can either turn off or re-boot the faulty computers.

•Any flight-control computer whose results disagree with the others is ruled to be faulty, and it is
either ignored or re-booted.
AIRCRAFT & ENGINE UNIT 2 Mr.R.Ravichandran

•Most of the early digital fly-by-wire aircraft also had an analog electrical, a mechanical, or a
hydraulic back-up flight control system

• The Space Shuttle has, in addition to its redundant set of four digital computers running its
primary flight-control software, a fifth back-up computer running a separately developed, reduced-
function, software flight-control system - one that can be commanded to take over in the event that
a fault ever affects all of the computers in the other four.

This back-up system serves to reduce the risk of total flight-control-system failure ever happening
because of a general-purpose flight software fault has escaped notice in the other four computers.

•For airliners, flight-control redundancy improves their safety

• Fly-by-wire control systems also improve economy in flight because they are lighter, and they
eliminate the need for many mechanical, and heavy, flight-control mechanisms

Most modern airliners have computerized systems that control their jet engine throttles, air inlets,
fuel storage and distribution system, in such a way to minimize their consumption of jet fuel. Thus,
digital control systems do their best to reduce the cost of flights.