TECHNICAL REPORT

67-4A6-ES

LITTLE AMERICA V MICROMETEOROLOGY PRIGRkM

DATA AND ANALYoIS

by

Heinz H. Lettcou
Sarah H. Wolla1toh
', ID ( Paul C. Dakymnple

"January 1967

CONTdIBUTION NO.97
Earth Sclences Division
INSTITUTE OF POLAR STUDIES
ES-29
H Fv$ATr#-' UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS
DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED AD

TECHNICAL REPORT
67-46-ES

LITTLE AMERICA V MICROMETEOROLOGY PROGRAM

DATA AND ANALYSIS

by

Heinz H. Lettau
University oi Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin

Sarah H, Wollaston Paul C. Dalrymple

Regional Environments Branch
Barth Sciences Division

January 1967

Project Reference:
1V025001A129 ES-29

U.S. Army Materiel Command

U.S. ARMY NATICK LABORATORIES
Natick, Massachusetts
 FOREWORD

During the Internzational G;eophysical Year (IGY), the 4uartenfmster

Research and Engineering Center (now the U.S. Army Natick Laborec~ories)
conducted the micrometeorological programs at Little America V ýn 1957
and at the Gouto Pole in 19ý58. These programs were part of the Unrited
States National Committee-IGY glaciology program. The Obecryation~s at
the South Pol~e, made by Dr. Paul C. Dalrymple, were publ!:.heed in 1961;
thieir analysis was published in 1963. The present report smna2.yn.ea his
observ-.:ions at Little America V, and the data are appv!,Ied in the form
of tab) es of hourly raw data and means. The analysis bas been directed
tow~rd determining the energy exchanges at the snov-air interface at
Little America V. The exchanges hav'e been computed by a syatematic
ana~lysis of all available Little America V micrometeorological data.
Additional climati~c analysib of a less specialized character is included
as background for the micrometeorological observations. Since the field
program was discontinued in 1957, this stu~dy contains the analysis of the
whole body of data obtained in the -ýuarterzaster mic-omtnteorological pro-
gram at Little America V.

The study of the eavironmeat ýnrt~he Antazctic at Little America V

and at the South Pole has provided vital data fa~d infTormat ion on two con-
trasting clizates from the least.-kxnvn coti~neti. on earth. The knowledge
gained has been added t,) allied studios in mic~vmeteorology which have
been made at various si..es in the Mcrthern HemIsphere. information ob-
tained from such atttyiies can be appi..ed to other polar regions. Little
America V lies in the same lat~tudje as Northern GreenlaFnd and the northern
Bislands of the Canadian Archipelago. Little America V was perhaps a
better place than anywhere in the Arctitc to initiate such micrometeoro-
lo,3ical research, as it is locate.' oc t~he world's largest floating ice
6tlCf where local terr*An featureet arn simplified compared to arctic sites.
Hovever, the strong mariae-continer.1al effects complicated the analyses
and indicated 11.ov complex nature can be in a coastal polar environment.
These studics daave provided zu-cn needed information on the lower layer
of the atu~sphere. At the same 'rime, they have made a substantial addi-
tion to basic research and constitute a valuable contribution by Depart-
maent of Army scientists to thie whole scientific -ommi~ity.

The late Dr. Richard C. Hubley served an coordinator for the Little
America,- micrometeorologicn.1 program and is responsible for drafting of
the origrinal program. Dr. Donald Portman, University of Michigan, served
as consultant. in 195&-9 e-ad vas responsible for the initial planning of
the data reduction and =.alysis program. Sessrs. Morton Rutiii, William
Weyant, Kirby Hanson, rad Edwin Flowers ofAl ES>SA and 1Djr.
Herfried Hcinkes,
University of Innsbruck. Austria, all cooperated in making radiation and

ii
allied climatic data available for these analyses. 1,e aa•ts reduction
program was aponsored in part by a National Science Youncation grant
administered by The Ohio State University Research Foundation. Misses
Dorothy Deshoches and Barbara O'Neill, Mrs. Joseph Kundla and mrm. Henry
Builard reducea over half a mile of strip chart data onto usable punch
cards so ,hat Kr. James J. Dillon, Management Division, could pzrog.m
the cards through the Data Analysis Office.

L. W. TRUEBLOOD, Ph.D.
Chief
Earth Sciences Division

APFROVED:

DALE H. SIELINC, Ph.D.

Scientific Director

W. M. MARTZ
Brigaaler General, USA
Commanding

Iii
 CONTENTS

Symbols viii

Lisi of Figures xi

List of Tables xiii

Abstract xiv

1. Introduction 1

2. Clinatic and Microcliratic -3umnary

2.1 General character of the area and of the climatic dat• 2

2.1.1 The Ross Ice Shelf

2.1.2 The "kernlose" or "coreless" winter 2

2.1.3 Monthly temperature and wind speed at Little 9

America V, 1957

2.2 General character of mfcroclmetic data

2.2.1 Temperature differences and their relation to 9

wind speed and wind direction

2.2.2 Comparison of surface inversions at South Pole i4

and Little America V

2.2.3 Occurrence of the minim= temperature at the 6 14

or 12 cm level, the "elevated minim=m"
2.3 Wind and temperature (air and snow) profile data 14
reduction

2.4 Ccoputation of Richardson mmbers 16

2.4.1 Method of coputation 16

2.4.2 Correction of temperatures at 4 m level

iv
S~ CONTENTS (Continued)

Paf

3. Analysis of Profile Structure b7

3.1 Grouping of profiles by stability, as measured by buik 17
Richardson number

3.1.1 Computation of bulk Richardson numbers 17

3.1.Z Range of grouped bulk Richardson numbers 17

3.2 Relationship of wind profile types to external 18

pa remeers

3.2.1 Irregularity of wind profiles 18

3.2.2 Classification of wind profiles into 4 types 18

3.2.3 Wind profile types in relation to wind direction 18

3.2.4 Wind profile types in relation to cloudiness 22

3.2.5 Wind profile types in relation to opaque cioudi- 22

ness and wind direction

3.2.6 Wind profile types in relation to wind speed 22

3.2.7 Conclusion 23

3.3 Seasonal variation of stabil-ty and variation of 2J

external parameters with stability

3.3.1 Comparison of average bulk stability at Little 23

America V and the South Pole

3.3.2 Monthly frequency of stability frum QH data 23

3.3.3 Monthly frequency of stability from USWB data 23

3.3.4 Seasonal changes toward lesa stable conditions 24

3.3.5 Variation of wind speed, temperature and sky cover 24

with stability

3.4 Vertical profile of Richardson number 28

v
 COMMIEiITS

3.5 Cc.mputetlon cf wind profile ?urvature and zero diz- 30

placement paraneter

3.6 "Relationsh-p oc profile curvature (Deacon nuwbers) to 31

bulk stebility (bu.Lk Richardson nu.mber) ara heiCht
3.7 Interdependence between Deacon n'r..bers and Richardson 32
numbers

3.7.1 Ncn-linear change of Richardson number with height 32

3.7.2 Theoretical relationship between wind pr.fle 3f2

Deacon nimber and Richardson number

3.7.3 Empirical relationship between wind profile

Deacon nirber and Richardson number

3."7.4 Relationship between temperature profile curvature 34

and wind profile curvature

3.7.5 Possible causes of unusual structure of the micro- 36

-eteorological layer

4. Corputation of Roughness Length .j7

4.1 Computation froc wind profiles 37

4.2 Magnitude and variation of roughness length 37

5. Calculation of Surface Stress, Eddy Heat Flux, and IMoentum 39

and Heat Transfer Coefficients

5.1 St-face stress 39

5.2 Eddy heat flux 40

5.3 Momentum transfer and heat transfer coefficients 41

6. Heat Flux in the Snow 42

6.1 Temperature observations and patterns 42

6.1.1 Comparison of once-a-day and continuously 42

recorded subsurface temperatures

vi
 CONTETS (Continued)

0.1.2 Comparison of Little America V, Maudheim and

South Pole subsurface temperature extremes

6.2 Analysis of snow temperature variations

6.2.1 Calculation of amplitudes and phase angles of

the penetration of the heat wave

U.2,2 Cnlculation of thermal diffusivity and the 46

coefficient of heat conductivity

6.2.3 Calculation of daily values of the heat flux at "7

2 m

u.2.h Calculation of the heat flux at the surface

IMeasurement of Net Radiation 50

,.urface Eneý.-gy Budget 50

3.1 Definitions, and energy budget equation 5C

5.2 Computation of terms of the energy budget equation

8.3 The seasonal course of surface stress 51

8.4 Average morthly heat budget constituents of the snow-air 53

interface

8.5 Comparison of hoarfrost deposition at Little America V, 53

Haudheim and the South Pole

9. Conclusions 55
10. References 57

Appendix A: Note on the Low-Level Anomaly in Vertical Temperature 59

Profiles under Conditions of Outgoing Radiation, by
Dr. H. H. Lettau

Appendix B: Data Presentation 67

G9C Tempezature Profile Data 69
QC Wind Profile Data 22:1
 SYMBOLS

•r"tti,mn

2
g = acceleration of gravity (982.3 cm/sec )

z =height (cm)

e = potential temperature (deg ) Kelvin

T =ttmn~erature (deg)j
V = wind speed (cm/sec)

Section 3

U = wind speed (USWB observations)

2
S = dimensional sýability coefficient (OF/kt )

5 = Deacon number

zo = aerodynamic roughness length (cm)

d = zero displacemuint (cm)

D = zero displacement parameter (cm) = d + zo

10 = surface stress (dynes/cm2 )

k = Kirmn constant

Section 4

a = profile contour number

Section 5

0 = air density (g/cm3 )

Q = eddy heat fl.ux ( y/time where ly = langley = cal/cm2 )

S= specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (cal g'Ideg-li

The abbreviation "deg" stands for degree centigrade while "Deg" is

used for degrees of an arc.

viii
 SYMBOLS (continued)

Section 5 (ContInued•

K eddy d4-ffusivity for heat (Cn2/sec)

V = eddy diffusivity for horizcnta] mornentur, (cr?2/sec)

= dimensionless moment=m tr,-nsfer coefizient

S= dimrensiomless heat transfer coefficient

Section 6

so = verticai heat flux in the snow at the interface (ly/tirme)

(Note: Differs from usage in Section 3)

n = frequency

A = amplitude of the haimonic wave of temperature (deg)/

a = phase lag of the harmonic wave of temperature (Deg' or radians)

(Note: Differs fo-W usage in Sectio,, 4)
t = time

K = thermal diffusivity of the snow (cmj/sec)

S= heat conductivity (ly time-'/deg nAl)

(Note: Differs frcm usage in Section 5)

= snow density (g/cm3 )

C - heat capacity (cal deg-lcm" 3 )

c= specific heat of ice (cal g'ideg' 1 )

F flux -)f heat (ly/time)

T= vertical temperature gradient, i.e., partial differettiation

of temperature with respect to depth

ýThe abbreviation "deg" stands for degree centigrade while "Deg" is

used for degrees of an arc.

ix
 SyMOLS (Continued)

Section 7

Ro = net radiation at the interface (ly/time)

Section 8

E flux of latent heat at the interface (ly/time)

oa

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Frortispiece Antarctica - Station Locations Xvi

I Monthly mean tempezntures: Little America V, 1957 and '55

fror. USWB Local Climatological Summarier, and averages for
6 years (1911, '29, '34, '40, '56, '51 ) for various "Little
America" locationL,, c~cputed by Wexler [9].

2 Range of monthly te-mperature extremes at Little America V.

3 Monthly mean temperatures during the year 1957 for indicated ;

coastal stations of the Antarctic Continent.

4 Little America V, 1957. Frequency distribution o' average 12

veirtical temperature difference betw-een 15 r.and surface,
April through August.

Little America V, 1957. Wind speed frequency and relation 1ý

to average vertical temperature difference between 15 = and
surface, April through August.

6 Little America V, 1957. Average vertical temperature differ- 13

ence between 15 m and surface (T - T ), April through
August, in relation to wind direction and relative frequency
of 16 standard wind directions.

7 Five sectors of wind direction used in wind profile distri- -,

bution study at Little America V, 1957.

8 Stability coefficient, S, versus bulk Richardson number, Ri', 25

for Little America V, 1957, compared with relationship
established between . and Ri' at South Pole, 1958.

9 Little America V, 1957. Variation with bulk stability, Ri', 27

of: (a) Wind speed at 2 m; (b) Temperature of the 8 m sur-
face 2ayer; (c) Sky cover.

10 Little America V - R-ichardscn number, Ri, versus height, z + D, 2?

for indicated bulk Richardson number, Ri'.

13 Little America V - Wind profile curvature. &. , versus height, 33

z + D, for indicated bulk Richardson number, Ri'.

Xi
 LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

Flg!ýM age

12 Wind profile curvature, B., versus Richardson number, R1. 35

13 Little America V - Variation with bulk stability, Ri',

of: (a) Surface stress, To; (b) Eddy heat flux, Q.;
(c) Roughness length, zO.

14 Little America V - monthly mean subsurface temperatures. 2.

15 Little America V - Tautochrones, 1957-58.

16 Snow temperature - amplitude versus phase angle.

17 Snow temperature - amplitude and phase angle versus depth. -

18 Little America V, 1957: Annual variation of surface stress, f2

To, by 5-day periods, and by 30-day periods approximating
the months of May through September.

19 Seasonal trends in energy budget terms of the snow surface

at Little America V, 1957.

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Number Pae

2.1.2.1 Monthly mean temperature at 7 coastal stations of the 8

Antarctic Continent

2.1.3.1 Number of hours when ambient air temperature was oetween 1O

indicatee iirmits ana relative frequency

2.1.3.2 Number of hours when wind speed measure, oy Aerovane was 11

between indicated limits and relative frequency

2.2.3.1 Monthly mean station temperature, number of says with 15

temperature inversion, and number of gays cA' occurrence
of mean mini:num at indicated levels, Soutn Pole, 1958,
and Little America V, 1957

3.2.3.1 Relative distribution of 5 sectors of winc 'carection, 20

and frequency of wina profile types for each wind
direction sector

3.2.3.2 Comparison of reletive frequency of wind profile types 2.

at South Pole and Little America V

3.2.6.1 Number of hours with indicated type of wind profile, in 22

relation to wind speed at 8 m level

3.3.2.1 May - September, 1957. Number of cases with indicatea 24

bulk stability, Ri'

3.3.3.1 Frequency distribution of hourly values of tne aimensional 26

stability coefficient, S, by months

,.1.1 Ranges of surface stress witn bulk stability and values 39

of the drag coefficient, Little America V anxi the South
Pole

5.2.1 Ranges of eddy heat flux with bulk stability, Little 41

America V and the South Pole

c.2.1 Amplitudcs and phase angles of the penetration of the 46

heat wave at the various levels at Little America V

8.4.1 Energy fluxes at Little America V, 1957 53

xiii
 ABSTRACT

At Little America V, the temperature range of eacl- of 1.he 9 coldest

months is large, as is the annual range. Finima are cr.'rol!ed by advec-
tion of cold air from. the interior and maxima by advection of wan.-er air
from the Ross Sea area. The win- r lacks a distin-- ter ,rnture mini•ur.,
and mid-winter reversals of temperature trend occ,;.

Micrýx.,eteorological wind and temperature pro::Les in the lowest 0 r.

Uf the atmosphere were recorded at Little America V in 1357, and hoarly
means of tem-perature for about 3,000 hours and wind speed ?or about 500
hours are- published as Appendix B of this report. Procedures used tn
analyze the 1956 microneteorological data fra the So~th Pole Station are
followed in this analysis and results compared with the less comiplee rela-
tionships at the So-th Pole.

The curvature charac,eristics of wind and air t-eperature profiles

(as measured by Deacon numbers) are analyzed in great detail, employing
Richardson numbe- computation (which takes into account wind shear as well
as terperature lapse rate) to ex-press stability and its change .ith
height. The structure of the observed profiles is difficult to interpret
in detail. Attempts to do so, by considering such diverse factors as
wind fetch, s-° cover, advection or katabatic effects, were not entirely
satisfactory. Stable conditions predominated, and cases of maxi==u stabil-
!ty were more extreme than at the South Pole. Tne maximum inversion in
",he lowest 8 r. amounted to 18.8 Co. Variations of wind speed and tem-pera-
ture with stability were sLmilar to those at the South Pole, but solar
radiation fron sun and sp.y can contribute to instability at Little America
V, while overcas,; skies indicate that instability at the South Pole can be
caused by long-wave radiatit-n from the base of stratus cloud. The seasonal
shift toward less stable conditions, as well as the rise in temperature,
was delayed until October.

Air temperature profile data during winter frequently showed that the
minim-um temperpture occurred at the 6 or 12 am level, producing an "anoma-
lous" profile. A study of this phenomenon, by Dr. H, H. Lettau, is
included as Appendix A.

Values of the roughness length were small and erratic. Wind profile
structure also was distinctly less regular than at the South Pole. In
spite of this, Richardson nizbers changed quite systematically with height
below 4 m, suggesting a tendency for compensation. Conditions indicate
that a comon surface layer for momentum and heat transfer, if it existed,
was often so shallow that the levels of profile observations were above it.

Eddy heat flux was computed for the hours of profile data on the basis
of a similarity assumption using both estimated surface stress (with

xiv
Kgrwn's constant equal tc 0.428, and Deacon-num.ber-corrected wind
shear) and vertical differences of temperature and wfnd speed in the
lowest layers. To obtain representative clim=tological means of eddy
heat flux, a statistical relationship was established between Quarrier-
master observations (concerning profile structure versus bulk sTx~bil!ty)
and reg•ular synoptic or standard observations suppl ied by the V. S.
Weather Bureau. It is shown that it is permissible to erploy constsant
coefficients of transfer of momenttun znd heat at Little AmericD V, since
voriation of individual coefficients u-ith stability was quite erratic
because of the complicated profile stricture. Average eddy heat flux
varied from zero near neutral stability to -0.C693 ly/min at extreme
stability, and average surface stress from 1.6 dynes/cn 2 to '-.4. Aver-
ages for 5-day periods show peaks of surface st-ess acccrpanying the
passage of l:2 pressure areas at this coastal station, in contrast with
a lower average and saaller range at the continental Sc th Pole Station.

The annual variation of heat flux at 2 m depth wac czwputed by

Fouxier analysis, using once-a-day subsurface temperature observations
by Chappell. The surface heat flux was obtained by adding the heat ex-
change between 2 m and the surface, computed by layer-by--layer integra-
tion of day-to-day temperature changes, to the heat flux at 2 m. The
energy budget at the snow-air interface is discussed. Computations were
based on hourly values of net radiation supplied by Hoinkes and heat
fluxes into air and snow as described above. The latent heat flux, ob-
tained as a remainder, indicates deposition in the 6-month period in
1957 equivalent to condensation of about 40 =n of water, 1.2 times as
much as that reported for Maudheim during corresponding months in 1950
and 1951. Increased deposition in the milder winter months may be due
to an acccmpanying increase in available moisture.

Xv
 ANTARCTICA

9
ie

6. a w rt -
ATAPCI il
/
I, 1(1

.... i
%n fca ontevelt lit' /Uuh

lip ....

Statio Souatiole

It Ilet .....
 LI'F=1L AI.QRICA V M1 CROKMI'OROLOGY PROGRAY,

DATA ANALYSIS

1. Introduction

The Quarterzrastcer Corps Research end Developr-.ent Carr-and (currently

the Ii.S. Arry Natick L~boret:ri,!s*) initiated and m'aintained the coilec-
tiaon of micro'.eteorologicel dbte at Little America V irn 1957 -s a part
of the U.S.N.C.-IGY (U.S. Nation~al Co ittee for the International Geo-
ph~ysical. Year) Antarctic glecilologicr-l program'. 'the reduction of these
data (at the Quartermaster Research and Enigineering Center at Natic.K)
was supported psrtly by National Science Foundation E,.ents which were
administered by the Ohio State 'University Research Foundation.

Data frocn a s4-zi.lar program conducted by t"he Quarterm-aster Corps at

the South Pole Station in 11958 have been presented and analyzed in tech-
ni.ýcal reports ES-2, "South Pole M-ron'.eteorolo~y rt I: Date,
Para,
Presentation," and ES-7, "South Pole Micrx.eteolrolo~,' ?rog-a~m, Part II:
Daa Analysis."

Technical Report ES-7, and the folorwing repo-rts hteve been accepted
for the first volume of Antarctic Meteorology, a publ:._ati*on of the
A-merican Geophysical 'Union for the INational Acnder.' of Science:

A Regional ClimatoloC~j of the Antarcti-c Plateau

A Case Study of Katabatic Flow on the Antarctic Pla'teau

Surrounding the South Pole
For bibliographical detail see [l1-41 of the list of references. In addi-
tion, the South Pole micrameteorological observations are discussed :
relation to theoretical models in 1515.

The objectives of the programs and plan of analysis were outlined i~n
the So-uth Pole Data Analysis [2], and primarily were to determine the
interrelationships between low-level wind and texnperacuare profiles and
the general meteorological and glaciological conditions of the ener--&'-
budga=t at the interface, and to analyze temperature profile datýa to deter-
mine a climatology of the air temperature distribution. in the lowest 8
meters of the atmosphere, which includes the environmental layer for
human surface activities.

*Abbreviation "Wl" will be used since program_ was conducted -under the
Qua rtern-aster Corps.
 Study of the Little Ar.erica V microclimatic data (1957) has been
sponsored by the U. S. Army Natick Laboratories and the results are
being reported in this publication. A brief climatological summary
(1957 and 1958) and comparison with the results obtained at earlier
"Little America" rites and several other stations in the coastal region
of the Antarctic continent, are included. A discussion of the "elevated
minimum" founid in the inversional temperature profiles is discussed in
Appendix A, and the micrometeorological data are presented in App idix B.

2. Climatic and Microclimatic Summary

2.1 General charvcter of the area and of the climatic data

2.1.1 The Ross Ice Shelf. Little America V was located at

780121S and 16211'W on the Ross Ice Shelf, 4 km south of Kainan Bay.
The shelf is floating except for a few such places as Roosevelt I5land
(see Crary (61); it has an area of approximately 525,000 km2 (203,000 sq.
statute mi.), or about 4% of Antarctica; surface elevation ranges gener-
ally from about 25 to 110 m above sea level; ice thickness varies from
about 22 to 771 m and is quite uniformly between 350 and 450 m in the
central and western parts of the Ross Ice Shelf. At the Little Aneric V
location, SIPRE* (currently CRREL) found an ice thickness of 257 m (se-ý
Crary (7, p 271). Roosevelt Island [6], south.oof the station, ha3 an area
of 8720 km (3365 sq. statute mi.) with maximum elevation estimateI to be
640 m. The ice is flowing northward at a rate estimated at 0.2 to 1.5
km/yr (6], or at Little America V about 1 m/day (8]. The sun rerqined
below the horizon from late April until late August and was continuously
above the horizon from late October to late February. Little Americe V
was operational during the IGY, but was closed in January 1959.

Monthly mean temperatures from February 1957 to October 1958, as re-

ported in the U. S. Weath.r Bureau's Local Climatological Summaries fc.
Little America V, are illustrated in Figure 1. Also shown are the 6-year
averages of monthly means (1911, 1929, 1934, 1940, 1956, 1957) for various
"Little America" locations, on the Ross Ice Shelf, as computed by H.
Wexler [9, Fig. 2, p. 579] •
2.1.2 The "kernlose" or "coreless" winter. Monthly mean ten-
perstures that show, when plotted, no central core of minimum temperatures
have been found to be characteristic of polar latitudes. Such a "coreless"
winter (with mid-winter reversals of the temperature trend) is evident at
Little America V. In his study of observations from the French Antarctic

*SIPRE, Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment

CRREL, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory

21
 0 Sun Above
Sun-Sun ve F Below------ -
HorizonA--bo F T yun Above

Horizon Horizon
------- 4 1957

U -10 ~- _

0o -.---- 1958
-6-Yr. Average

•-20
%/

Lu -30
J-
-

-40 - _ I I I
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

Figure 1. Monthly mean temperatures: Little America V, 1957 and '58 frm
USWB Local Climatological Summaries, and averages for 6 years
(1911, '29, '3p, '4.0, '56, '57) for various "Little America"
locations, ccmputed by Wexler (9].

stations, Laroque (10) describes the characteristics of the polar winter

as: a large temperature range, no important month-to-month temperature
variation. or a winter "lacking a center," and a brief spring and autumn.
He shows that the same characteristics aia illustrated by the course of
solar radiation at high latitudes, and that the course of the monthly
minimum temperature follows the course of the solar radiation very closely,
particularly at the highest latitude, the South Pole Station. The monthly
maxima., on the other hand, show the polar characteristics of insolation
to only a slight degree. This suggests that the maximu-m temperatures are
controlled primarily by advection, the warm air occasionally being carried
even to the South Pole, If not at the surface, then aloft, where it later
is brought down by turbulence. Vowinckel 111] also relates the "flat
temperature minimum" in winter and the rapid temperature rise in spring
to the course of radiation.

3
 Monthly extremes of teaperature at Little America V, from February
1957 through October 1958, are plotted in Figure 2 in order to show the
seasonal course of the maximum and minimum temperatures and the tempera-
ture range for each month. Both the South Pole [101 nnd Little America
V (Fig. 2) have large ranges, those of the South Pole apparently due to
latitude and those of Little America V to its location on the Ross Sea,
exposed to alternation of maritime and continental influences; both have
the brief spring and autumn. The maximum temperature, February 1957
through October 1958, was +2°C (350F), recorded in January 1958. The
widest range between extremes, 52 C0 (94 F*), occurred in May 1957.
Winter minima were -53*C (-630F) in May 1957 and -580C (-73"F) in Septem-
ber 1958. It can be seen from Figure 2 that the monthly maxima as late
in the autumn as May can be very close to the sea temperature.

+10 r I I -r 1 I V . T F-1

00 - -

o - 210 .....
..
Uj

D
--30 -N

LU
C.. -40

I-- 50 050 - .. . .. . - ...•

LU 60

FMAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O

1957 1958

Figure 2. Range of monthly temperature extremes at Little America V.

4
 It is estimated that Laroque's characteristice of the polar winter
would be well illustrated by temperatures suwmarized for a number of
years. There is, however, considerable variation in both monthly means
and extremes from year to year, particularly in early winter. This is
most apparent when ccmparing the monthly means in April in Figure 1
(-33 0C in 1957, -22*C in 1958), and the minima in May in Figure 2 (-53°C
0
in 1957, -30 C in 1958.
In Antarctica, stations at higher elevation are also, in general, ct
higher latitude. Increases of both elevation and latitude, along with
permanent snow cover, result in decrease in the lag of the maximum. How-
ever, the month with highest mean mayimum shows no lag at Little America V,
in spite of low elevation, although the lowest mean maximum tends to
be retarded at both the South Pole and Little America V. This lag is
greater at the coastal station, Little America V, because winter tempera-
ture variations are very large and advection frequently results in maxima
equal to the sea temperature in early winter.

The annual course of temperature is described by Wexler [9]: "As

the sou sets, the temperature drops rapidly over the continent but ices
so over the surrounding oceans which are only partly ice-covered. The
increasing meridional temperature gradient brings about the releace of
baroclinic instability in the troposphere which initiates the formation
of numerous intense cyclones. These cyclones move vast quantities of
warm marine air southward, effectively 'ventilating' large portions of
Antarctica above a thin surface layer of cold air and preventing a crntin-
ous decline in surface temperature. As winter proceeds, a thicker and
wider ice pack extends hundreds of miles to the north of Antarctica and
materially lowers the temperature of the southward-moving air mascesn, thus
encouraging a second drop of temperature, near the surface and aloft, so
that the lowest temperatures are usually found well after the winter sol-
stice, even as late as September." It does appear, however, that the ice
pack extends many hundreds of miles off shore st Little America V by June,
possibly as far as in September. This was true in other years (see
Herdman r12)), but its location in June 1957 is not known. Nevertheless,
the temperature in June 1957 rose to a maximum of -4*C at Little America V,

The range of monthly mean temperature In 1957 was 31.2 CO (56.1lr)

from -4.49C (24.1*F) in December to -35.60C (-32.0F) in July. The monthly
mean temperatures fell rapidly through April and then rose to the anomalous
secondary maximum in June. However, in April and June of 1958 there were
less pronounced interruptions of the seasonal cooling. While Julr was
the coldest month in both years, temperatures did remain low in -i'gust
and September, i.e., fr a certain period after reappearance of the sun..

5
 +10

.Ittle Amorica V
Wilkes

Marny
0 d Urville //

McMurdo
""3 -.. ..... ///"
Hallettl '

- E0liwortI /

o \ \ •_; -

-30 \

-40
JAN FES MAR APR N AY JUN JUL AUG SEP
' A OCT NOV DEC

Figure 3. Monthly mean temperutur s during the year 1957 for indicated

coastal stations of the Antarctic continent.

ApArently, In the year 1)57, cyclonic activiLty In the h6 Sea arei
becare most effective ii, June, advectir• ,-wn. a.r Erd ra•_c:ra r hrldirnz
steady the montlhly reen terperature et Little kaerica V, Halle.t and
McMurdo, while at d'Urville, Mirny and Wilkes. farther vest along the
coast, and Fllsworth, on the WeddeU Sea, tenperatures continued to fal1
in June. The coldest monthly mean teiperture 5-. Wilkees occurred in June,
at Little America V, McMlrdo, M•i y and d'Urv2lle, :n July. and at Hallett
and Ellswor•.h in August (see frontispiece). (Tne course -f temperature
in 1957 at Halley Pay and Belgrano, accordirni t: Wexler [K, Fig. 51] , was
sim.ilar to that st nearby F'1sworth (Fig. -), but although observations
from 1955 and 1956 show the "kernlose" winter type with temperature rever-
sals, the Aniniun occurred in September ill 1055, in May in 1956, and in
August in 1957 in that area.) Ellsworth shows, in 1957, the lowest monthly
minim•n (-36.9"C in August) of all the coastal stat:ons cited in Figure 3.
Although temperature trends did not reverse in early winter at Ellsworth
(in contrast to the stations in th2 Ross Sea area), -he annual mean was
very closc to that at Little America V, as might be expected fr= sirmilar-
ities in latitude, elevation, and ice shelf exposure. In 19571, dUrville
was slightly warmer than Mirrny in suaer (October tnrough March) and
slightly colder i') winter (April through September).

The data used for the construction of Figure 3 and for curves for
Little America V in Figure 1 are sumorized in Table 2.1.2.1.

In conclusion, the winter is "coreless" at both coastal and inland

stations of Antarctica. in addition to one or more reversals of the
seasonal trend of temperature, usually in early winter, there is consid-
ereble month-to-month variation. The primary control of the minimum
tempezature is the annual course of solar radiation, while the winter
maxim= is controlled by advection. The "coreless" winter and, in parti-
cular, the reversals in the temperature course are least evident at those
stations most subject to katabatic winds. While "coreless" winter and
temperature reversals are evident at irland stations, they are more pro-
nounced at the coastal stations, particularly those on the Ross Sea. It
is estimated frco Figure 2 and observations for 1957 and 1958 ax Little
America V that, due to the reversals in the seasonal course of tempera-
ture, both the w•inter mean minilmm and absolute minilzu in L particular
year may occur in any month f.rom April to September, althr- 7n occurrence
in April would be most unlikely except at the highest latitude.

It is difficult to assess the effect of the extent of the ice pack

on the seasonal course of temperatures at the coastal stations since it
may extend as far off shore in the Ross Sea area in June as in Septmber;
however, the contrast in tenperatrre between the open water and air from
4nterior Antarctica is undoubtedly an important factor in the cyclonic
activity which advects warm air over the Antarctic continent, controlling
the time of occurrence of the annual minimu= and Influencing the mean
nonthly temperature through the magnitude of the monthly mean maxi-num.
 I',.I

'-4n
-4Q \l rn r

CC4
i~~'-C~ 0 -' . C.' C (j.

00C

\ \ -
-4C

.4 4
o
o- o" oV 0

10 E

C-)4

. ' 0~('
. -
f- U Lý\

00

".0 f.0-2 U '~ . . zC'f

P-
 2.1.3 Monthly temperature end wind seed at Little Arner.ca V,
1957. The monthly mean wind speed varied frn 4.2 m/sec in February to
7.9 m/sec in October, with a maximiun gust of 33 7,,'sec recorded in August.
Frequency distributions of hourly temperstures and hourly wind speeds
(USW'B data) for 9 months (February uhrough Oct:tcr, 1957) ere showrt, :.n
Tables 2.1.3.1 and 2.1.3.2.

2.2 General character of mlcroclinatic data

2.2.1 Temperature differences and their relation to wind speed

and wind direction JUSWB data). Temperature differences between 15 r.and
the surface (T15 - ToT, obtained frm USWB measurements by electrical re-
sistance ther.ometers called "thermohms" (Leeds and Northrup Company trade
name), were tabuleted by 5oinkes* for the sunless months at Little Ar.erica
V. The surface to 15 r. inversion was > 2 Ce, 50% of the time, > 7 C*,
18% of the time, >11 C*, 10% of the time, while lapse conditions (decrease
of tempersture with height) existed for 16% of the tizne. A frequency dis-
tribution, based on the nurber of hours of occurrence of vertical differ-
ences by 1 C' class intervals, is shown in Figure 4.

Temperature differences between 15 - and the surface, according to

wind speed, and the frequency of wind speeds are shown for the sunless
period by the 2 curves in Figure 5. The figure illustrates the dependency
of intensity of average temperature differences on wind speed. (T1 5 - TO)
averages 5.6 C* with speeds less than 2 =/sec, decreases strongly as the
speed increases from 2 to 9 mIsec, and fluctuates around 0.5 C* with speeds
greeter than 9 m/sec.

Temperature differences between 15 z and the surface, according to

wind direction, were also tabulated by Hoinkes. Figure 6, based on this
tabulation, sh.vs the frequency of occurrence of the 16 standard wind
directions and the mean intensity of surface inversions for the directions
during the sunless months at Little America V, The length of ",.e radii
is proportional to the average temperature difference (T - T ). The
strongest inversions (longest radii) occurred with wind Airect~ons from
west through north to east, for which advection of relatively warm air
from the Ross Sea is to be expected. Winds blew from this 180-degree
sector only 25% of the time. NNW winds, though infrequent (1.9%), were
accmpanied by the largest average temperature difference with height
(TIr - T = 6.8 C'). Air flow was from SE and SSE in 4C% of all hours
du ng t.le sunless winter months. With winds fran these directions, the
t•.•perature inversions between the surface and 15 m were usually very
sma.ll, averaging about 1 CV.

*Chainan of Department of Meteorology and Geophysics, University of

Innsbruck, Austria.
 -1 C)
C
.1 -

U-'

C. C- C- C- - C-
o 'C C) (Y )f\ -4
-
o H ,.- -

U'

'D - H a) C 0
C\J H (\j -

H
I-'

LC\ - CV

C- - -

ri
- C- C-
C- C-
oJ (\ rL\

C C- C- C-.
C-

0 a) 0'.
H r H '-

::
C- C- C- C-
- C- C- C
('. Cj 0 H 0

;
0 0 '.Z

Lf
T ( H .4 H

CU
C\

H
I!'.
CU

H
CU

H
H

H - - CU

a'. 0 a)

iii
H H

CU rr)

H H 0

H
C-
C- C-
C C-

'.0 H
-
Cv H L1 rv
 *a -4 1-

VC\jI

ru C\J
Olll

9~ co

4-H H 0 H~

0
h-'- a) 0c u H ~ \10 LUN .4 0 -
t i
'

-0 0 m~ LA. 0 pq

4)0
t- Cj cu 0 .-4
c\. \z r. 4)

.-4 Cu

ZH-Ico
- \D
M~

G
0

to HD U

2d H N- y
H j Cj
ON r
0 - t'- L\ .0

Cui H4 CuI Cui C\.) C 4-)

o CC)

0'
4) 0 -4

0
.

C~j%D
\ L\ m _:r -1 V) >.-12.wIL
1-1
 70OO

800,

600

50A Figure 4. Little America V,

0 1957. Frequency distribu-
0 400: tion of average vertical
temperature difference be-
tween 15 m and surface,
3 April through August. (Frcz
MUSB data tabulated by
z Hoinkes.)
200

100

-10 -S 0 5 10 is 20
TIS-T 0 (C°

6. 600

S5• - AVIRAO I1.10 500

----
---------NUMBIR OF HOURS

4A Figure 5. Little America

4V,
1957. Wt'd speed fre-
0 quency (dashed line) and
L,6 relation ,to average verti-
3 .. 300 0 cal terperature difference
.M ,betvoen 15 m and surface
through
2
z (Fron April
=A'gust. (o•aid line),
200z USWB data
,IN tabulated by Hoinkes.)

0
0 5 10 i5 20 25 30
WIND SPEED (M/SEC.)

12
 1.9%
Length of radii

N proportional to T,.--T.
I--4=1 C0

S~~~7.5%7 .0/

5.0
0.7%

33.4%

2.2% 17.1%. 96
5.0%

7.6% 9.8%

Figure 6. Little America V, 1957. Average vertical temperature difference

between 15 m and surface (T1 5 - To), April through August, in
relation to wind direction and relative frequency of 16 standard
wind directions. (Temperature inversions from USWB data,
tabulated by Hoinkes.)

13
 2.2.2 Comrnarison of surface inversions at South Pole and
Little America V (W data). In addition to the continuous temperature
profile observations made by the USWB with thermohms, detailed micro-
meteorological profile observations were obtained by the Quartermaster
Command, using fine-gauge copper-constantan thermocouples at 9 levels
between the surface and 8 m. Similar equipment was employed in i95 8 at
the South Pole Station; reference is made to [1].

Surface inversions, as measured by this equipment, were generally

larger at Little America V than at the South Pole. In the seasonal course,
the maxtLmum 3-minute temperature difference between 8 m and the .;urface
(T 8 - To ) occured at Little America V approximately 6 weeks after final
sunset, and amounted to 18.8 C*; between 2 m and the surface (T 2 - TO),
the maximum was 15.0 Co. Most of the extreme inversions occurred during
the period of darkness, but, occasionally, inversions of 10 C* between
the surface and 8 m were experienced when the sun was above the horizon.
The duration of individual periods with an inversion greater than 10 Ce
was usually several hours, although sometimes the inversion would persist
for more than 24 hours. The vertical structure of the typical inversional
stratification within the lowest 8 m at Little America V was rel•tively
uniform with temperature differences of at least 1 Ce existing between all
instrument levels. This was in contrast to the conditions at the South
Pole where the major contribution to the total inversion was from layers
above the one-meter level.

2.2.3 Occurrence of the minimum temperature at the 6 or 12 cm

level, the 'elevated minimum" CQM data#. Also, in strik'ing contrast to
conditions at the South Pole, the minimum value of the vertical tempera-
ture profiles during the winter months at Little America V frequently
occurred at the 6 or 12 cm level rather than at the snow/air interface.
Statistical results from hourly temperature profile values for the two
stations are summarized in Table 2.2.3.1. This interesting phenomenon of
an "elevated minimum" in inversional temperature profiles has been ob-
served at various micrometeorological field sites For an outline of the
previous history, and a summary of possible theoretical explanations, see
Appendix A.

2.3 Wind and temperature (air and snow) profile data reduction
(LM data). At Little America V, U4> hourly wind proflues kbasec on 5
anemometer levels) were measured on 157 days, and air temperature pro-
files (based on 9 thermocouple levels between the surface and 8 m) were
recorded for approximately 3000 hours on 150 days. Snow temperature
measurements at 4 depths, and a surface temperature value were also ob-
tained. All temperatures have been transformed from millivolt-readings
on ntrip charts to degrees C on punch cards. The sampling rate was 18 per
hour at each level. The data reduction was accomplished through an avto-
matic read-out system especially designed for the project by Dillon arid
Arbarchuk [131. Data reduction was reproducible to ±0.1 C for 99 per cent

14
 ~-t r-

4 -HHI ISH4I Oj H I HIrI I1

:t CYJC'j en~ M H

>4 4-tCUj H cU'M

00-
caIr Q

0 >>
0H M If\t,\

dit0
Cl))

CUA
P %

Lf\ 15
of all cases. Tabulations of these data (105,080 IBM cards of Little
America V profile data) were critically reviewed and edited, and sumnary
and mean cards were transcribed for each hour and day. Hourly averages
of wind speed at 5 heights (geometrically spaced from 0.5 to 8.0 m) were
expressed in centimeters per second and were punched onto IBM cards
(517 cards).
2.4 Computation of Richardson numbers

2.4.1 Method of computation. Richardson-number profiles were

computed for all periods when both wind and temperature profiles were
available, providing 580 profiles. Using wind and temperature measure-
ments for the simultaneous observation periods at the cozmmon levels of
800, 400, 200, 100 and 50 cm, gradient Richardson numbers, Ri, at 4OO,
200 and 100 cm were calculated from

Ri = gA zAe/Tm(AV) 2 , (1)

employing for the delta's values fran the three over-lapping quadruple
heights (800 and 200, 400 and 100, 200 and 50 cm),
2
where g acceleration of gravity (982.3 cm/sec )
Az =height difference (cm)
AO = potential temperature difference (deg Kelvin)
Tm layer-mean temperature (deg Kelvin) obtained by
averaging the temperatures at th. 5 levels
AV= wind speed difference (cm/rec)

2.4.2 Correction of temperatures at 4 m level. An inspection

of the thermocouple data showed that temperatures appeared consistently
too low at the 4 m level throughout the year in spite of the various inter-
changes of leads, etc., that were made from time to time. It vas concluded,
therefore, that an unknown effect produced a systematic error. In order
to obtain a correction term, the temperature and wind speed differences
between 800 and 200, and 200 and 50 cm were used to interpolate Ri at 200
cm; this result was compared with Ri computed at 200 m, usirg the temper-
atures and wind speeds at 400 and 100 cm. The difference between the
interpolated and computed Ri increased with stability in such a regular
fashion tLat the correction to the 4 m temperature at neutral stability
could be determined, by interpolation, as +0.276C. The adjustment by 0.270C
of all 4 m temperature readings produced non-linear curves of Ri versus
height at greater stability, which were similar to those found at the
South Pole.

16
3. Analysis of Profile Structure

3.1 Grouping of profileb by stability, as measured by bulk

Richardson number. Ri'

3.1.1 Computation of bulk Richardson numbers. Bulk Richardson

numbers, Ri', provide a measure of the general stability of the air layer
under consideration. Values were obtained by sumning the Ri values com-
puted for 400 and 100 cm and dividing the result by t!ie sum of the heights.
Hourly profiles were arranged in order of Ri', and collected into l(-run
and 30-run groups. The method is essentially the same as that used in
the "South Pole Data Analysis" except that Ri' at Little America V vas
obtained from Ri at 2 levels instead of 3 because of the systematic error
of temperature measurement at 400 cm. Originally, the method was irtro-
duced by H. Lettau [14, Section 7.41, P. 328] in the micrometeorological
analysis of the O'Neill, Nebraska, data. In view of the existing near-
to-linear shape of individual Ri-profiles, it is found that, to a fair
approximation, Ri = z.Ri'; specifically, Ri' given in l0- 3 /m can conven-
iently be taken as 10-3 RilO0 cm which sometimes has been used as a
stability parameter.

3.1.2 Range of grouped bulk Richardson numbers. After Pveraging

wind and temperature data, local Richardson numbers, Ri, were computed for
the group averages. A total of fifteen 30-run averages were selected frn
the 580 profiles available, by excluding approximately 60 which appo'ared
to have a low-level wind profile maximum and others vhere it appeared that
spurious voltages had been generated in the thermocouple wires by high
winds.

The group values of Ri' ranged from -26 to +728. As might be expected
in view of higher sun angles, the number of groups with negative Ri'
(lapse conditions) was large at Little America V, relative to the number
at the South Pole, in spite of the fact that the micrometeorological pro-
gram at the South Pole covered 10 months (from February to November,
1958), while that at Little America V covered only 7 months (from April
to October, 1957). Stable conditions (Ri' positive) were in the majority,
however, and cases of maximum stability were more extreme at Little
America V than at the Pole. The intense inversions at the lower levels,
which contributed heavily to these high bulk-Richardson numbers, however,
were probs'Cy due to physical conditions rare or not present at the Pole,
namely k' i,., winds and warm air advection from open water. As at the
Pole, cases of neiZtive Ri', indicating lapse rate conditions, occurred
most frequently during the polar day, but were occasionally observed dur-
ing the period without sun.

17
 3.2 Relatioaiship of wind profile types to external parameters

3.2.1 Irregularity of wind profiles. The variation of the

wind gradient with height in the lowest 8 m was distinctly less systematic
or regular at Little America V than at the South Pole 121. Consequently,
efforts were made to relate the type of height distribution of the -zind
gradient to some external parameter. Since the nature and topography of
the snow surface showed distinct changes on the Ross Ice Shelf, it seemed
that wind blowing, over different types of terrain might result in varia-
tion of wind profile type with wind direction and fetch. Using a map of
the vicinity of Little America V, a division into 5 sectors (see FI.. 7;
was suggested by local particularities. Concerning descriptive clnssif£-
cation of profile structure, the following method was adopted.

3.2.2 Classification of wind profiles into 4 types. Wind pro-

files of the 450 grouped cases have been classified into l4types: tex-
pected," "inverted," "expected irregular," "inverted irregular."

In fully developed flow, not only the wind speed but the wind
speed difference, AV, between any pairs of geometrically spaced
levels should increase with height when conditions are stable (Ri'
positive); when conditions are unstable (Ri' negstive), the ircrease
of wind speed with height should occur with height-decreasing AV.
Such distributions of the 3 overlappin6 values of AV, available
from the wind speed measurements at 5 levels, are classified t s
"expected."

If the stable case shows a decrease of AV with height, or the

unstable an increase of MV with height, the wind profile is classi-
fied as "inverted."

If the type of profile is "expected," based on a higher tV at

4 than at 1 m, but the magnitude of AV at 2 m is not intenm.diate:
between the two, the profile is classified as "expected irregular."

Similarly, if the type of profile is "inverted," based on a

lower AV at 4 m than at 1 m, but the magnitude of AV at 2 m is not
Intermediate between the two, the profile is classified as "inverted
irregular."

3.2.3 Wind profile types in relation to wind direction. At the

South Pole, more than 756 of the selected profiles were of the "'expected"
type, while, at Little America V, it was possible to obtain only 7 such
3.-run groups (i.e., 210 profiles out of 1450, or less than 50%). Winds
fror. each of the five sectors shown in Figure 7 were tallied according to
the 4 profile types, and the results are sunarized in Table 3.2.3.1.
NOTE: Details of methods of analysis are idented in this report.

13
 ANTARCTICA

0 t 4w

/ 01

btrione Kt,,atmLttleayena ,197

19.
Table 3.2.3.1 RELATVE DISTRIUItFlON (per'cent ) t,:-,e) OF FIVE SECTORS
OF WVIM DIRZCTION, AND FREQ3i-NCY (%) OF WIND PROFIME
MIPES FOR EACH VIND DIFECTION SECTOR

Frecuency (- ' tu.e) of rnacated profile type

Wind Direction Sector for each wind direction sect-,r
Expectea Inverted
Li"i t_s Frequency(%) Expected Irreguiar Inverted Irrerular

SEe-SSE 46.1. 7 1
3-WSw 32.7 67 iI 1i
W-KfV 3.3 46 7 7
N-NE 7.d 6 39-, 17
,E
-ESE 3.7 59 2 23
"Cal="* 60 22

*Winds too weeJ< to activate the Aerovtne

An additional type of wind profile structure was defined as

"katabatic" and included cases which showed either a w.nd sneed r.axi-
mzi below the 8 m level or a pronounced lowering of the rate of wind
increase vith height under stable condit:ons. Such cases had been
excluded from the grouping of profiles into 3c0-rtun groups and are
not shown in Table 3.2.3.1; 6C profiles of this type were available.
In 9 cases, winIs were iuo weak to activate the Aerovane while 35
cases showed light winds between SSE and ENE. Six cases snowed
stronger winds fron NW and apparently were profiles that were not
.)ully developed.

SE-SSE. The results shown in Table 3.2.3.1 are ntt easy to interpret.
A possible explanation of the high frequency of the SE-SSE sector of wind
direction is that the air tends to flow through the slfghtly lower region
in the azi-uth between Byrd Station and the South Pole. Wind direction
statistics for both stations (B-rd and the Pole) indicate a tendeancy of
air to dramn into this lower area. Also, on the Ross Ice Shelf, some south
-w-ind,,may be diverted by Roosevelt Island, which lies due south of Little
America V, but at a dista:nce of more than 40 kr, with the highest eleva-
ticn, 640 m, at about 100D .u from the station.

S-WN. The sertor fron S to WSW includes the region where the Ross
Ice Shelf stretches out for an average daistance of approxinmately 500
miles with ar. average slope of I in 10,00C near Little America V. The
most signifIcant interruption to this slope is Rootevelt Island. Some
details of the topography near the station are shown by Cra.-j 17, Fig. 1
and 2, pp. 5 and 71. Beyond the rela.tively abrupt rise frarm the ice
shelf to the Plateau (Fig. 7), there is t gradual slope upward of about
1 in 500 to the highest land of the Plateau (elevation more than 4000 m).
Winds which appro.-ach the Little America V station across the gently

2:
sloping, quite uniform Ross Ice Shelf show the "e,ýpectec" rofile t-pe
with relatively highest frequency, namely 67% of the tire (see Tables
3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.2), in spite of the fact that the caor was located in
th!.s wind sector in relation to the micrometeorologlcal wind mast.

Table 3.2.3.2 COMPkARSON OF RELATIVE FQUCY (per cent) OF WIND PROFILE

TYPES AT SOUTMH POLE (all directons ) AhD LITTLE AMERICA V

Expect-d Inverted
Eected Irregular Inverted Irreglar

South Pole, all directiore 76 i6 4 4

Little America V, S-WSW 67 1 i! ii

This table shows that, at Little America V, tie relative distribution of

the profile t)nes with winds fram the S-WSW sector is closest to that
found at the Scuth Le, where the slope is gentle and quite uniform.
There is indication irom records for other years (see Vowinckel ([ll]) that
winds from this sector are normally more prevalent than they were in 1957.

W-NW In the sector from W to NIN, wind flows upsiope, and the fetch
is across rough te-rrain close to the staticn, including a 26 m deep de-
pression called Crevasse Valley, and over a svrface sometimes composed of
ice and sometimes of water. These fetch conditions =ay explain 'he result,
shown in Table 3.2.3.1 that "expected irregular" profiles are most fre-
quent.

N-NE In the N-NE secto., the surface is also rough and winds came
from the sea. The location of Little America V reletive to normal storm
tracks is such that most of the migrating disturbances are accompanied by
strong N-NE -winds at the station. Table 3.2.3.1 shows for this sector
the lowest frequency of "expected" profiles. Within this sector, NNE was
the most frequent direction (see Fig. 6) and was also tb. azimuth of the
strongest winds.

SE-SSE It is more difficult to account for the large number of

"inve ----
eand "irregular" profiles from the direction of ri.xizum frequency,
SE-SSE. I :earently, the type of wind profile does not relate to wind direc-
tion alone.

E(E-ESE Figure 6 shows that winds from ENE-ESE are rather infrequent
(16.7T of l days), in comparison with winds from SE-SSE (38.5% of all
days) but the katabatic type occurs with both fetches. The more southerly
the wind in these 2 sectors, the longer the fetch across the ice shelf.

21
 3.2.1, Wina profile :½es in relation to cloudiness. Cloudi-
ness was considered as a possible factor which could be related to the
type of wind profile. The mean opaque clouuincss averages 0.43 for hours
of all profiles, ^.33 for hours with "expected' profiles and C.53 for
hours with 'inverted" and 'rregular" profiles. This .az: indicate that
the Istter types occui with greater than average cloudin.ess. However, a
frequency count shows that with 0.6 to 1.0 cloud-necs, 55% of the pro-
files are of the "expected" type, and with 3.-- to (.5 coudiness, 422 are
of the 'expected" type. Thus, the relationsh:p is not statistically sig-
nificant.

3.2.5 Wind profile types in relation to ojx.ue cloudiness and

wind direction. An att-Dt to relate oDapee cloudiness, wind direction,
and type of wind profile indicates the fol-owing:

(1) Wit' fetches frcc the S-WSW sector and clear skies, pro-
files of the "expected" type predominate;

(2) with fetches fram the SE-SSE sector, profiles cf the "ex-
pected" type are most frequently accampanied by clear sKies;

(3) with overcast skies, any wind profile %vpe r. occur with
nearly equal frequency;

(4) winds from the azimuths most likely to show katabatic in-
fluence are usually accampanled by overcast se.ies while profiles of the
"inverted" type have various sky conditions, but not clear skies.
Itt (4) is the m-ost surprising, since overcast skies are normally
not ex)ected with k"tebatic winds.

3.2.6 Wind profile ty]pes in relation to wind speed. A tabulla-

tion of type of ;rind profile as a function of wind speed at the 8 n level
(see Table 3.2.6.1), J"
•_ustrates that when V8 exceeds a value of about
6 m/sec the profiles of the "expected" type are definitely a rarity.

Table -. 2.6.1 LITTLE A1mCA V. NU.WR OF HOURS W=1i INDICATED YPE OF

WIND PROFILE, IN REWTION TO WIND SPEED (n/sec) AT 8 M LEVEL

NuMber of hours at indicated wind speed, V8 (m/sec)

Type of Profile i-• 4-•6 7-2 22
"Expected" 43 ll8 42 8
All other types 16 78 7? h5
Although we are obviously considering two closely related measuremcntrt,
wind speed at 8 m, and the wind gradient below t*1 . level, it Is so.•e-
what surprising that the degree of regularity decreases with increasigL
wird s,)eed. The observed relationship may provide some insight regareixL.
the physical mechanism involved, inasmuch as it can be interpreted tc
indicate the role of advection processes due to horizontal noi,-uniforml:v
of surface conditions.

3.2.7 Conclusion. Neither the fetch of the wind nor the sky
conditions afford a satisfactory correlation with type of wind profile at
Little America V. Nor do advection, katabatic effects, nor a combination
of the ,vo provide an explanation of the observed wind profiles. Some of
the re.jationships studied in the following sections have been tested using
only the "expected" type of wind profile as well as all profiles.

3.3 Seasonal variction of stability end var;ation of exte-nal

parameters with stability

.. 3.1 Coparison of average bulk ztabYlity at Little America V

end the South Pole. If one wants to compute nonthly means of bulk-
Richardson number, Ri', from hours whien profiles were recorded at Little
America V, the occasional extremely large Ri' raises the average so mar:.edl-.'
thot it may become unrep.:eta-.ive. In -...e attempt to obtain a co.--per:so.
.Lt~h South Pole conditions (see Table 3.3.1 in the "South Pole Dta
Analysis" [2]) all profiles resulting in Ri' larger than 1CZ3 units were
omitted in the computation of monthly means. At Little America V, Ri'
nevertheless averages consistently higher than at the South Pole.

In a chart of monthly-mean Ri' for the South Pole Station, aero-

logical data an the total height of the surface inversion and the
total temperature difference had been included. However, due to a
more complex stiu.ture of the lapse rate over.- the Ross Ice Shelf, i,.
is not possible to obtain a total thickness of the inversion layer
for that area with sufficient reliability wad accuracy frem the
serological soundings available. The main reason is that frequently
several inversions occur in the lowest 1000 m.

3.3.2 Monthly frequency of stability from 9M date. It appeared

that a frequency count of stability occurrence by months, as measured by
Ri' for the profile periods, might be more significant then the aveage
monthly Ri'; results for 5 months are simmarized in Table 3.3.2.±.

3.3.3Monthly frequency of stability from USWB date. in view

of the fact that hours of micrometeorological profile data are rather
unever-y distributed over the months (see Table 3.3.2.1), the regalar
hourly observations by UEE•B personnel at Little America V for April through
October 1957 were used to round off the #4 climatic statistics of stability.
A dimensional stability coefficient, S, was computed for every hour of the
month, which has the same definition as that used for the South Pole

23
Station, namely

S = (T1 o - T2.5)/(U1 o) 2 (2)

For convenience the USWBi data were used in units in which they were
recorded: Temperature, T, is In "F, and wind speed, U, in knots; instru-
ment levels as indicated by the subscripts are height in meters. Thus,
S, is expressed in *F/kt 2 .

Table 3.3.2.1 LITTLE AMERICA V, MAY - SEPTMBER, 1957. NUMBER OF CASES

"WITH INDICATED MLK STABLITY, Ri' (lOS3/m)
Number of cases
my June July L% Sp My S

Ri' <0 7 0 16 35 33 9o
0o Ri'• 19 26 9 44 47 24 153
Ri' >19 -U117 .UJ1206

Total 66 22 130 117 ii4 449

An empirical relationship between Ri' and S had been derived for

grouped hours of simultaneous measurements by QM and USWB at the South
Pole, and is illustrated by the solld line in Figure 8. Grouped data for
Little America V are plotted on the same grnph. While the scatter is
considerable at Little America V, due to the climatic complexities, the
general relationship is similar to that at the South Pole. The frequency
dirtribution of class intervals of S is shown in Table 3.3.3.1 by months.
3.3.4 Seasonal changes toward less stable conditions. At
Little America, as at the South Pole, the stability coefficient, S, wac
most frequently in the interval from 0 to 0.01 (OF/kt 2 ). A shift towai I
less stable intervals is evident in warmer months, particularly in those
cold months which were, in 1957, warmer than normal, such as June (see
Fig. 1). The shift with season toward less stable intervals does not
appear in September, i.e., following immediately the return of the sun,
but is delayed until October, as is the seasonal rise in temperature.
3.3.5 Variation of wind speed, temperature and sky cover with
stability. Figure 9 illustrates the wriation with bulk stability, Ri',
of wind speed, temperature and sky cover at Little America V. These
elements are taken, for the hours of detailed profile data, from the 2 m
wind speed, the mean temperature of the 8 m mast-layer and from the USWB
visual observations of sky conditions.

24
 .10 .--.- I
LITTLE AMERICA V
-

SOUTH POLE STATION

.0 8 .. .. .. 4.
liei
U-
.04

_ _.
.0:2.

-. 02 .. - _L_ .i I 1 L_
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Ri/
Figure 8. Stability coefficientp 8 (from ImVB data) versus bulk iichardson
ntmber, R•I (from Q8 data) for Little America V. 1957, comvared
vith relationship established between 8 and R1' at the south
PaleV 1958.

25
Table 3.3.3.1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HOURLY VALUES OF THE DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY COEFFICIENT, S (computed from USWB data), BY
MONTHS AT LITTLE AMEICA V, 1957

Number of hours

SApr Junm Jul A e Oct Apr - Oct

- - to -. 01 1 7 7 6 6 17 15 59
-. 01 " 0 35 134 158 82 104 96 188 797
O " .01 82 380 399 414 446 369 393 2483
.01 " .02 25 43 38 58 46 66 29 305
.02" .03 6 22 16 21 20 41 18 144
.03" .04 12 16 6 25 11 13 15 98
.04" .05 5 7 9 10 8 17 12 68
.05 .06 8 12 7 10 10 11 6 64
.o6" .07 4 9 5 4 3 6 6 37
.07" .08 1 1 5 6 3 3 6 25
.08" .09 3 3 4 7 4 5 5 31
.09" .10 0 5 1 6 3 2 3 20
.10" .11 1 5 4 5 4 1 3 23
.1-1 .12 1 6 2 2 5 0 0 16
.12" i7 43 21 64 42 21 247

Total 201 693 682 720 722 689 720 4417

The wind and temperature dependencies on bulk stability (Ri') are
similar to those for the South Pole, with highest speed and highest
temperature for groups near neutral stability. However, sky cover with
the unstable cases at Little America V averages 7/10. At the South Pole
the rare unstable cases are consistently accompanied by overcast skies.
This result is highly interesting. It can mean that at the South Pole
the cause of occasionally occurring lapse conditions is long-wave radia-
tion from the lower surface of a "warm" stratus cloud (i.e., wsrmer than
the snow-surface), while at Little America V short-wave radiation from
sun and sky can be at least a contributing factor. In view of the high
albedo of the antarctic snow cover, this result appears to be understand-
able, and consistent with conditions of external nature.

Wind speed averages are lower for profiles of the "expected" type
than for all hours of profile data (Fig. 9). This is consistent with the
evidence discussed in Section 3.2 that wind speed averages tend to be
higher for the "irregular" types. Figure 9 also shows lower temperatures
at extreme stability for the "expected" than for all cases. There is
little charge in wind speed, temperature or cloudiness at bulk stabilities
beyond 70.

26
 9 [a)

8 AU PROFILlS
LI A
7' '. ~.* IXPECIID*' PROMIIS
E
6 • r t |

z I
0 •30
LUU
5o
2
4±

IN-

il/ i 1'A""
O
wU
0 0
0.9-

t<

0.7 ... +....

Li 0.5 -.- . . .... . . . .

S0.3

0.1 -2 0• 25.0.25.0..2
Ri'

Figure 9. Little America V, 1957. Variation vith bl

stabl)ity, Ri', of: (a.) Win speed at 2 m; (b)
Teuperature of the 8 m surface 1a.yerz; (e) mi~y
cover. Abscissa values increase in proportion
to the sqiare of distance frau zero. +

27
 The extremely stable cases classed as "katabatic" are not in-
cluded in Figure 9, since they were omitted in the grouping of pro-
files. However, those "irregular" and "inverted" cases that are
Included are responsible for higher temperatures when all cases are
used than when only "expected" profiles are used.

It is likely thrit some of the profiles of the "inverted" type

are in reality of the "katabatic" type with a wind maximum at fairly
low levels but not below the 8-meter level. The issue is somewtvit
confused by the fact that, near neutral stability, precise wind pro-
file type classification is impeded by the limits of accuraoy of the
temperature measurements used in determining Ri'. For example, a
slight error in a temperature observation may result in a negative
Ri' when ncturrUy conditions were such that Ri' should be positive;
an observed increase of wind speed gradient ( AV) with height at
negative Ri' was taken as an indicator that this profile must be
classified as the "inverted" type. While, for consistency, the
separation had to be based on a computed value of Ri' - 0, there are
many cases near Ri' = 0 that could fall to the positive or negative
side of Ri' with a relatively small change in only one level. of tem-
perature observations. Since the over-all temperature gradient is
small with winds from the SE-SSE sector (Fig. 6), the resulting near-
neutral stability may account for many of the "inverted" and "irregu-
lar" cases of profile structure that occur with winds from this
sector (see Table 3.2.3.1).
3.4 Vertical profile of Richardson number

The dependency of Richardson number, Ri, on the height for fifteen

30-run groups, is shown in Figure 10. This plot embraces all 4 descriptive
types of wind profiles, and includes the correction to the 4 m temperatures
discussed in Section 2.4.2. A systematic change of Ri with height in the
lowest 4 m asevident, and for all groups, Ri can be assumed to go to zero
if one approaches the surface. The over-all height gradient of Ri corres-
ponds rather closely to the group values of ni'. However, a comparison
of Figure 10 witth the corresponding graph for the South Pole datn [2,
Fig. 51 suggests that the Little America V results show more of n systemat-
ic curvature in the vertical profiles of Ri for all stabilities.

In Sections 2.2 and 3.2 it was mentioned, that at Little America V the
vertical gradients of individual micrometeorological elements, including
both temperature and wind speed, are of a more complicated structure than
at the South Pole. Since the Ri-number computation involves a combination
of temperature and wind gradients it is, in fact, surprising to note the
degree of regularity evidenced in Figurc 10. More organization in the
Ri-profile, than in the individual profiles of its constituents, could
indicate an interesting tendency for ccompensation, and illustrate the
phynical significance of the Ri-number. Since the height-gradiert of Ri

23
 coo

10

C44
00

q41

C.0
o +.

CV) C4

w ýl + Z

29o
can be expressed by the Deacon numbers of the wind ind Lemperature pro-
files, more detail will be presented after discussion of these numbers
(see Section 3.7).

3.5 gvatation of wind profile curvature rnd zero displacement

orsameter

The Deacon number of the wind profile, 6 , ib a nunerical measure

of profile curvature. For its definition, reyerence is made to H. Lettau
[i1, Section 7.5, p. 340J. AV was computed for the 30-run groups
of lIttle Ainerica V profiles using overlapping differences in the follow-
ing equation

8v = ( log tLz - Alog ov)/ alog(z + D) (3

where D = zero displacement parameter = zo + d
with z = roughness length
zero displa cement S=
Az = height difference
AV = wind speed difference corresponding to A2.

The zero displacement, d, corrects for irregularities of the terrain in

the direction from which the wind is blowing, and also movements of snow
at the site surrounding the mici'ometeorologicol mast installation, which
produced uncertainty concerning the actual elevation of the anemometer
array above the average or aerodynamically effective ground surface. At
the site, the arms of the anemometer most were adjusted periodically
when snow accumulation raised the height of the underlying surface.

In an adiabatic surface layer the Deacon number 8v equals unity,

and the zero displacement, d, can be determined with the aid of a least-
square fit to the logarithmic wind law; reference is made to Robinson [15]
wiho de3cribes a program for automatic computation of the seý of three
parameters which are D, zo, and the shearing velocity T/o7h where To
is tht surface stress. This method cannot be applied for diabatic condi-
tions, since it is known that the logarithmic law holds true only in
adiabatic surface layers.

A revised scheme for the computation of the zero displacement in

diabetic surface layers was developed in the "South Pole Data Analysis"
(2]. The same approach is used here.

The Deacon numbers for the group analysis -ere computed using
adjacent as well as overlapping height intervals, and assuming a
sequence of tentative D values (i.e., first D = 0, then D = -5, -10,
-15 cm, then D = 5, 10, 15 Cia, etc.). For each group, resulting
Bv-values (at nominal heights of 100, 141, 200, 283, 4o00 cm) were
plotted against height in linear coordinates.

30
 A basic model assumption is tVit the Dencon number goes t,
unity if z approaches zero, for any diabat'ic state. The D vnlLe
which satisfied this model requirement and produced the least
change of curvature with height in the conputed iv-profile was
selected. In the process of determining this D value for indivi-
dual profiles, the systematic change of the p.-profile structure
with bulk stability was also considered.

As a result of the trial-and-error method, it was found that, indeed,

in the lowest 1 to 2 r layer at Little America V the absolute value,
S1- By1 , could be made in many cases to be proportional to the distance
from the actual surface. This method of D determination did not work as
well, however, with. the ccimplicated wind profiles at Little Americs V as
with the more clear-cut South Pole data. Ln general, it was necessary
to apply larger negative D vwlues (as large as 25 cm) at Little America V
than at the South Pole. This was in line with visual estimates at the
two sites and observations that small to micro-scale surface features
showed greater amplitudes and more diversity of structure at Little
America V than on the central Antarctic Plateau.

3.6 Relationship
stabilitZ n-,mber) curvtture
of profile
=bul' Richardson and height(Deecon
numbersj to bulK

The dependency of 3v-profile structure on bulk Richardson number, Ri',

is shown in Figure 11. In a neutral case (Ri' = O), av, should equal unity
in the lowest atmosphere, provided that the wind prof !e is exactly logar-
ithmic, and the proper zero displacement is known. For a giver. bulK sta-
bility, the Deacon number deports from unity more at Little America V than
at the South Pole. The departure is nevertheless small (see Fig. 11)
and, as at the South Pole, for surface cooling (inversion con&ittorns) Fv
tends to be smaller than unity and decreases generally with height. At
Little America V, an S-shaped By-profile is -btained for 'apse conditions
•,rind speed Increase
(surface heating), probably due to relatively strong
close to the surface.

As stability increases,. fv decreases -.uth height more and more

rapidly as long as Ri' is not extremely large. As at the South Pole, when
Ri' becomes greeter than approximately C.05/m, the decrease of s is strong
only in the lowest part of the 4 m layer under investigation. Novever,
at Little America V the decrease is generally weaker and does not exceed
9 minimum value of 6 -=0.675 ýt, about 1.5 m, while at the South Pole, the
corresponding minimum was 0.25. Above about 1.5 m the Bv-profiles at
Little America V show much more irregularity than at the South Pole. A
aystematic increase is lacking; tae curves tend to show only a lesser de-
crease with height than at lower stab.lllty. The most stable 30-run [..oup
did not show any great decrease in Bv with height, even in the lowest
layers used, or when broken down into 3 separate 10-run groups. It is
possible that a prono-nced minimum in Bv occurred at a lower level tnan
is measured here; the lowest reliable By-value could be computed only at

31
about 1.5 m. A somewh.t unceýrtnin estimate for the i r:.level supports
this conjecture. This may indicate an extremely :'Iialiuw .urface layer.

The change of potemial temperature gradient with height at Little

America V was so irregular that it was not rossiLle t., establish any sig-
n1ficnnt reirtion between the curvature of the te.-per- ture profile, RO
,nd bulk stability, Ri', i.e., between Deacon nim.ber, --4 of the Lempern-
ture profile and bult Richardson nizrber, Ri'.

3.7 Interdependence between Deacon numbers ýrnd Eic-herdson nur.bers-

3.7.1 Non-linear change of Richardson number with height. it

wos erentfoned in Section 3.4 that the vertical prc.'4les of the Richardson
number (see Fig. 10) gi-e relatively good evidence of zystersatic channhes
with bulk-stability of the croup means. In fact, tx st.ructure of the
curves in Figure 10 suggests that Ri could be proportional to zm, with a
vblue of the exponent m which seems to be larger thar, unity, but not larger
than 2. This regular pattern in Ri versus height rnpearz interesting, in
viev of the rather erratic behavior of the ind.vidua! relationships (such
as F.. versus height, )r ?v versus Ri, or Bovercus Ri, etc. ).
If Ri " zMP, it follows directly from the defining equation (1),
upon logarithzic differentiation of Ri with respect to height, that
-n exact equation is
) log Ri/a log(z*D) = 2q v - (4)
For a constant value of r-it must be concluded frci equation (4) thet
only for the special case of m = 1 is it mathematically possible that
Be approaches unity if 8v goes to unity.

While the micrameteorological conditions at the South Pole corresponded

rather closely to the case of m = 1 (as evidenced by the near-to-linear
structure of the Ri versus z curves of Fig. 5 in r2]), conditions at
Little America V are definitely of a different nature, in that m > 1, or,
specifically, m appears to be close to 2.

3.7.2 Theoretical relationship between wind profile Deacon num-

ber and PRchardson number. The relationship between wind profile Deacon
number, Sv, and Richardson number is illustrated f)r LiLtle America V in
Figure 12. In cumparison with corresponding results reported in [2] for
the South Pole, there is definitely more scattering of points at Little
America V.

It was found in the analysis of the South Pole date [2) that the de-
pendency of Sv on Ri was reasonably well approximated (at least for small
Ri) by a theoretical relationship suggested by various authorities, iz-
cluding Panofsky et al [16 ; this relationship has been derived strictly

32
Km 14
000

7/. A>
W

V4

W:)iG+tIlrI
33P
for surface-layer conditions, and is

,- (1 - 18 Ri)/(1 - 13.5 Ri) (5)

Certain systematic deviations fr.= the theoretical curve, nt
R' t 0.O4, approximately, can readily be explained by the fact that
for strong stability some of the upper anemometer levels used for
the Av-ariputation must have been actually outside the surface
layir. That is, increasing Ri', for a given or constant horizontal
pressure gradient, is invariably accompanied by a decrease of both
surface stress (to) and low-level wind speed V(z); thus, the geo-
stro)phic departure of the surface wind must increase and, as 8
direct consequemce of the equation of ::motion, the absolute value of
3T/ ;Z increases. The end result is that - ro/(;T/-z), which Ge-
termines the thichmess of the surface layer, must decrease consider-
ably with ircreasing stability. For conditionus of strong stability,
the stirface layer may thus be reduced to less than 2, or even 1
meter. For a detailed discussion of this, and the corresponding be-
havior of 8v.above the surface layer of a barotropic and adiabatic
boundary layer, reference is made to Lettau [17].

The theoretical relaticnship (Eq. 5) is indicated for Ri >0, in the

plot of Sv versus Ri, Figure 12, as a dashed curve. Obviously, the lack
of agreement (with actual Rv) evidences the limitations of existing
theories of diabatic profile structure.

3.7.3 Emirical relationship between wind profile Deacon num-

ber and Richardsou n-ember. Entered also on Figure 12 is a strictly em-
pirical relationship, derived by "curve-fitting," of the form
(4 +14 RI )/(l + 42 hi), (6)

which produces some degree of approximation to the lcwer limit of the

widely scattered observational 0V-points, for Ri >0. In view of equa-
tion (4) and the r-value of approximately 2, it would follow from either
equation (5) or (5) tiv.t "A must be negative for even the smallest devi-
ation of 8 v from tmity, for 6v <i. This seems to be related to the
anomaly -.
f the low-level temperature profile, as represented by the fre-
quently observed "elevated minimum" discussed in Section 2.2.3. Advec-
tion, lack of fully developed temperature profiles, or the tendency to
-atabatAc motion. can be responsible, to some degree, for the exceptional
structure in curvature conditions at Little America V.

3.7.4 Rclationship between temperature profile curvature and

wind profilecurvature. It must be concluded that temperature profile
curvature, B8, at Little America V is distinctly different from wind
profile curvature, Sv" This is important for heat flux computations
using similarity principles, The inequality, Bv / R will mean not only

34
 10

- -X

V94

5 35
that the coefficients of momentum and heat difNusivity (K1 and KH) are
different, but that the rntio Kt/KH must be a Punction of--eight for
surface layer conditions. Furthermore, existing theoreticai models of
diabatic surface layer structure have been derived alm.ost exclusively
by using the assumption that Bv z Be. The above-discussed wide discrep-
ancies between Rv and 9A must lead to the conclusion that a common sur-
face layer for mom.entum and heat transfer did not exist at Little America
V or was so shallow that in nearly all cases the levels at which micro-
meteorological data are available were above the surface layer.

3.7.5 Possible causes of unusual stiructure of the micro-mete-

orological layer. One may think of several physical causes for the
unusual structure of the micrcmeteorological layer at Little America V.
The first possible cause which comes to mind is the lac! of fully devel-
oped profiles. This would imply as the principal _auzative factor a
mar!ed discontinuity of surface conditions at a line which must be inter-
sected by the upwind fetch so that a process of advection begins there.
Only if the site were conpletely encircled by such a narked discontinuity
of surface conditions (such as, for example, at the center of a round
flat island in the ocean) would a pronounced correlation of advection
effects with the azimuth of the air motion be expected. At Little America
V, even though there exists a strong discontinuity in the environment of
the station (namely, the boundary between ice and water) it i. a more or
less straight line, and, in most months of the year, is quite far away.
Moreover, the observed unusual features of micrometeorological profi'-
structure are not at all convincingly related to air flow from the i ater,
so that advection can be ruled out.

The second possible cause could be katabetic profile structure, or

the combination of katabatic effects for fetches fro= one sector, with
advection effects from another. It is physically absolutely unlikely,
however, that these two entirely different causes could produce similar
effects on the micrometeorological profiLe ctvurture. Moreover, there
is a rather wide sector at Little America V for which neither of the two
could be held responsible; wi1h winds ouw of this sector the profiles
show a tendency to the same behavior as with fetches from the distant
water, or free the also distant slopes tc-vards higher grounds.

The ruiing out of advective and katabatic effects forces us to think

of a third caurative factor, which must also be related to local geonor-
phology but for which there is the requirement that it be lasically the
same for all azimuths fro. the station. This appears to exclude practi-
cally every feature other than the ice shelf itself. In view of the
thermal properties of ice floating on water it could be suspected that
some particularities of the surface heat budget m&.v represent the cause
for which we search. Nor-ally, a strong intensity of sensible heat trans-
fer between ground and air pfoduces order in the temperature profiles. -
The lack of order could imply that this heat transfrer is unusually small.

36
This could mean that ne't radiation is almost completely balanced by
sub-surface heat flux rand latent heat transfer. Such a tentative hy-
pothesis can be tested only by local heat budget investigat'ons. The
question still remains why the sensible heat transfer can be small in
an air layer which is far from being isotherral. Moreover, it will be
shown in Section 8 thyi; the intensity cf eddy heat flux is only between
1/2 to 1/3 that of nit radiation, which is not a spectacular ratio.

4. Computation of Roughness Length

4.1 Computation from wind profiles

The conventional method of roughness length, zo, determination is

based on the logarithmic wind profile which will exist only in an adia-
batic surface layer (see Lettau [14, p. 3331). In view of the extreme
rareness of these neutral conditions at Little America V, as well as at
the South Pole, a new method of prcfile analysis was introduced which
permits computation of roughness length, zo, from diabatic profiles (see
Section 3.5). The assumption is made that ( 0, - 1) varies in direct
proportion to height, at least in the lowest layer. Then using the
equation defining svy (Eq. 3) it follows upon integration that

log zo = log(z+D) - 0.4343(cSle(!" Bv)-(I - B,) - 0.25(1 - Bv) 2 ... ) (7)

where common logarithms are used and the profile contour number,a , is
defined as Alog V/ Alog(z + D). Since D was obtained independently (see
Section 3.5), equation (7) can be solved for any level Viere , and B. are
known.
The mean z was obtained from all data levels, or, in the more stable
cases, from at least the 3 lowest levels. Results are plotted against
bulk stability, Ri' in Figure 13.

4.2 ftnltude and variation of rougM'ness length

Even when only "expected" profiles were used, roughness length com-
puted according to the procedure used in the "South Pole Data Analysis"
(2] was erratic, and, in general, too small, based upon comparative visual
observation of the terrain at the 2 stations. The neutral stability zo
value near 0.03 cm appeared reasonable, but was based on only one l1-run
group. For profiles with bulk stability Ri' between 6 and 7*4 lOC3 /m, rough-
ness length averaged near 0.01 cm but grew with stability. It tended to
increase more rapidly towards extreme stability. This increase may be due
to the fact that at Little America V the values of 1 - 8 v did not vary in
direct proportion to height.

37
 S2.02.0 • ALL PROFILES
/1 I
.
1.5
I / "[.A"ECTED" PROFILES -
1.0 -- -\

-
0 .5 k ,

0.0- . -- 1

--. 02
- -.0 013
.02 0

- - - --. 03
"-.04

---.-. 05

-- .06

1.14 (C]-
.12 -

10-
08-

.04

-25 0 25 100 225 400 625

Ri

Figure 13. Little America V - Variation vith bulk stability, Ri', of:
(a) Surface stress, ro.; (b) Edd, heat flux, Qo: (c) Rough-
ness length, zo. Abscissa values increase in proportion
to the square of distance from zero.

38
5. Calculation of Surface Stress, Eddy Heat Flux, and Momentum and Heat

Transfer Coefficients

5,1 Surface stress

In order to obtain the surface stress, it was necessarý to calculate

the fricti'3n velocity, fo77, from the wind profiles. The grouped data
were used, and 3 fornnmla was employed which is valid for the same assump-
tions which underlie equation (7), namely aSv/j! - euiE•tant, and
Fv,o - I

.43L3 ke (•l
6- o ÷D )

where contmon logar-it'hxzs and a ,,alue of the Karman constant k.= C.428 are
used.

Surface stress, 'o, was deterT.ined by avei-aging values of r -

for the lower levels where the profile curvature followed as closely as
possible the requirement that (1 - B) is directly proportional to height.
Air density, 0, was computed from the USWB station data, using their
3-hourly observations of temperature, pressure and pressure tendency. For
these lower levels, stress, r, is considered indeDendent of height. A
convenietit drag coefficient (as defined by the dimensionless ratio
(-ifTTD/V 4 ) also was calculated from the frict-n velocity obtained from
the grouped wind profiles.

Ranges of the surface stress, To, with stability, and values of the
drag coefficient ar Little Anerica V and th2 South Pole are shown in
Table 5.1.1; variation of to, with stability, at Little America V, is illus-
trated in Figure 13.

Table 5.1.1 RANGES OF SURFACE STRESS, To, WITH BULK STABImITY, Ri', AND
VALUES OF THE DRAG COEFFICIEN, f--V 4 , L1TLME AMERICA V
AND THE SOUM POLE I
No. of Rang,!
Type of 30-run Range of to
Station Profile Groups of Ri' (Dynes/Lm2 ) C

Little America V all 12 728 to C o.4 to 1.6 .037

Little America V "expected" 7 191 to -13* 0.2 to 1.2* .0o0
South Pole all 20 89 to 10 C.1 to -.8 .C2
*A l-run group at RI' = -1 shows to = 2.0 (Fig. 13); also surface stress
is relatively higher at all stabilities for "inverted" profiles.

39
 The variation of surface stress with stability shows •x.c degree
of parellelity with the variatior of wind speed with stability shown in
Fifnare 9a (Section 3.3.5). In comparison with the relptionship between
Ri' and Top and between Ri' and wind speed at the 2 m level, at the
South Pole, the Little America V data indicate ogain that z,certain stt-
bility occurs at Little America V with higher wind rpeed than at the
South Pole, at least for 30 < Ri' < 100, in units •f lC7 3 /r.. The sea-
sonal variation of s .irface stress will be compared with tht of the
terrz in the energy budget equation in Section iý.
The drag coefficient is relatively independent of bulk ste-ility
in the range from Ri' C to 726.

5.2 Eddy heat flux

Eddy heat flux, Q., was couputed using a simrilarity relation based
on vertical differences of wind speei and potential te-. pcture from all
5 heights, or in cases of extreme stability the lowest 4 or 3 heights,

S-Cp I 14.4
AN

where Qo eddy heat flux (ly/rin)

cp - specific heat of air (cal g-ideg-1 )

eddy diffusivity for heat

KM eddy diffusivity for horizontal mor•entum

SV and AA have the same meaning as explained in Section 2.4 in connec-

tion with Equation (I). If the eddy diffusivitLes for heat and horizon-
tal momentum are the same, -t=l. The sign-convention is chosen so that
heat flowing in the direction of increasing z-values (upwards) corresponds
to positive %o while the heat flux accompanying inversional temperature
gradients is in the downward direction and, therefore, a negative Q0.

Ranges of eddy heat flux, Qo, with stability (assuming Y =1) are
shown, for Little America V and the South Pole, in Table 5.2.1; variation
of Q 0 , with stability, at Little America V, is illustrated in Figure 13.
Table 2.2.1 RAIS OF EDDY HEAT FLUX, QO, WITH SULK STABILITY, RI',
LITTLE AMERICA V ANDM
TE SOMI• PE

No. of
Type of 30-run arage r..We of Qo
Station Proftile GErOuJts of RV (z+n)-

Little America V all 12 728 to 0 -&.,093 to approx. (

Little America V "expected" 7 191 to -13 -C.C374 to -. 013C
Scuth Pole all 20 68*to -18 -0.C•39"to i-0. 52

*no coasistent variation above Ri' = +10

5.3 Mcckentum transfer and heat tronorer coefficients

A relationship ca¢,oe obtained, by the procedure used in the "South

Pole Data Analysis" [2], between the stability coefficient, S, derived
from USWB data (see Section 3.3.3 and equation (2)), and momentum transfer
end heat transfer coefficients, for the hovurs when temperatures at ý leveo
and %Ind speed at 1 level a-e available from both W, and USnB observations.
The d~g coefficient ( ý), /Y4 as was discussed in Section .
varies little with change in bulk stability or wind speed.

A mcutut transfer coefficient is defined as

AW10 o)

and a heat transfer coefficient is defined as

S(ulo)(T1 0 - T2 5 )

vhere o and Qo are computed frc the grouped, profiles obtained from QM
obsen-stions and the wind sapted, U, and tempermtures, T, at the heights
in meters shown in the subsi.ripts, are obtained from synchronous USWB
observations, These coelFflc.ents were computed for twelve 30-run groups
for all typer of wind profilea,, with the 3 unstable 30-ru-n groups omitted
because of the large variation in To at the 5 levels. The coeffIcients
were computed also for seven 30-run groups of "expected" profiles, i.nclud-
ing 1 unstable group. When the results are plotted versus the stability

4i1
c,3effiicernt, S, the zcatter of points is large rc~at.vc t, th:,t ý:t
,hc
South Pole, even whcn orLy "expected" prufi4le a.-c useu. It wat. dec.ded,
thcrefore, to use conztant va7ue- of -he two ce-fo•'ent•, cquci to t:,e
•tb-.e~c
r vers;-.Fc-

a; . cm

see knot

Thn.ese coefficie~ns, and eq-.;tions (iC) and (i) _I! be used in

Section _ýto ob.a~in -.-alues 3f the eddy hea-. lu trr- nteeeg
ecuntion and values of the surface stress for *.-:ri
-nth• the '.e•:T-
_n the- en~ergy• rudte-t eque-zi-on.
I I

$.Hee,L Fux in -.he Sn.ý-r•

ýj.l Tsz--.ature obser~mtiorns and pat'.errs

o.1.1 C2ceRrizo~n of once-a-AU- and continuousl•' rec~orded sub-sur-

fac %--qeature•_-. The -,crti;al heat flu.x in the snow, So is an irpear-
.ant constituent 3f the heIt budget at the snow-air inte,-.rface. Discussion
of this heat flux at Little Anezica V is included i~n a reaort, by Crary [7,
'p5-563- Observations were taken once a day alt ' deptIhs; by CTPappeii!*.
1:ost ,)f th7.rse temperatures were measured with a "thermo.•z string." In
addition, cGhe USWB
du 2o.Thep recorded
saurfae I.evtosan
thermzohn reasureents
atr' continuously at 2 sub-
suraface levels, the surf•ace, ard " heights on the r c,5g-foot =:ýc.--rrteoro-
logical =ast. adjacent -o -.he 3'-foot Aerovane mast, '--' to -- 50 feet NNE
of the ca-p.

Fi-are 14 is a plot of the m-onthly mean temp~eratures at the various

subsurface levels frci Chappell's once-a-day observations; he reduced
most of the readings eo
constant levels and Dr. Crarni- extended terds re-
dountion. Td e s ofathemperatures shtw he abnozr warrth of the .-.cnta
of June, and below-norp al temperature of April, ino1957, conditions ileus-
tr.rated previously by Figures i to
3, in Section 2.1.
fntehly mean tem-peratures frcm the U. S. Weather
sureau's continuously
recording thermonts t 2=above
m the surface, the surface, and i and 2io
depth were c56pared with those from e appenoe's once-a-day observations.
With the exception of a colder September iean at the surface, and a warmer
October mean at 1 = depth Cdtputed from the continuously recorded te2per-
atures, agrem1ent is close.
*Ric ele
CrCppell,
s Eagle Scout., Boy Scouts of America, sponsored by
National Acadhesr of Sciences.

L2
 6.1.2 Comparison of Little America V. Maudheim and South Pole
subsurface temperature xtremes. The once-a-e iy observations, as summar-
ized by Crary L7] are plotted in the form of a tautochrone in Figure 15.
It is interesting to compare this tautochrone with those for Maudheim and
the South Pole Station [2, Figs. 21 and. 22, pp. 55 and 561. The minimum
temperature at about 1 m depth deviates from the average by approximately
8 CO for all three stations. The maximum at about 1 m depth deviates
from the average b* approximately 16 C0 at the South Pole Station (which
is the coldest, highest latitude location), by 12 C0 at Little America V
(78010'S) and by only 8 CO at Maudheim (71003'S). The minimum. tempera-
ture just below the snow surface occurs in August at all 3 stations: In
late August at the South Pole, where sunrise is after mid-September; near
1 August at Maudheim, even though sunrise is 27 July; and late in August
at Little America V, where sunrise is 25 August. H. Wexler (91 refers to
3 delayed air temperature minimum at the coastal stations and attributes
the lag to extension of the ice pack to hundreds of miles from the coast
in late winter, which cools air masses moving to the Antarctic continent
from the north. This late minimum would be reflected in temperatures
Just below the surface, causing the minimum to occur later in relation
t, sunr-ise then at the South Pole.

6.2 Analysis of snow temperature variations

[Note: For the sake of consistency with previous work in the liter-
ature in the fields of surface layer turbulence as well as subsurface
heat diffusion, it is unavoidable that certein mathematical symbols (such
as a P X . etc.) must be used with a different meaning in this section
than in Sections 4 and 5. See list of symbols and units in front pages
of this report (after the Table of Contents). Natural logarithms are
used and abbreviated by "ln."]
6.2.1 Calculation of amplitudes and phase ang1les of the pene-
tration of the deat wave. The once-a-day subsurface tempenrtures, sum-
marized by months by CUry (7, P. 49], and plotted in Figure 14 of this
report, were analysed by him. An independent re-analysis of the same
data used, in simpler form, the method used in the study of the South
Pole observations.

Let n = frequency of the annual cycle = 2 "/365 =

0.0172 rad/dpiy = 1.99 x 10-7 rad/sec. The first harmonic of
the annual variation of temperature is described by:

T = Tm + A cos(nt - ) (12)
which yields for the vertical gradient of temperature,

43
 0 "; SU
-;LIN zUN I -

L BEL, - L E
I Ho.•ZC'N 1 HDRIZOC \

I\
101

I
IC

25 4,h
Lii

IM

35 1

40 _
APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEF OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR

19.".7 - 58
r.g•u-e !4. Litk.tle AmerIca V - =ondh:h", mean subsurface temperatures.

44
 -CLi - zD u
>Z
0 <,l
v)
• -7

AA-

ci- 6!
Lu

78 -4

9- -

35 30 25 20 15 i0 5

TEMPERATURE (--C)

Figl-sre 15. Little America V - Tautoehroneý., JlQ9--B.

 T' T' A'c~s(nt- ') A' ir(t-) ()

where subscript r. denotes the annual mean

A a•.litude (deg)
-

a r phase angle
St- tL-.e

and the prize indicates differentiation with rerpe:t to depth. The

use o" the coEir.e f'unction (rather than the sine 'unctiLn) toi-etrer
vith the minus sign of the pbx-ie lag in eqi*tion (12) is for con,'en-
4ence. This a -value corresponcds to the o:'e ofeurrence of the
e.xtrze phase, a- zero date phus a /n. This is the tire of :uin.--t
value, since all tn-peratures ere negative and Fcurier analysis is
done without carry -ng the ninus sign of teroperntures.

Results of the new analysis and Crary's crigirxi an-alysis are sho.n
:n Tsble 6.2.1.
Table 6.2.1 AI•UIDES AIM EAMSE ANQ OF TMHE PEZfiP4TION OF TME HEAT

WAVE AT THE VARIOUS LEVFLS AT LI7LE A;NERICA V, AS O•EAIMM

BY 2 ,.'LYSE.,

Depth Amplitude In ' A )ate

bx.of Das Phase
(Deg)!r&le W
-di---T-
- (A)
r- deg r,-- Temp.
LIMr _i M New Crary Er:.ay New Crary New

Sfc i4.9 1L.0 2.74 2.64 8 Jan C 77W25' j-00 C.u-

0.5 12.2 11.L 2.54 2.4 3 18 Jan 10 87"50' C.17 0.l:"
1.0 9.2 8.5 2.22 2.14 28 Jan 20 99e59' 0.34 :.34
2.0 5.6 5.5 1.76 l.l 20 Feb 43 123"4i' 0.74 c.806
4
4.0 2.7 2.7 1.00 0.99 28 Mar 79 Z6-" 1' 1.36 1.593
8.0 0.6 0.6 -0.51 -0.56 3C May 142 2380 0' 2.45 1.8C3

Ln A is -lotted versus a in Flgure 16. For the classical case

of a hc.ogeneous conductor, d a = -d(inA), whereupon

V = T.' - A a' I/F cosnt - a+ -5) (14)

where T' is the -- rtical t•-perr.;ure grad-ent.

6.2.2 Calctlatiorn of thermal difftsivity and the coefficient

of heat conductivity. The penetration of the annual cycle of temperature
was exined for homogeneity of heat conduction, in order to detem-ine
therral diffusivity, K, which ran be calculated frot.

46
 K - _

Ln A and a (radians) are plotted against depth in Figure i'( for both
analyses, and linear relationships appear to exist, nt least below 1 meter.
This is a necessary and sufficient condition for homnoGeneity of heat con-
duction at and below this level.

From Figure 17

S( nA) 1.92 = O.384 /mr (ai')

Rz 2m 500 cm 2m

resulting when n' is substituted in equation (i5), in K2m = 0.0068 cm2 /sec,
which may be compared with 0.0068 at Maudheixa and 0.0047 at the South
Pole [21. It is assumed that this value of K applies also to levels below
2 m.

The coefficient of heat conductivity cof the medium, A, can be calcu-

lated fram A = KC where the heat capacity C - occ. With a snow density,
o , of 0.40 g/cm3 at 2 m, and c = 0.453 cal/g deg (using the average
1 mp, April-October, anow temperature of -28.40) it follows that
C = 0.181 cal/cm3 deg. Then

-0. 00123 ly/sec ly/day

1.-063de/
deg/c•n deg/m
a value intermediate between that at the South Pole and that at MIudheim.

6.2.3 Calculation of daily values of the heat flux at 2 m. It

must be borne in mind that the thermal diffusion model used rests on the
assumption of genuine heat conduction. That is to say, that at any time in
the considered layer the flux of heat (F; ly/time) should be directly pro-
portional to the vertical temperature gradient (T'):

F-=- AT' (16)

Substituting in equation (12) for A and a from table 6.2.1.1,
using for A the average of the values obtained by Crary and the re-analysis

T2m= -23.3 + 5.65 cos(nt - 20 Feb.)

and in equation (14)

T2m' -0.15 - 3.07 cos(nt - 6 Jan), deg/m

47
 3.0
S0 ,,,1X Cr.ir%

~ * \c'• An.tlI.%,s -

0 1 2
OC (radians)
Figure 16. Snov Temperat.-e - Amplitude verus Phase Angle

Using a sipn convention that heat flowing in the direction of in-

creasing depth (i.e., downward, avma frca the surface) is denoted by a
positive value, while negative denotes upward beat flux (towards the
sur.face), the daily values of heat flux at 2 m can be obtained as

'=a XT' = 1.063 [0.15 + 3.07 coG(nt - 6 Jan))

Neglecting the very _izwzil
3zmual men heat flux term

sa = 3.26 cos(nt - 6 Jan), ly/day

Daily values of S2. were calculated for the period 25 April through
20 October, 1957.

48
 0% 0I ex

11V

3\In A
3 -- O (radians)
X Crary
- New Analysis

0 1 2 3

In A and M

Figure 17. Snow Temperature - Amplitude and Phase Angle versus Depth

6.2.4 Calculation of the heat flux at the surface. Running

means of temperatures shovn in LT, Appenad.i Table 3] were used to Inte-
grate the heat flux between 2 meters and the surface. Temperatures at
5 levels were employed: the actual surface, the zero level (which had
initially been the surface level but became gradually the season's snow
accumulation), and the 3 levels at 55, 78, and 150 cm below the zero level.
For each of these 5 levels, temperature change from 2 days before to 2
days after each date "as obtained. This was calculated for the upper 3
layers (between srlface and the nominal 78 ca level) by averaging the
4-day differences at the top and bottom of each sub-layer. The tepersa-
ture change at 150 ca depth was assumed as representative for the layer
froa 78 to 200 ca. Differences are smell, in any case, at this depth.
The heat flux contribution of each layer was obtained by multiplying
the temperature difference averaged over the l4-day period ( & T/4) by the
thickness of the layer ( Az) and by the heat capacity C, where C

49
iz obtained by using the average value of C.45-3 -i/fT de- f~r c frnc
esrnatinr, n fret [7, Fir. 13, p. 391 for each layer. Add.t'on cf the
heat f"lux contributions fo;lr the 4 layers yielded dia•:, values of the n-at
flux difference between 2 n and the surface, and subtra'tion '.f th.S
iuantity frox. the heat flux at 2 -. (computed as dez'rlbed bef~rc) re-
sulted in daily values ol the heat flux et the -ur:'f7c, So, sz:.ootheu -ve:-
a 5-02Y period, correspondir4r to a 5-day runnin.ý m~enn.

7. Measurement of Net Radiation

Net radiation values, Ro, for LitTle America V were zunp',. ed by

Professor Hoinkes, University of Insbruck; they were directly meazired
by a net radiometer r.anfactured by Schulze, both ther.oniles of which
were recorded separately. Details of his instrunnentati "n are described
In L18 and in the references contained therein. Cal-br3tion terts after
the instrumert was returned frc., the Antarctic revealed that the 'polyetiry-
lene used transmitted less :ong-wave radiation than antclcipated [1)],
necessitatinC edjustz..ent cf about 53, it. the tentative values cuoted in
1181.

Net radiation w.s alio measured by the U. i. Weather Bureau usin•,

E. at the Sou'.h ?o•l Station [21, a net exchange rad1=eter nanufactured
b• 5cc-.an anr Whitley. The Schulze -4nstnzent erploys a radiation dore
that dzes not require ventilation, whi.e the Becoan and Whitlej instr.-
mer-s employ a heat f'cw plate which =;st be aspirated. Hourly va-ues
after 1 July 1957 had been coputed by the U. S. Weather Bureau and -.ere
nvailable on iricrofiln. Additional values for April through June 1957 were
computed, and the daily totals for April through October 1957 car-pared 6rth
Dr. Hoinkes' revised values. Comparison shows agreeent within the liz-its
:L-.osed by differences in instrumentation and some possible differen~es
in exposure.

The daily values of net radiation, revised by Dr. Hoint.es, havE been
epployed to cc-pute the daily heat budgets between 25 April and 2C October,
since this is the jeriod for wbich observations ne-_essary for cozputinf
eddy heat flux and the subsurface heat flux were evailable.

6. Surface Energy Budget

8.1 Definitions. and energy budget euation

The eqdation of the energy budget at the snow-air interface will

be cons dered in the form

Ro = % + So +0 E (17)

where Ro = radiation balance or net radiation at the interface

 - eddy heat fiux at the interfac' (def:nea nn4 Sc-t-.n
so snow heat flux at the interface (def.ne.. ,n 3S:-tiJn §)
Eo= latent heat flux at the interface

,111 four terms ore expressed in ly/tine, where ly - l. ey

.. -ai c,
and ca&i. gram calorie, or stall calorie. Conven~ent units are either
l.ldny or ly/hour. The clgn-convention for the three fluxes ( Sy,
Jo
and Eo) is so tha- transport :'r.ay frm the interfnce has the pos;;i-e
sign. Net radiation is definod as positive when ;.orc radiaton enenry :,s
received than emitted froz the 4'nterface. Thus, - .tive Ro indiate
an er.argy source at the interface (usually requ.r.rw -.he pre:encepf
rolar radiation); a negative 9. indicates an enerr- -,n4at the interface
a-d wil! require, for balance, negative fluxes directed towardr the sur-
face.

5.2 Computation of terms of tne ener.' bud:et n

Using the constant ccefficient of heat transýer nnd e-ai'nr, (ii)

fror. Section 5.3, hourly values and 5-day runrnirn- rann- of edd" heat flx-.
,were coputed and iisted by the DIta Analysis Cf:^-e. 2moothed da.ly
values of the heat flux at the surface, Sc, correspirdr4g t.o a 5-day run-
ning mean, were Dbta-ned by procedur-es described in Se-tisOr. o.2. The prs-
_edure for obtaining daily values of net radistion, R%, has been, described
in Section 7. Five-day running meaws, correspondinC -o those of Qo and
So, were obtained by the Leta Analysis Office. Thece mea.s of Q 0 , So, and
Ro for 5-day periods were used to obtain a 13-deay mcan for late April,
30-day means for May through September, and a 22-Lay s.ean for the first
nart of October.

"When Ri, %., and So0 are known, the latent heat flux, E is obtained
with the aid of equation (17) as the reminder which makes the budget
coplete. For surface te-.perature below freezing, a negative Eo will
i-dicate deposition (i.e., the vapor phase transfon-s directly to solid
ice, for example, as hoarfrost), and a positive E-, sublimation (i.e.,
the ice evaporates, without intermediate liquid phase). This ncmencla-
ture concerning phase changes of H2 0 was suggested by MacDonald [20, page
24.5].
8.3 The seasonal course of surface stress

The seasonal course of surface ýtress is of interest for ccmparison

with changes in the terms of the energy budget equation. Using the con-
stant coefficient of momentin- transfer and equation (1C) from Section 5.3,
hourly values and 5-day running means of surface stress, -o, were computed
and listed by the Date Analysis Office. The 5-day means are plntted in
-igure 18, and were combined to obtain means for longer periods corres-
ponding to those calculated for the terms of the energy budget equation
(see Section 8.2). These means are shown, by the heavy line in Figure 18,

51
 2.5 'Ru-- %1 ---

O4.
201 -,re 18. Little America
1957: Annual varia-
E- 5ption of svrface stress,
.. by 5..day periods,
anz DY 3C-dayv periods
"(heavy line) approxima-
I ting the months of Nay
1.0 •" !I .I(Dashed through lime vas used
September.

for averages of 10 days

O. .in April and 20 days in
October. )

M J A S

20

10.A
oi•

A Figure 19. Seasonal trends

in ener. budget terms of
--t\ the snow surface at

"-20-"-/\ , Ro Q0 +So0 o
Little America V, 1957.
-20" ,

-30 .....

-40
M A S

52
and the periods of time correspond close1:' to monthly periods for Mey
through September. Averages are higher than at the South Pole Station
[2, Fig. 32), as might be expected from the higher wind speeds at Little
America V. The high peaks, shown in the 5-da:y ,eans and occurring at
inly slightly irregular intervals, accompair., the passage of low pressure
arear at this coastal station. (In contrast, the continental climate at
th? ;outh Pole Station produces a smaller range of o".) The longer
r .riod averages obscure this short-period variability of surface stress
anr produce a graph no more irregular than that for the South Pole.

" .'eMre monthly cat budget constituents at the snow-air inter-

J:: .of the 4 constituents of the energy balance, discu.ssed in

.... r% :.ction, are plotted in Figure 19, azd are listed in Table

T• •-- -lY 2. 1PiADXES AT LI.tE AMERICA V, 1957. Aversge r on.hly

t, b ' c-,nstituente (1y'day) at the snow-air interface: Net redla-
t•..• • :lerived •'rc Z r•' measurements, eddy heat flux (Qo) derived
froi 1'.16 and 1LABS •.. and snow heat flux (so) derived frcm Chappell's
date as piblished by crary [7], latent heat flux, Eo =Ro - Qo - So
remainder term.

Month Ro Q So0 Eo

-25 - 9 - 5 -11
April (beginning 23rd)
may -39 -16 .o -17
June -32 -12 + 2 -22
July -35 -17 -14 -
August -34 -15 + 3 -22
September -33 -15 - 3 -15
October (ending l9th) -10 - 9 7 -

Table 8.4.1 may be compared with Tables 8.1.1 and 8.3.1 in [2] whicn
show the same quantities for audheiz end the South Pole. N1ote, however,
that the observations vAre for different years, and even the 30-day ever-
ages do not correspond exactly with calendar nuonths.

8.5 Comparison oZ hoarfrost de4Uoition at Little America V, Maudheim

and the South Pole

On the average, deposition (negative values of Eo) occurred through-

out the 6-month period at Little America V; act-slly, however, longer
periods of hoarfrost deposition were interrupted quite frequently by short
periods of sublimation. Table 8.3.2 in [2] also indicated that deposition
was to be expected at Little America V: and in only slightly less quantity
than indicated here, although in larger amount than at Haudheis, the other

)3
coastal station. The approximately 6-month mean of deposition can be
converted to a mass flux density, or colimn of liquid water, per time,
considcan6 the latent hest of the va or-to-ice phase equal to 667 csl/g.
Thus 15 ly/day, which equalb 2700 ly/180 days, corresponds to a water
equivalent of 4.0 g/cm2 or 40 mm of water for the approximately 6-month
period, which is 1.2 times as much as the 34 mm of water at Maudheim dur-
ing a period of corresponding duration. The annual water equiva] ent of
the deposition at Maudheim was estimated to be 27 a and only the 3 core-
months of the Antarctic summer showed positive Eo.

Hoarfrost was observed frequently on the anemometers at Little

America V in quantities within the limnits of error of the deposition
obtained as a remainder in equation (17), but its feathery quality and
the measured depth of deposition suggest the error to be on the side of
less deposition than computed.

At the South Pole, without advection of additional moisture and with

very cold winter temperatures, deposition vao light and increased slightly
with colder teiperature, even with the cases of calm winds cmitted. At
Little America V, on the other hand, deposition was gr-at in the warm
month of June, and in general, vat; not consistently .elated to temperature.
It is likely that advection of mos'sture was a prim .ry cause of increased
deposition at Little America V. Northeasterly wi .ds were frequent in June
and virtds from the direction of the sea were norr ally of higher velocity.

54
9. Conclusions

At Little America V the winter is "c reless" (with mid-winter rever-

sals of the temperature trend) and the mon~thly teiperature range is large.
The minima appear to be controlled by the annual course of net radiation
in the interior of tne continent and occasional cold air advection, and
Lhe raxima by cyclonic activity which advects warmer air in the Ross Sea
tires. The temperature averages for Individual i.onths vary considerably
from year to year, and the annual minimum may occur in any winter month.
In 1957 stable conditions predominated in the air layer of rmicroxreteoro-
logical profile measurements and cases of maximum stability were more
extreme than at the South Pole. The miniru.m temperature during winter
frequently was recorded at the 6 or 12 cc. level, thus producing an
"anormlous" profile structure.
The variation if tht wind gradient with height fromr the surface to
8 m is disti.nctly less reguvar at Little America V t:an at the South Pole
Station. Neither the fetch of the wind nor the siW conditions afford a
satisfactory correlation with type of wind profile. Nor do advection,
katabatic effects, n:. a combination of the two provide an explanation
of the observed wind and temperature profiles.

The shift toward less stable conditions, along with the seasonal
rise in temperature, was delayed until October. Highest wind speed and
highest temperature, as at the South Pole, occurred near neutral stabil-
ity, but unstable conditions were accompanied by less cloudiness.

The Richardson number changes more systematically with height in the

!west 4 m than might be inferred from the complicated structure of the
wind and temperature profiles, which suggests an interesting tendency for
compensation. The system••ic increase of wind profile curvature with
height, evident at the South Pole, is lacking above 1.5 m, which may indhI-
cate an extremely shallow surface layer at great stability. Conditions
at Little America V demnonstrate the limitations of existing theories of
diabatic profile structure.

Variation of surface stress shows some degree of perallelity with

the variation of wind speed. High peaks of surface stress, shown in the
5-day averages, accompany the passage of cyclonic depressions in the Ross
Sea area. Drag coefficient, vsing KYrrhn's constant as 0.428, averaged
0.037 as compared with 0.042 at the South Pole.

The energy budget at the snow-air interface was considered with net
radiation equal to the sum of the eddy heat flux, the heat flux in the
snow, and the latent heat flux. The complicated profile structure lei
to erratic variation of the coefficients of momentum and heat with
stability; therefore, constant coefficients were usea'd to relate the
stability-grouped Q% observations to the USWB standard observations and

55
obtain means of eddy heat flux for use in the energy equation. Once-a-
day subsurfece temperature observations by Chappell yielded reletive",,
small mean values of the heat flux in the snow. The latent he.at fluy,
when trested as a revainder indicates deposition in the 6-ronýh pericv.
in 1957, equivalent to about 40 = of vater, 1.2 times as much as that
at 14udheirm during corresponding periods in 195C and 151. increased
deposition in the milder winter months may be due tV an accoa-pbnying
increase in available moisture.

56
10. References

1. Da~lrymplle, F. C.: "South, Pole ~r'

Pzceer12yPcrr.
1: 1eta Pr-esentation,' Earth Scienf~ez ;v Tech '.At EZS-;2,
R.iI&E Center, Naiticx, Ma~ss., 0Oct IU' , 'p- P.

2. Dallry,,-ple, P. C., H. Hi. Lettau, and S. F. WollUacton: Ztr

Pol e Mi cz oe t e oruIog 'Pro-45ran-, Flenrt I I: D.tz! A na yS1s , -E
Sciences Div, Tech Rpt ES-", W, RE Center, Nati.:r., Masc.,
Jlime 13 '-4 D.

3. D1ry=p-le, P. C.: "A PhysicaLC~z~o the nrt

F1 at eau, z.rtfi Meteor-alogy, 1, Amer Geo-.!ys -'n, fcr rzat
Acr~d Sci, [pcmrding publicat-Jon-b

4. Let-tu, H. H.: "A Csse Sti.udy of K&t bý- rXov F wn Ve I- 't,ar:

?Thteaei S-i.rromrndirig the Sou~th PIe" tr't~ ,
Azmer Ge o- ,y s -%j, f or *Lat Ac ad S-. i c l-' pl b- at -:r. .

51. lettau, Hl. FH.: "Ccrre slonden- e betvecn Mo~elc.!dels ?-.d

Actu~al 0bseri?-t-ors in Arctic l-*ic-r~meteý:-zý3y, Pulti.Catic .n
M4eteor~logy c. 6,3-, Mc'AiI! VrU':, Y-mtreE.., FSc 4e rtl-ffc
Ript No. Dz, Con-tractv AF p ,a.92 :9zL-.1

6. Cran~, A. P., E. S. Robinson, hi. F. n nd W .~yJ.

'Glaciolortcali Studies :)f the R?:ss :ýeSeA t:i

19>9 ,"iIGY Gla c i aJ1.,c Rpt N3. !*y1.?3.

7.Crcry, A. P. : "Glacilo-4iza.. Stizdie: a-. ALtL -- ter-ica tic

Antarct4c a. 19c7 a nd 29 CY, C a clo!P;g R-:t
IGY . Mar 1-.

Cary, A. P. and W. H. Chawtan: "A,-ddl--)-a. G1o

Meas-w-en~ents at -the Abandoned Li-ttle k-elaStatzioni, An~arc!tic&
J Geophvs R~es, 68(21), 6064-5, Niov 1-~

9. Wexler, H.: "The 'Kerrlose' Winter In na:i," eohsc6

(3-L'), 577-595, 195&.-

1$. Laroque, J.: "Caracterres Polaires de la Viriation Anriuelle de

la T--perat-ure," la M~tforologie, tPP. o5-7,
-ýJa -Me: 1961
!I. Vowvinckell, E.: "ClL..:-ate of the Antarcti~ca Coast," Ch 8,
Meteorology of the Anteactic, M. P. vtan Rzoy, ed, Wear.ner Buy,
Dpt Transport, Pretoria, Un of, S. Africe, 1957.

12. Henzknan, H. F. P. "The Ant-artic Pack Ice Inl Win't'er," j

Glaciol, 2, 84-191-, Apr 1953.
 (peding UitJ)

21.Lettwu, hi. hi. "Explari:,, The A-:he½Fi 1 ':t '."'e, ' Vol. I.
New Yor!ý, ~5,Tp.

1 * Rob ns on , S. 'ccpu-z ing W ml ?:of 1 e Pa rw-_Z *cr r,

"C:
At_:nospheri-, ScK, , l2, 1~ mar lQ',)-.

Panofs*<, H. , A. K. Blalc~der, G. E. !-*cVe*-:L-i: ~'7- PZ'btf~c

Wind Profile, Quart J Roy Metecrol Sozc, ~,3-9~

T7 Lettpu, H. ". Notes on Theoc-reticel" Modeiz! of Pro-f -- e S-.r-c-

4,_re in -,he Diabatic Surf-ace Lzyer,"' Cniv z~f Wis, 4dsn
Wis, Final ?pt, Sec 13, pr.1p -2'. Contract -- 3-C

l.Hoinikes, H. C.: "Studitzs ir. Glac'el Me.ro. LiUttle

America V, Ar~tsrzti.z, Ssu on Anteretic G.LacioogW y
I.U.G.G., int! Assoc Sl lfydzrol, IIUl 1110.55, Pp. 29-L3, 9.

H>oin-kes, H. C.: "Glacial Meteorzoioa_ Research -,nGreophysics,

Hi. Odishaw, ed, Vol 2, Solid Earth and Interfac~e P~ner~oene,
Mass. I~nst Tech Pr.ess, Ca~bridge, Mss., pp. 3c-_424~, 1964.

2:. McDonald, j. E.: '"Deposition' A Prop7osed An~togyxn for

'Sublimation' ," J Meteorrol, lr 2'15-24.T, Apr 1.95t.
 APPENDIX A

NOTE ON THE LOW-LEVEL ANOMALY IN VERTICAL TF'MPU'ATURlF PROFILES

UNDER CONDITIONS OF OUTGOING RADIATION

59
 N=TE ON THE L,0W-LEVEL ANOWLY IN VERTICAL TER'4-EMTURE PPOFILFZ UNDER
CONDITIONS OF OcUTGOIIU RADIATION

by

H. H. Lettau
University of Wisconsin

It has long been kno-•wn in micrceteorology that, occasionally, dur-

ing calm clear nights, the *iertica] profile of average air ternperature
can exhibit en anoimlous structure in thet the ninimum te:perature d;-es
not occur at the earth/sir interface but at some vertical distance aloft;
usually fr= a fvw m-illimeters to decimeters above the surface, producixrx
a "suneradiabatic" lapse rate of herpereure of the order of 2.*C/13 cm
in the lo';est Layer of the noctu2Ta! inversion. This anomaly appears to
have been first described by Indian =eteorologiists who observed it, dur-
-r;- r.icro-cteo.rological s.-udies, on fields and barr iround near .oorý.,
india; reference can be m=de to L. A. Ram-das and S. te.anathan (1932),
K. R. Rcmanatha.-n and L. A. Ra=das (l;35), and L. A.1_zdas (1945). More
than two decades later K. Raschke (1957) undeztoo4 a series of very inter-
esting field experiments also at Poona, to cla-ify the physical and
r.eteorologcal conditions under which the anomaly develops. Until that
time it was not clear whether or not the phencrenon -as of trivial nature;
reference can be -ade to a discussion during the "International S3mposil=
on Atmospheric .'arbulence;"see H. H. Lettau (1952), Sec. 7.2.4. Raschke
demonstrated convincingly that more or less trivial causes, such as instru-
mental errors, or radiational cooling of the air layer near the tops of
Ilow vegetation, or small-scale advection of air which '_nd been cooled at
relatively high rates over neighboring surfaces, or air drainage along
sI 3ng
op terrain can be ruled out. That is, the phenorenon is readily ob-
served over bare level ground, even on top of a flat mesa near Poona. It
iS nedc e because it depends on intensitj of overall air motion.
Once established, it proved to be remarkably persistent or stable, in that
4t reproduced itself within a short time after having been thoroughly dis-
turbed, or eli2rate, by artificial stirring of the air by waving of a
large sheet of plywood.

Otservat...onal wor"k in other clizatic regions by H. Bravaid and H.

Kohnke (1952), J. Lake (1956), R. Fleagle (1956), H. Niiaisk and H. Mobda;.
(1960), and oth(-s leaves no reason for doubt that the phercu-enon is real
and cannot be explained by instrument÷al errors (i.e.. ddrect effects of
radistion ccbined with lack of ventilation of +he te-oereture sersors),
or by unique and extraordinary local conditions at Poona, Iindia.

61
I

A variety of authors have attempted to arrive et a physical under-

ettnding of the phenomenon and its causes. Almost exclusively, the theory
was based on the properties of long-vave radiation fluxes in the lower
atmiosphere, and their div'rgence (or convergence) along the vertical, due
to water vapor and temperat-.re gradients. Subsequent vertical patterns
of cooling (or heating) rates are assumed to transform an initially mono-
torically decreasing tempersture profile into one which shows a minimum
value aloft, or even an S-shape, or inverted S-shape. However, certain
discrepancies between the results of different theoretical models of
radiation-flux divergence appear to exist; reference can be made to work
by F. Moeller (1955) and (1960), K. Rsschke (1957), G. N. Geevskaya,
K. Y. Kondratjev, e,.d '. E. Yakushevskays (1962), and others. An attempt
to explain the possili._, generation of S-shaped terperature profiles,
independent of radiation divergence, by means of differential reduction
of eddy diffusivity in a growing inversion (due to the vertical profile
of the Richardson number, and subsequent local divergences of tt? eddy
heat flux) was outlined by H. Lettau (1952), and later taken up by F. K.
Davis (1957). In still another approach, Seerearn and Loew (19") sug-
gested that heat of condensation released by dew formation could eccount
for a relative warming of the Ground and thus explain 4 the temperature
rinirn= aloft. This exykanation can be rejected at once for physical
reasons; moreover, ?. K. Davis (1957) could show that the micrcaieteoro-
logical P-ncmaly can appepr before any dew deposition is evident.

Experimentally, an. interesting relation'ship was discovered by

R. Luetzke (1960). The work of this author das deliberately devoted to a
statistical analysis of the wind-4ependency of the low-level anomnly of
the nocturnal temperature profile, and the seasonal variation of its fre-
quency of occur'ence, during a full year of a special observational pro-
gram at two micrometeorological sites in the North-central plains of
Germany. R. Luetzke provides an interesting illustration by means of a
photogrsphic picture of a snall tomato plant, after a late-spring night
with such a temperature anomaly, with leaves unharmed near the ground
and frozen at upper parts, even though the exposure of all leaves to out-
going radiation was about the same. He concludes that a profile type
vith mininm temperature near the 23-cm level is most likely to occur
when the over-all air motion is weak, and the heat flux from the subsoil
is relatively large. i.e., relatively cI-se to the surface value of net
radiation. He quotes as supporting evidence the fact that during clear
nights with snow-cover on his site the minimum temperature always oc-
curred at the surface, even under conditions of ccmplev! calm, while in
otherwise similar nights without snow-cover the minimum occurred some
distance above the surface; this h% attributes to the heat-insulating
effect of the snow, vaich is known to be a poor conductor and to reduce
significantly heat flux from below. Over bare ground Luetzke observed
a slight tendency for better development of the anozaly in the first
pert of the night, i.e., when the heat flux from the subsurface is rela-
tively lp-e.
62
 Disregarding heat "f condensation (or dew deposit) the heat budget

equation of the earth/air interface is

Ro So+ Q
0 0 0.S+

where R - net radiation, and S and Q are the fluxes of heat by conduc-
tion (or convection) in the suosurface mediur and in the nic', respec-
tively. The subscript "zero" refers to surface values of the quantities.
At nighttime R. is negative, and, not only the sum, So + Qo, but both
terms individually will be negative. Then the difference between a
poorly and an efficiently conducting sub-surface medium. is that the ratio
So/Qo will be relatively srmll for the former, and relatively large for
the latter. Luetzke's conclusion can be re-formnulated by saying that the
prerequisi 4 for anomalous temperature profile structure is a negative
Qo value c- an intensity which is relatively small in cor.parison to that
of net radiation, or in comparison to the values of both So and Ro. How-
ever, no neat budget estimates were provided by Luetzke (1960).

In this connection the meastrements of zicroc.eteorological tempera-

ture profiles during the antarcti: winterniight at the South Pole, in 1956,
and at Little America V, in 1957, are interestI 'g- It was found that at
Little .Xmerica V the mini.-mum temperature quite frequently occurred at the
o cm level, while at the South Pole the minim-x. teT-Der-ure occurred
nearly always at height zero, for :therwise similar meteorological condi-
tions of low wind speed and strong outgoing radiation. Similar equipment
was used at both locations, which .makes it safe to say that instrumental
errors cannot explain this anomaly.

The most striking difference between the two antarctic sites is in

the physical structure of the snow. The thermal parameters (such as volu-
metric heat capacity, and heat conductivity) appear to be significantly
lower on the central antarctic plateau than at stations near the coast.
A ccraparison of average heat-budget constituents at the antarctic snow
susface was given by P. Dalrymple, H. Letteu, and S. Wollaston (1963).
Frcm Table 8.3.1 of their report and Table 8.3.1 of this report It follows,
for example, that in 1958 at the South Pole during the month of July
(which shows negative averages of So and Qo), the ratio So/Q% is
3'50 = 3.06, while, in 1957 at Little America V during July, it is
14/17 C0.82, i.e., 14 times larger. Evidently, together with the above
statement concerning frequency of oc,'urrence, this supports Luetzke's con-
clusion on the importance of sub-surf3ce heat flux for the development
of an=.nslous temperature profiles.

lurthermore, it appears safe to say that the two sets of micrometeo-

roicgical data froin the antarctic region provide an argumzent against an
explanhtion of the elevated miniimu as being causea by divergence of
radiation fluxes. In view of the very low temperature and extremely low
3tmospheric moisture of the air in the antarctic wirnter night, arny

63
divergence of long-,vav nzadl-ticn fhlipro thbt •a3
-. p-ý.s:!!y exist =ast
be, by several orders of =agnitude, smaller than, for exha.ple, in tne
air at Poona, in the subtropical region. In spite of this, the anorely
of the nocturnal temperature profile was of similar rognitude at Little
America and Poona.

References

Brawand, H., and H. Kohnke: "Microclimate ant' Water Vapor Exchange at

the Soil Surface," Proc, Soil Sci Soc America, l6, No. 2,
pp. 195-198, 1952.

Dalrymple, P. C., H. H. Lettau, and S. H. WoL.aston: "South Pole

Micrameteorology Program, Part II: Data Analysis," Earth
Sciences Div, Tech Rpt ES-7, WM R&E Center, Natick, Mass..
June 1963.

Davis, F. K.: "Study of Time-Height Variations of Micrczeteorological

Factors during Radiation Fog," Drexel Ins•t Tecnnology, Lab
Climatology, Publications in Climatology, X No. 1, Centerton,
N. J., 1957.
i•leagle, R. G.: "The Temperature Distri'jution near a Cold Su•rface,"
J Meteorol, 13, No. 2, 1956.
Gaevskaya, G. N., K. Y. Kondrstjev, cnd K. E. Yakushevskýya: "Radiative
Heat Flux Divergence and Heat Regime in the Lowest Layer of
the Atmosphere," Archiv Meteorol Geophys & Bioklimatol, Ser B,
12, pp. 95-108, 1962.

Lake, J. V.: "The Temperature Profile above Bare Soil in Clear Nights,"
Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc, 82, No. 352, pp. 1,97-197, 1256.

Lettau, H. : "Anczalous Profile Curvature in the Surface arA Boundary

Layer," Section 1.3.4.5, and "Simmry cf Discussion, Section
7.2.4, of International Symposium on Atmospheric Turbulence in
the Bouadary Layer, Geophysical Research Papers No. 19,
Geophys Res Directorate, A. F. Cambridge Res Center, Cambridge,
Ma~s., Dec 1952.

Luetzke, R.: "Unter welchen Beditgungen hebt sich das naechiliche

Temperatur-Minimum von der Bodenoberflaeche ab?" Angew
Meteorol (Beih, Z Neteorol), A, pp. 1-10, 1960.
Moeller, F.: "Strahlungsvorgaenge in Bodennaehe," Z Meteorol, •,
PP. 47-53, 1955.

64
Hoeller, F..: "Ueber das Strahlungs Gleichgewicht in der Naehe der
Erdoberflaeche," Meteorol Rundschau, la, No. 5, 1960.

Niilisk, H., and H. Moldau: "Night temperature Minimwn above Natural

Surfaces" [ Translated title of Russian text]. Invest.
Atmosph Phys, Tartu, 2, 1960.

Ramanathan, K. R., and L. A. Razdas: "Derivation of Angstroem's

Formula for Atmospheric Radistion and sore General Consid-
erstions iegsrding Nocturnal Cooling of Air Layers near
the Ground,' Proc, Ind Acac Sci, 1, pp. 822-829, 1935.

Ramdas, L. A., and S. Atmrnathan: "The Vertical Distribution of Air

Temperature near the Ground during Night," Gerlands Beitr
Geophys, 37, pp. 116-117, 1932.

Ramdes, L. A.: "The Climmate of the Air Layers near the Ground at
Poona," Tech Note No. 21, India Meteorol Dept, 1945.

Raschke, K.: "lUeber das naechtliche Temperatur Minimum ueber nacktem

Boden in Poona, India," Meteorol Rundschau, 10, pp. 1-11,
1957.
Seerann, J. and K. Loew: "Die Auswirkung der Taubildung auf den
Temperatur Verlauf in der Bodennahen Luftschicht,"
Meteorol Z, 61, PP. 158-161, 1944.

65
 APPENDIX B

IDTA PRESENTATION

67
 4.VC TD4PERATRE PROFILE ATA

Key for Temperature Profile Tables

Symbol No. of Observations/Hour

+ 13 to 15

10 to 12

7 to 9
# 4to 6
* Accompanying Wind Profile

No symbol is used for hours with 15 or

more observations; hours with less th.Ln
4 observations are not shown.

69
 I.- 0%

40

m 04

700
 .o . .'

4k 4k+
.o . . .. tn
-a 'o n Ocnm r, 0 c 0

o 0'nO.(n
n .en
en dCm &r.~

o ... .
r, r-- rOP %n%-7 m ne

410

0 0'

> 14

- 6 r. 1; 14 C A1 .
en enrl enen m-

+M
04 G - ,4 r
%ALn' MC
0ne e

4k 4k+

C4 0'O
4h
Mý o! -1 CO0'
co n c %n0'n

u~ cP.I -4 IA M ý oe -0d-e

M en. (ne "e e nr

C, M Go 1 n ti oP. oO aV v
~~
000000 -d4.-a4ee4 C4 z
71
 46%
C^ OOr -V) fn en M CN e

Rib.

-S LO.n

0 0 in0'0. - -. 4

oo 0
r4 '.o

M C4
00
0
*~~ m m n
0%n m r
D-mm'fn

MO M*0%"C 0%Ln6

Iz L ý9C .- 4

~I-40I
%4 Go

.4e
Cn

O'uA M. 0%00 Cn 044 r..

72'.
 03 C;'' 3'~~ Ný

o0 r40% w 4O 0N-
O 1 M% ~ DMM0
, @3

o C0'
%0C @
DO 4I ~ 30 CO 104N
COO C4 r

on 0%
ci 6 ý nO V . C 0;0' 0;0N 0%VOC
@~4 ý

o h +
0
LNI tn M M- C4 0%0
Ch @o %D

ý44
%a4%a% I
N eqC 4e 4 G

N +

-.
+4

M0 C"0 n I "Ch0% G c c 04 4 G

fn014 rN M1 c" %I . mrN(I M e e d

C,4 Q %4A(n0%aC4N %
Go @3
(7 @ N @3,.4c
003 C;0C; 06 06 .: .4 4 N0 .0

0 o~. 0 >o0

73
 ft 1. +
on 0 (4
%O0%N 4%00% , T ýe n

"N +

nk 4
+

oý CoG oCD 0C C .l 8
1
m O.
04C4C4C tNNN4
C4 -4 -4 -44- 1

o o C'40 p- 0
C4 %JD rý -4'3' -1 a 4
m . . ... .. 4 1

04 0 C0O .?-0 OO +
C4, w 0 MI CAV, %..c M0 4I .d I0

Eq :) r4~

.N . .
0 0 % ?(1 C - 4
C4-4-4 d r 00 CO'00-0% 60 C ; Cý
C; c -4
M. C.-4 " 0 0NN 4 4NCN C1 C .4 - 4..4 -4 -d-4 -4 NCNNN N-

0.% %V- D- ýM %& nC4r C 4% q %

NV% M- C4 4'C14 N~04C4N 4 I

--d 8C4 -4 -4 -4 -4 C-4'L" C4r

M0 m ) Nie "'Teq00M
N4 (,%I0 C1 0 %0 In%000 %0

-44

0 0
- 4k S
~ ~r4cn1I . , 8%c
0
- o*ý0I
0 0- 0
4 .t
0- 00
c t u-% %o rý.'~co
-4-4 4-4 ý C.
04c ' n
E. Z 00
-r
=

0%IA N~N4.4 ~ 00000%'000d74t

 Ch OU W %0-1 o0"0(7 i h
o ol

. . . . . .

oo NO '.. %D z D. ) 454 C ý C ;

o -4
~
N0O ~ ~
O .
C ' . .4 ~ . 0 N - 0..

NN N N NN ~(~5

* .

:1.
"<
4) 04 . I
El 4. N C 0f4 e4 r
" r4 -. 4itC4 .5r-.5.5M0%In~l
M nelMM.

.0 . . 0 4 N 4 0 4 41

N "D ý% ;C ýC 0 .4 '1 ;%
>1N C4 IN N N4 N4 N C4 C4 N4 fn M M ON rl M MMC
-C'

0
.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .% 0
ý4~~~~~~~~~
0% 0% 0ý 0~ ~ ~~~ 4f1ý
. 4C 4C4- 440 .4ý
N~ 4C ~ ~~ ~
M04e nMe C4C 40 4C4C
MMMclo ~ ~~~~~~~.

E n ~r%4 (40 (Y C 4 4.1 0~ "'0- SCO0 0MQ 0n

C; C; 0: C

Q 000.'4wm w40 %mN..0

0 mI0 l%1-% .. -4 C
P.

".4

IW 0 000 S0D0 000 v4 -4

.4 4 -44.-4 ý4.-"-4 C -4N C1 N O

75
 0 m 0 n .0

o0 0 . 4ti-j' 0%C
'P,0r D eQ f Ln

N N6~ C; 06 6 0 0 r-.a O
en n 4en m fnm C1 m(vten 4 '1 4 .

C4

V, to netf TV e ,e nr nC% -7 en

LIN . . . . . . .. . NI

4~ r,

. .. . .. . .. . . . .* IN . .
4
N n- o ,0 C 0 r wM 0 %0%0 -4
4

< sCe ~~~ ~ ~"' ~ ~

nP,) ~ n1 ~n"m ~n.n ~ ~
?I ~
Z ~
elf ~ G.
.00 -4

MUC
C4 -%n Wf-" -f ,1

3 I 0*.48 lý 16 76
6a 0 C; 1 c
 .1 4

N CON~
I M 40 j n04WU% 44 W P 0L

C4 0 ý14OVrW ; 4 O CýC 006 zz ~ L , . I A4 %

0~~~ 44
M' C' f4 -4 1 4 ý4 D 4M 00 7M- QC4 Lr 0 0~ 0 (n'

z (4 4444444444 -4 r) r m% neflenV mr

0
o0 f 44 C 1 n- 44 .%0 C tlO0 L% GD-4 N 4O0OO
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 DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA R&D

S.... Army Unc2lass fied

Natizk, Mý.sacnusetts

3 nEC O f

LITTLE AbOUICA ' MI3RCRMETEOROLOGY PROt.RAM

4 ýEsc R." .E %OE-S ".P. .f .P. ,'*~.-I ~ ., ~

'ett u, Heinz H., Sarah H. Wollaston, Faul C. :alrymple

6 QEPOq- ZA-E IC Cz.. PAZF I!! z :

Janary 1967 253 20
e. ZZ*-Z* ; L~..-- 1C 9. Z5 . A-CQ S Atizoa %.A.9CL 5

lV02500A1229
____ _ __3-29

Dlsi8ribution of this doc'-ent is ualttited.

Release to CFSTI is authorized.
1 SJPP.
, E&•FE* Aqy %,OES '2 SP•iSOR~iG W - TAQ1 AZ-: ;-'

U.S. Army Natick Laboratories

Natick, Miasachusetts

13 AS TPAC T

At Little America V the temperature range of each of the 9 coldest monthb is

large, as is the annual range. Minime are control±o.d by advection of cold air from
the interior and maxima by advection of warmer air f-on the Boss Sea areb. The
winter lacks a distinct temperature minimum, and mid-winter reversals of temperature
trend occur.
Micromteorological wind and temperature profiles in the lowest 8 m of the
tMosphere were recorded at Little America V in 1957, and hourly means of tempera-
tare for about 3,000 hours and wind speed for about 500 hours are published as
Appendix B of this report. Procedures used to ana2y-e the 1958 -icrometeorological
data frc.;s the South Pole Station are followed in this analysis and results compared
with the less complex relationships at the South Pole.
the cuirvature characteristics of wind and air temperature profiles (as measured
by Deacon numbers) are analyzed in great detail, employing Richardson number compu-
tation (which takes into account wind shear Ls well as temperature t rate) to
express stability and its change with height. The structure of the oiserved pro-
fii.es is difficult to interpret in detail. Attempts to do so, by considering such
diverse facttrs as wind fetch, sky cover, advection or katabatic effects, were not
entirely satisfactory. Stable conditions predominated, and cases of maximum stebil-
ity were more extreme than at the South Pole. The maximum inversion in the lowest
8 m amo=uted to 15.8 C&. Variations of wind speed and temperature with stability
were similar to those at the Fouth Pole, but solar radiation from sun and sky can

DD ,.. 1473 Unclassified

I
Unclassified

Abstract (continued)

contribute to instability at Little America V, 'hile cverzasL skies indicate that

instability at the South Pole can be caused ty long-vave ra..ation from the b.-
of stratus cloud. The seasonal snift towarc less stable conditionb, as well as
the rise in temperature, was aelayed Lnthll Octoher.
Air temperature profile data auring w'in-t.r &aowed tnat toe mini-
&re~ently
muz temperature occurred at the t or 12 cm Level, prona cia4 ag, "a-j ous" pro-
file. A study of tols phenomenou, Dy Dr. H. H. Leta.au, is inclwed as Appendix A.
Values of the roughness lengt.L were small ana erra-t-. Wind profile stru;c-
ture also was distinctly less re'ular than a the Soauth F ie. In spite of this,
Pichardson nucbers •tanged quite systematica2ly wirth h.-ight below - =, :ugges'Itig
a .encency for comlpensation. Conwl-tons indicate tha: P_ n surface layer
for morentu.n and heat t-:ensfer, if it existed, was oltenr so snallow that the
levels of profile obser~ations were above it.
Eddy heaL flux was computed for the hours of prufile Cata on the basis of
a similarity assumption using botn estima:ed surface stress (witz. Karman's con-
stant ezual to 0.428, and Deacon-n hber-c.J rected wind snear) aan vtrtizal -if-
ferences of ten-perature and wina speed :n. the lC'=st" ayers. T ot.In'. repr
sentacive climatological means of ecay hea.t flux, a scatistiz-l relotlanship
was established between .,uartermaster cnservatlosz (cina.erntog ;roffle s6ructure
versus bulk stability) and regular synoptic or sta.-darc otzervations zupplied ty
the U. S. Weather Bureau. It is shown that it is pen'.Issi'le to employ constant
coefficients of transfer of momentur sad heat a: Little Azeri_'a V, since varia-
tion of individu&al coefficients --ith stability was qut• erratic because of the
compllcated profile structure. Average eddy heat flux. varied fr-ý zero near
neutral stability to -O.3093 lylain at extreme stability, and average surface
stress from 1.6 dynes/cm2 to 0.4. Averages for 5-day periods lo-' peaks of sur-
face stress accompanying the passage of low pressure areas at this coastal
station, in contrast with a lower average and smaller range at the continental
South Pole Station.
The annual "ariatIon of heat flux at 2 cepth was computed by Fcurler
analysts, using once-a-day subsurface temperature cbser-ations hy Chappell.
The surface heat flux was obtained by adding the heat exchange between 2 m and
the surface, computed by layer-by-layer integration of nay-to-day temperature
changes, to the heat flux at 2 m. The energy budget at the snov'-air interface
is discussed. Computations were based on hour'ly values of net radiation
supplied by Hoinkes and heat fluxes into air and snow as dtscribed above. The
latEat heat flux, obtained as a remainder, indicates deposition in tLe :-moatb
peý tod in 1957 equlvalent to condensation of about 40 mm of water, 1.2 times
as much as that reported for Maudheim during corresponding months in 1950 and
1951. Increascd deposition In the milder winter zýontas may be due t. an
accompanying increase in avairable moisture.

Unclasffied
 Unaclassified
SI tuit I (1.1.o. if i -,tIon
14 I LINK A LINK 9 LINK C
K~
EY *ORD% Hot C. AC T "a1: . 04OLE" oA?

Measurement8
Anslysas8
Comparison8
Range (Extremes) 8),9t
Temperature 9,lj 8
Hoarfrost 9.,1 8
Data 9"1 8
South Pole 9 9
Little America V 9 9 1
Maud-heim 9I
Climatology 4
Micrometeorology 4 ij
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