Conservation of Mass

1. Name four physical quantities that are conserved and two quantities that are not conserved during
a process.
Mass, energy, momentum, and electric charge are conserved, and volume and entropy are not
conserved during a process.
2. Define mass and volume flow rates. How are they related to each other?
Mass flow rate is the amount of mass flowing through a cross-section per unit time whereas volume
flow rate is the amount of volume flowing through a cross-section per unit time.
3. Does the amount of mass entering a control volume have to be equal to the amount of mass leaving
during an unsteady-flow process?
The amount of mass or energy entering a control volume does not have to be equal to the amount
of mass or energy leaving during an unsteady-flow process.
4. When is the flow through a control volume steady?
Flow through a control volume is steady when it involves no changes with time at any specified
position.
5. Consider a device with one inlet and one outlet. If the volume flow rates at the inlet and at the
outlet are the same, is the flow through this device necessarily steady? Why?
No, a flow with the same volume flow rate at the inlet and the exit is not necessarily steady (unless
the density is constant). To be steady, the mass flow rate through the device must remain constant.

Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

1. What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal energy? What are the forms of
mechanical energy of a fluid stream?
Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by a mechanical device such as a propeller. It differs from thermal energy in that thermal
energy cannot be converted to work directly and completely. The forms of mechanical energy of a
fluid stream are kinetic, potential, and flow energies.
2. What is mechanical efficiency? What does a mechanical efficiency of 100 percent mean for a
hydraulic turbine?
Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy output to the mechanical
energy input. A mechanical efficiency of 100% for a hydraulic turbine means that the entire
mechanical energy of the fluid is converted to mechanical (shaft) work. No real fluid machine is
100% efficient, due to frictional losses, etc. – the second law of thermodynamics.
3. How is the combined pump–motor efficiency of a pump and motor system defined? Can the
combined pump–motor efficiency be greater than either the pump or the motor efficiency?
The combined pump-motor efficiency of a pump/motor system is defined as the ratio of the increase
in the mechanical energy of the fluid to the electrical power consumption of the motor,

The combined pump-motor efficiency cannot be greater than either of the pump or motor efficiency
since both pump and motor efficiencies are less than 1, and the product of two numbers that are
less than one is less than either of the numbers. Since many pumps are supplied with an integrated
motor, pump-motor efficiency is a useful parameter.
4. Define turbine efficiency, generator efficiency, and combined turbine–generator efficiency.
Turbine efficiency, generator efficiency, and combined turbine-generator efficiency are defined as
follows:

Most turbines are connected directly to a generator, so the combined efficiency is a useful
parameter.

Bernoulli Equation
1. What is streamwise acceleration? How does it differ from normal acceleration? Can a fluid particle
accelerate in steady flow?
The acceleration of a fluid particle along a streamline is called streamwise acceleration, and it is due
to a change in speed along a streamline. Normal acceleration (or centrifugal acceleration), on the
 other hand, is the acceleration of a fluid particle in the direction normal to the streamline, and it is
due to a change in direction. In a general fluid flow problem, both streamwise and normal
acceleration are present.
2. Express the Bernoulli equation in three different ways using (a) energies, (b) pressures, and (c)
heads.
The Bernoulli equation is expressed in three different ways as follows:

3. What are the three major assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation?
The three major assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation are that the flow is
steady, there is negligible frictional effects, and the flow is incompressible. If any one of these
assumptions is not valid, the Bernoulli equation should not be used. Unfortunately, many
people use it anyway, leading to errors.
4. Define static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressure. Under what conditions is their sum constant for a
flow stream?
Static pressure P is the actual pressure of the fluid. Dynamic pressure ρV2/2 is the pressure rise
when the fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically. Hydrostatic pressure ρgz is not pressure
in a real sense since its value depends on the reference level selected, and it accounts for the effects
of fluid weight on pressure. The sum of static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is constant when
flow is steady and incompressible, and when frictional effects are negligible. The incompressible
Bernoulli equation states that the sum of these three pressures is constant along a streamline; this
approximation is valid only for steady and incompressible flow with negligible frictional effects.
5. What is stagnation pressure? Explain how it can be measured.
The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure, and it is expressed
as . The stagnation pressure can be measured by a Pitot tube whose inlet is normal
to the flow. Stagnation pressure, as its name implies, is the pressure obtained when a flowing fluid
is brought to rest isentropically, at a so-called stagnation point.
6. Define pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head for a fluid stream and express them for a
fluid stream whose pressure is P, velocity is V, and elevation is z.
The pressure head P/ρg is the height of a fluid column that produces the static pressure P. The
velocity head V 2/2 is the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free
fall. The elevation head z is the height of a fluid relative to a reference level.