Lecture 1: Introduction to Transducers

Outline:
• Introduction
• Transduction principle
• Classification of transducer
Automation: “Auto” (self) + “Matos” (moving)
Industrial Automation: It is a set of technologies that results in operation of industrial
machines and systems without significant human intervention and achieves performance
superior to manual operation.
Industrial Automation Pyramid:

Offline Enterprise

Offline Production
control

Spatial/Temporal Scale
Online, Soft Real Time

Supervisory control

Real Time H/W S/W

Automatic control
Embedded H/W S/W
Sensors & Actuators

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Input
Sensing Signal Signal Data
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Transducer: It is a device that converts one form of energy into a corresponding signal.
Sensor: It is a device that converts a physical parameter to an electrical signal.

Actuator: It is a device that converts electrical signal into other physical form of energy.

Functional elements of an Instrument/Measuring system:

Transduction Principle:
 Op / Ip Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiation Chemical
Mechanical Acoustic Thermal Piezoelectric
Effect Flowmeter Sensor
Thermal Expansion Heater
Thermometry
Electrical Thermocou Hall LCR Meter
ple Effect
Sensor
Magnetic
Radiation
Chemical

Classification of Transducers:

1. Electrical Transducers:
Resistive Transducers: Change in resistance based on the physical quantity being measured,

e.g., strain gauges.

Capacitive Transducers: Variation in capacitance in response to changes in the measured
parameter.

Inductive Transducers: Use of changes in inductance to sense variations in the measurand.

Piezoelectric Transducers: Generate electrical charges in response to mechanical stress,

widely used in sensors and actuators.

Hall Effect Transducers: Utilize the Hall effect to measure magnetic fields and detect motion.
Photoelectric Transducers: Convert light intensity into electrical signals, including
photodiodes and phototransistors.

Thermoelectric Transducers: Generate voltage due to temperature differences, commonly

used in thermocouples.

Electromagnetic Transducers: Employ electromagnetic principles for sensing, e.g., inductive

proximity sensors.

2. Mechanical Transducers:
Strain Gauge Transducers: Measure deformation or strain in a material due to an applied
force.
Accelerometers: Detect and measure acceleration, commonly used in motion sensing
applications.
Gyroscopes: Measure and maintain orientation, crucial in navigation systems.

Displacement Transducers: Determine changes in position or distance.

3. Acoustic Transducers:
Microphones: Convert sound waves into electrical signals.
Ultrasonic Transducers: Generate and detect ultrasonic waves for applications such as
distance measurement and imaging.

4. Optical Transducers:
Photodiodes: Convert light into electrical current.

Phototransistors: Amplify and sense light signals.

Photovoltaic Cells: Generate electrical power from light exposure.

Optical Fibers: Transmit light signals for communication and sensing.

5. Measurand-Based Transducers:
Temperature Transducers: Sense temperature variations.
Pressure Transducers: Measure changes in pressure.
Force and Displacement Transducers: Detect and quantify applied forces and displacements.
Velocity and Acceleration Transducers: Measure speed and acceleration.
Sound Transducers: Capture and convert sound waves.
Light Transducers: Respond to changes in light intensity.
Humidity and Gas Transducers: Monitor humidity levels and detect specific gases.
Magnetic Transducers: Measure magnetic fields.
Biological Transducers: Monitor biological parameters, e.g., heart rate sensors.
Radiation Transducers: Detect and quantify radiation levels.
Position Transducers: Determine the position of an object.

6. Property-Based Transducers:
Active Transducers: Generate their own electrical signal output.
Voltage Output Transducers, Current Output Transducers, Charge Output Transducers.
Passive Transducers: Rely on external power and modify it to produce an output.
Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive, Photovoltaic Transducers.
Lecture 2: Characteristics of Transducers

Outline:
• Static Characteristics
• Dynamic Characteristics

Static Characteristics:
• Accuracy: The degree of closeness between the measured value and the true value.
• Static Error: The difference between the measured value and the true value.
• Correction: The adjustment applied to the measured value to minimize error.
• True Value = Static Error + Correction
• Uncertainty: The range within which the true value is expected to lie.
• Precision: The degree of scatter or variation in repeated measurements under the
same conditions.
• Repeatability: The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements under the
same conditions. When we are doing a measurement study with the same operator,
same component, same requirement, same location and in the similar time frame, then
we see what is the variation coming – repeatability. It is for within system variation.
• Reproducibility: The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements under
different conditions. For reproducibility everything remains the same as repeatability
except different operator/operators. It is for between system variation.
• Stability: It is the ability of the instrument to maintain its standard performance over
a prolonged period.
• Zero Stability: It is the ability of the instrument to restore its zero reading after an
input is brought to zero, while other conditions remain the same.
• Resolution: The smallest increment in the input for which the measuring system
responds.
• Sensitivity: It is the ratio of change in output signal to the change in input signal.

• Responsiveness: It is the smallest change in the measurand which results in the

actuating effort required to cause motion of the indicating part of the instrument.
• Linearity: It is the proportionality between the input and output signal. Y=m*x+c

• Drift

• Threshold: It is the minimum input quantity that is necessary to cause a detectable

change in the output from the zero indication.
• Dead band: It is the largest change in the input quantity for which the output doesn’t
respond.
• Span and Range: Both convey the information of the upper and lower limits of an
instrument.
• Live zero: The output is non-zero for zero input.
• Scale readability
• Input & Output Impedance

• Concepts of Effort & Flow Variables:

o Effort variable is something that drives the system to change.
o Effort variable involves two point in space (one being reference).
o Flow variable is something that changes because of the change in effort.
o Flow variable can be specified and measured at one point in space
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