UNIT-1

ORGANIZATION CHANGE

INTRODUCTION:

It is a combination of two words:

In any organisation, we have people engaged in production, research, development, administration, etc.
The organisation in order to change should prepare a stock of the situation and should effect change in their
attitude and style of functioning.

Change is a part of life and provides opportunity for growth. It is a conscious decision by the management
of organisation.

MEANING:

It refers to the process of growth, decline and transformation within the organization. Organizations may
change their strategy or purpose, introduce new products or services, change

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES ARE OF TWO TYPES:

1. Reactive Changes:
Reactive changes occur when forces compel organization to implement change without delay. In other
words, when demands made by the forces are compiled in a passive manner, such a change is called reactive
change.
2. Proactive Changes:
Proactive changes occur when some factors make realize organization think over and finally decide that
implementation of a particular change is necessary. Then, the change is introduced in a planned manner.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATION CHANGE:

 Change is the law of nature
 Change is resisted by man
 Change leads to development
 Change has an element of uncertainty
 Change requires change agents
 Changes take place due to two forces
 Change includes proactive and reactive change

Transformational Levers for BIG Organizational Change

Most of these transformational levers can be used to get you through the change, and they can also be used
on the other side of the change to sustain it. Here, we’re just talking about using them to get you through the
change. For example, the first lever, Measurement, could remind you to measure how many people are, say,
trained in a new process, how many have adopted the new process, how much re-work is required as they
get used to the new process, and so on. On the other side of change, you will want to measure outcomes,
such as the degree to which you are getting the benefits of the new process (reduced costs, cycle time, up
time, whatever).
 Measurement
 Involvement
 Communication
 Education & Training
 Reinforcement
 Organizational Structure
 Accountability Processes
 Resourcing

1) “What gets measured gets done” isn’t exactly true; you must attach consequences to your outcomes.
However, there is no better spotlight, nor better foundation for consequences, than measurement. You can
measure processes: how well you are doing what you say you’re doing. Or, you can measure outcomes: the
results of your processes

2) Everyone writing about change agrees that involvement of people affected by the change is important.
The underlying reason is that people hate feeling out of control of important parts of their lives. In a change
project this lack of comfort quickly leads to massive resistance.

3) Along with the generalized resistance to change that occurs when people feel out of control, is the
anxiety that comes from not knowing what’s going on. The problem is that people don’t hear well when
they’re resisting, so their uncertainty doesn’t go away when rational explanations are offered. If anything,
resistance increases, causing another escalation of anxiety and resistance.

4) Education (and training) is straightforward. It simply means that people must be knowledgeable of the
vision, values, goals and objectives of the organization, and must be equipped with the skills necessary for
their new jobs. People must also be educated about the transformational change and trained on the skills
necessary to execute the transformational change. Keep in mind the principle of just-in-time training, which
means DON’T teach somebody how to do something wayyyy before they’ll be able to use it; they just
forget.

5) We all know that people generally do whatever gets them rewarded. It’s pretty obvious that
the reinforcement system needs to be changed whenever there’s a strategic change to the work that people
do. We take a broad view of the reinforcement system, and include in it the way people get paid (and what
they get paid for), their benefits, other financial rewards, and non-financial forms of reward and recognition.

6) The term Organizational Structure refers to three things: (1) Accountability Hierarchy, the lines and
boxes on an organizational chart (who’s accountable to whom for what), (2) process design (the lines and
boxes on a process flow chart), and (3) position descriptions.

7) Accountability Processes – sometimes called performance management – are the processes by which
you hold people accountable. Implementation of strategic change, by definition, affects the work for which
people are held accountable. So at this time it is especially crucial to have processes through which to
ensure the three elements of accountability (clarity of request, buy-in, and performance consequences --
we've written about this here.).
8) Resourcing is about getting the right people into the right jobs, either by external recruitment or through
internal postings. It also includes succession planning. Big change often shifts the requirements of key
positions, calling for different personal attributes and skills by the people in those positions; when it does,
resourcing efforts need to have been thought out in advance and kicked into gear.

PERSPECTIVES OF MANAGING CHANGE

The Biological Perspective : This approach considers change from the perspectives of an individual
organism as it is born from the baby, grows to an adult, matures and ultimately dies.

The Rational Perspective :This alignment is within the power of managers to manipulate because they are
charged with the best use of resources to achieves organizational objectives.

The Institutional Perspective :The institutional perspective recognizes that pressure to conform might
come from other organizations as well as social, government, legal, cultural, or other pressures.
The Contingency Perspective: Organizational change from a behavioural viewpoint where managers
should make decisions taking into account the circumstances of change.

The Psychological Perspective: Understanding the personal feeling and emotions of employees is the most
important part of making successful change transitions.

The Cultural Perspective :Change management revolves around diagnosing cultural values.

Political Perspective :The nature of change is based on conflict and power.

Postmodern Perspective: Feedback from the own team and also the response from the audiences which are
customers itself.

Resource Perspective: Change is determined by institutional pressure.

Weisbord’s Six-Box Model

A framework developed by Marvin Weisbord, this model is one that can help you to accurately assess the
functioning of your organization. One of the advantages of using this specific model is its ability to adapt to
just about any business that you happen to be in.
 The model is meant for use ‘across the board’, so you should find it helpful regardless of your field. The six
boxes that are alluded to in the title refer to the following –

 Purposes
 Structure
 Relationships
 Rewards
 Leadership
 Helpful Mechanisms
To allow you to gain a better understanding of this six-box model and how it can help you understand your
organization, we have highlighted each of the six points below.

PURPOSES

This is a very general piece of the puzzle to get started, but it is an important one nonetheless. You need to
understand very specifically what businesses you are in, and what businesses you want to be in moving
forward.

STRUCTURE

The structure of the organization will have a lot to say about what you are able to produce, and at what cost
you are able to produce it. Who is responsible for doing what within the company? How is the work that
each person is doing going to contribute to the greater good of selling quality products for low prices to
customers? Structuring your business in a logical way based on the desired outputs you have in mind is one
of the most important things you can do going forward. Many businesses have been derailed by poor
organization even if they have good products and innovative ideas.
RELATIONSHIPS

Business is a never ending stream of relationships. There are the obvious relationships between people both
within your organization and outside of it that need to be managed. Also, there are the relationships between
your people and your technologies that need to be successfully managed in order to achieve optimal outputs.

When you have inevitable conflicts in some of these relationships – either between people, or between
people and machines – you need to have a clear and concise plan for how those conflicts are going to be
resolved.

REWARDS

Most people function best when offered some form of reward for their efforts. Obviously, a pay check is a
natural reward in a work setting, but you often need to go beyond just a salary in order to get the best from
your people.
When you are asking your teams to work hard for the good of the organization as a whole, those people
need to feel invested in some way in their work. Creating a structure of worthy rewards is one of the most
important things managers can do to develop a positive culture that runs from top to bottom in the business.

LEADERSHIP

Speaking of a positive culture, leadership is another important piece of the organizational puzzle. When you
have strong leadership in place, it helps everyone else go about their work each day with a sense of
confidence and purpose. Of course, it should be noted that strong leadership doesn’t have to mean ruling the
company ‘with an iron fist’. Rather, it is often better to be an understanding and caring leader, working as a
part of the team rather than being removed from it in a distant corner office.

Helpful Mechanisms

Having in place the technologies and other pieces of the puzzle that make the organization work is essential
to your success. These mechanisms are certain to change over time as technology improves and markets
advance accordingly, so you will want to stay on top of the things that you are using to be efficient and
competitive. What was once considered to be a ‘helpful mechanism’ could quickly fall out of date and
become a liability to your business. Don’t just assume that something which was once helpful is going to
remain so for years to come – technology changes quickly, and those companies that fail to keep up with it
will usually wind up looking up at the competition as it pulls away.
 McKinsey & Co. is a global consulting and accounting firm founded by University of Chicago
management professor James O. McKinsey in 1926. The firm specializes in management consulting for a
wide range of corporations, governments, and other organizations.

The 7S Model specifies seven factors that are classified as "hard" and "soft" elements. Hard elements are
easily identified and influenced by management, while soft elements are fuzzier, more intangible, and
influenced by corporate culture.

The hard elements are as follows:

 Strategy
 Structure
 Systems

The soft elements are as follows:

 Shared values
 Skills
 Style
 Staff
 Figure 1: The McKinsey 7-S Model

 Strategy: this is your organization's plan for building and maintaining a competitive advantage over its
competitors.
 Structure: this is how your company is organized (how departments and teams are structured, including
who reports to whom).
 Systems: the daily activities and procedures that staff use to get the job done.
 Shared Values: these are the core values of the organization and reflect its general work ethic. They were
called "superordinate goals" when the model was first developed.
 Style: the style of leadership adopted.
 Staff: the employees and their general capabilities.
 Skills: the actual skills and competencies of the organization's employees.
Advantages of the Model

 It enables different parts of a company to act in a coherent and “synced” manner.

 It allows for the effective tracking of the impact of the changes in key elements.
 It is considered a longstanding theory, with numerous organizations adopting the model over time.
Disadvantages of the Model

 It is considered a long-term model.

 With the changing nature of businesses, it remains to be seen how the model will adapt.
 It seems to rely on internal factors and processes and may be disadvantageous in situations where external
circumstances influence an organization.

Types of change
Continuous change: sees our development as a cumulative process: Changes are gradual.

Discontinuous change sees our development as taking place in specific steps or stages: Changes are
sudden

Participative change tends to be long lasting and to have the strongest support of the staff after all, it's their
idea. The major disadvantage is that it is slow to occur.

Directive change is “top down” change imposed on the staff from the leader or other higher external force.

Planned change emanates from within the company, usually from the management, while unplanned
change is influenced by external factors outside of the organization's control. Unplanned change brings
more upheaval to the structure of an organization than planned change.

Beside above, what is unplanned social change? Social change which occurs in the natural course is called
the unplanned change. The unplanned changes are spontaneous, accidental or the product of sudden
decision. Usually the change resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic
eruption, etc. are the instances of unplanned changes.
 UNIT-2

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Meaning

The resistance to change meaning can be defined as a major obstacle in the way of development with new
technology and methodologies. Change in the techniques and organizational structure comes at regular
intervals.

However, with pre-existing methods, individuals become reluctant to learn and implement the new
techniques bringing in a resistance to change. Resistance can be in the form of protests and strikes by
employees, or even in the form of implicit behaviour.

Reasons for Resistance to Change

 People are not willing to go out of their comfort zones defined by some existing methods for learning
something new.
 Changes in methods and techniques come with a change in power, responsibilities as well as influence.
Organizational resistance to change comes in from people negatively affected by the changes implemented.
 Insecurity, laziness and lack of creative approach make people cling to the pre-existing customs there by
resisting changes.

Types of Resistance to Change

1. Logical Resistance: Such resistances come in with the time genuinely required in adaptation and
adjustment to changes. For example, with the advent of talkies, the movie production houses had to shift
techniques in the change from silent movies to talkies. This, in a very logical sense, took time for the sound
engineers and even the filmmakers to adapt.

2. Psychological Resistance: Often resistance to change in change management comes with the
psychological factor of fear of embracing the unknown, or even from hatred for the management and other
mental factors like intolerance to changes.

3. Sociological Resistance: Sometimes resistances come not for particular individuals but from a group of
individuals. In such cases, individuals do not allow their acceptance with the fear of breaking ties with the
group.

The life of resistance to change

It is very important for business organizations to analyze and understand the resistance in order to
effectively deal with them. The resistance to change witness a shift over a period of time, starting with a few
people who support change and it moves to with a mass number of people supporting it.

The basic cycle of change is divided into five phases which are characterized as below:
 Phrase 1

*In this phrase, which is the starting phrase, there will be only few people who support change.

 These people become scared of the change as they feel that it could threaten their position. So they start
criticizing, ridiculing, and feel persecuted.
 Besides that they show massive resistance and feel that this change has been applied to degrade their kind of
working.

Phrase 2

 This phrase is very important, as you could easily identify the people who resist change. The forces that are
against and for changes can be easily identified by the behavior of the people who work in the organization.
 In this phrase, change is discussed and more people start to understand why the change is implemented. The
organization may sometimes explain the procedure on how the change would make the job easy, so people
start to accept it.
 When there is a greater understanding, there is less resistance.

Phrase 3

 In this phrase, there could be a chance of conflict between people who agree and disagree with the change.
 People who are for the change will start to pull out the merits of the change and those who are against it will
strongly oppose it saying that it degrades their way of working.
 The people who oppose it take it as a matter of life and death and would sometimes go to any extend to
prevent the change from being implemented.
 Such kind of thing can be found in small or medium size corporate companies.

Phrase 4

 In this, if there is a huge support by people for change, then the change will be implemented immediately.
 Anyway when compared to other phrases, in this the balance of power shifts from the proponents (people
opposing change) to the opponents (people who support the change).
 A clear act of wisdom and understanding is required in dealing with the resistance.

Phrase 5

 In this phrase, there would be less resistance in implementing the change. The majority of the people will
accept the change as they know that the change will make their life better.
 Most of the time, in case if there is any conflict it will be in the form of verbal disagreement, questions and
sometimes reluctance.
 Change resistance model

Scott and Jaffe’s resistance cycle

According to this model, people go through four phases of response to change: denial, resistance,
exploration and commitment. Each phase corresponds to specific behaviours and emotions.

DENIAL:

 It results from insufficient knowledge and occurs when individuals believe the change will have little or no
impact on them.
 Denial can be overcome by involving individuals in the change process providing them with information
about it and monitoring their perceptions. Managers should make them understand their role and how
change will affect them personally.
 This stage is characterized by quietness and calm; managers should not mistake them for a positive emotion
of being committed.

RESISTANCE:

 the resistance stage occurs when individuals begin to doubt the appropriateness of the change as a result of
contradictory assessments, misunderstanding or lack of trust.
 During this stage managers should listen and acknowledge the feelings and engage in an open two-way
communications that enables them to address their concerns, build and earn employee trust and take
corrective actions.

EXPLORATION:

 The exploration phase reflects the progress towards acceptance of the change.
 In this phase, individuals have accepted the reality of it and are seeking positive outcomes in terms of
opportunities and personal self-interests.
 Managers should continue to motivate and encourage individuals with communications, provide training
and short term goals to make them focus on priorities and move closer to commitment.

ACCEPTANCE:

 The acceptance phase is characterized by individuals demonstrating their commitment.

 Managers should therefore use milestone celebrations, rewards and team building to motivate individuals to
re-establish the psychological contract.

Kotter and Schlesinger’s Six Methods

Kotter and Schlesinger proposed six strategies to manage successfully the resistance to change

Education and Communication: education will avoid employees getting stuck in the denial phase for a
long time and helps them adapt to new roles quickly whilst reducing uncertainty. Training on new
 knowledge and skills reduces fear of unknown and increases confidence with required changes to behavior.
Open communication that answers questions and encourages feedback will eliminate employee mistrust and
will make them feel more involved with the change initiatives.

Participation: it’s hard for an individual to resist a change decision in which they participated. People who
participate will be well informed and committed to implement change as the process creates a psychological
ownership of decisions and accountability for their success. Individuals who are allowed to contribute in
change planning process won’t have any mistrust about the change and will be more committed to its
success

Facilitation and support: change affects employees’ roles and routines so managers’ support is essential to
maintain a certain level of comfort and get the affected individuals adapt to the new role. Facilitating and
providing a forum to share their concerns reduces fear and anxiety (which is one of the cause of
resistance).Support activities like counselling, stress management and even emotional support will make an
employee feel valued and encourage them in coping with change.

Negotiation and agreement: negotiation is suitable when an individual will suffer loss due to the change.
Managers will have to recognize the negative effects of it and negotiate with employees on their specific
concerns providing incentives to them in exchange for acceptance.

Manipulation and co-optation: manipulation involves intentionally using selective information in an

attempt to influence individuals to accept change. Co-optation is about getting acceptance from employees
by using tactics such as appointing an individual to an important position to gain acceptance. This can be the
quick way to avoid resistance but can be dangerous if individuals become aware of manipulation.

Coercion: when the motivation approach doesn’t work, managers have to use force or threat to overcome
resistance. Coercion includes using explicit or implicit threats like promotion denial, bonus, etc. Sometimes
coercion may be the only option available but managers need to take into consideration that individuals are
likely to develop resentment and this might have long term negative effect.

Managing change

 Do change management right the first time

 Expect resistance to change
 Address resistance formally
 Identify the root causes of resistance
 Engage the “right” resistance managers
 UNIT-3
ORGANIZATIONAL DIAGNOSIS

Organizational diagnosis is a process based upon behavioral science theory for publicly entering a human
system, collecting valid data about human experiences with that system, and feeding that information back
to the system to promote increased understanding of the system by its members (Alderfer, 1981).

Purpose of organizational diagnosis is to establish a widely shared understanding of a system and based
upon that understanding to determine whether change is desirable.

Concept of system

System can be viewed as a linkage of input flows (energy, materials, information, human resources,
economic resources) from sources in the external environment, a transforming mechanism (a machine or a
technical-human organization), and flows of outputs or outcomes provided to users. System may include
one or more feedback mechanisms for self-regulation.

Focus of attention : Diagnostic activities should focus its attention to two areas – (a) subsystem areas (top
management, department, group, individual unit) (b) organization processes or organizational health
(decision-making process, communication patterns and styles, relationships between interfacing groups, the
management of conflict, the setting of goals and planning methods).

Phases of organizational diagnosis

Entry

 Primary objectives of entry are to determine which units of the system (individual, group and organization)
will participate in the diagnosis and to determine whether the researcher and respondent can reach
agreement about their respective roles during data collection and feedback.
 Researchers may experience anxiety related to potential acceptance or rejection by the respondent system.
The more self-awareness and experience the researchers have, the less these feelings will interfere with their
effectiveness during entry.

Data collection

 The primary objectives of data collection are to gather valid information about the nature of the system
systematically and to prepare an analysis of that data for delivery to respondents during feedback.
 Collection of data proceeds from less (unstructured observation) to more structured methods (qustionnaires)
to produce more valid data.

Identification data:

It includes organization name, location, type of organization, organization affiliation, size (financial
condition, stockholders, employees).
 Historical data: Cheap complaints, duration and possible determinants, short-range and long-range
problems, major crisis of the organization (natural catastrophy, loss of key personnel, labour problems,
financial emergencies, technological changes), product service history (change and development of
organizational goals, sequence of development in product or service), organizational folklore.

Structural data: Organizational chart, formal job description, ecology of the organization (spatial
distribution of individuals, activities), financial structure, personnel (size, various educational levels,
average tenure, range or skills, absentee rate, turnover rate, accident rate), structure for handling personnel
(recruitment, orientation, training, growth of the job, promotion, compensation, performance analysis), rules
and regulations (medical, safety, retirement, recreation, other fringe benefits).

Organizational functioning: Organizational perceptions (alertness, accuracy and vividness), organizational

knowledge (acquisition, use and dissemination of knowledge), organizational language, emotional
atmosphere of the organization and organizational action

Attitudes and relationship: Attitudes towards the task agents, relations to things and ideas, attitudes about
self, inter-organizational relationships.

Analysis and conclusions: Appraisal of the effect of the environment on the organization, appraisal of the
effect of the organization on the environment, reactions, appraisal of the organization, impairments and
level of integration.

Feedback

 Primary objective of feedback is to promote increased understanding of the client system by its members.
 Effective feedback design relates the content of the feedback to the process by which the analysis is
delivered to the system.
 Feedback is probably the period of maximum anxiety during the entire diagnosis. If the system could
tolerate the anxiety, system could learn its self.

Methodology of organizational diagnosis

1. Qualitative Methods

Qualitative methods are a good starting point when you begin your assessment. These methods can be
useful for describing a situation and can provide insight for your intervention approach

Observation
 You can learn a lot by observing employees. Remember, however, that behaviors may be changed by the
very act of observing.
 People are usually more self-conscious when they know that they are under observation. Along with training
your supervisors to conduct observations, you may want to bring in a professional who is trained in
conducting objective and discreet workplace observations.

Management Meetings

 Meetings can be an effective place for introducing and discussing drug-free policies and programs.
 Raising the issue during meetings may help everyone understand that a drug-free workplace affects
outcomes that are important to your employees, in both their professional and personal lives.

Focus Groups

 Focus groups include a facilitator, groups of supervisory and nonsupervisory employees, and a
predetermined set of questions.
 The facilitator structures the interactions with the group members by asking a set of agreed-on questions and
then following up, as appropriate, based on responses.
 This allows for in-depth probing of issues.

One-on-One Interviews

 When conducted by a trained and objective facilitator, one-on-one interviews often provide a greater depth
of knowledge and a more honest account of a situation than some other methods.
 The experience of one person, or of a few people, might not be the experience of the entire organization.
 However, information from one-on-one interviews can still provide useful insights and help identify other
issues for further investigation.

Expert Consultations

 Consulting with experts can be extremely helpful for gaining a broader perspective on the issues that you
might be facing in your particular workplace.
 These experts might include researchers, union representatives, employee assistance program (EAP)
representatives, or human resource experts from other companies.

2. Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods are useful in that they often take less time to administer than qualitative methods.
They are also easier to evaluate and may produce clearer, more objective results.

Pre-existing Records
 In the workplace, gathering data from pre-existing records usually takes the form of statistics that were
previously collected for other purposes. These are easy to obtain and compare. Consider records on the
following, which have all been linked to substance use:

Absenteeism (especially on Mondays, Fridays, and the days after holidays)

Comparative health care claim costs, including costs associated with emergency room use
Disciplinary actions
Garnishment
High rates of accidents—especially those resulting in serious injuries or deaths
Inventory loss—"shrinkage" attributable to theft or damage
Turnover—especially for specific kinds of jobs or workers
Workers’ compensation costs

Self-report Surveys

 Self-report surveys can be used as assessment tools. Remember that surveys have to be correctly designed
and administered to ensure an acceptable degree of objectivity.
 To assess the needs and strengths of your workplace, you might ask the following questions, which were
adapted from a 1996 survey by Gallup and the Institute for a Drug-Free Workplace:

Balanced Scorecard: Focuses on four indicators, including customer perspective, internal-business

processes, learning and growth and financials, to monitor progress toward organization’s strategic goals

Benchmarking:

 Using standard measurements in a service or industry for comparison to other organizations in order to gain
perspective on organizational performance.
 Benchmarking is often perceived as a quality initiative.

Business Process Reengineering: Aims to increase performance by radically re-designing the

organization’s structures and processes, including by starting over from the ground up.

Management by Objectives (MBO): Aims to align goals and subordinate objectives throughout the
organization. Ideally, employees get strong input to identifying their objectives, time lines for completion,
etc. Includes ongoing tracking and feedback in process to reach objectives. MBO’s are often perceived as a
form of planning.

Outcome-Based Evaluation (particularly for nonprofits): Outcomes-based evaluation is increasingly

used, particularly by nonprofit organizations, to assess the impact of their services and products on their
target communities. The process includes identifying preferred outcomes to accomplish with a certain target
market, associate indicators as measures for each of those outcomes and then carry out the measures to
assess the extent of outcomes reached.

Program Evaluation: Program evaluation is used for a wide variety of applications, e.g., to increase
efficiencies of program processes and thereby cut costs, to assess if program goals were reached or not, to
quality programs for accreditation, etc.
Strategic Planning: Organization-wide process to identify strategic direction, including vision, mission,
values and overall goals. Direction is pursued by implementing associated action plans, including multi-
level goals, objectives, time lines and responsibilities. Strategic planning is, of course, a form of planning.

Total Quality Management (TQM): Set of management practices throughout the organization to ensure
the organization consistently meets or exceeds customer requirements. Strong focus on process
measurement and controls as means of continuous improvement. TQM is a quality initiative.

CHALLENGES IN DIAGNOSIS

Since diagnosis is the process of understanding how the client system organization is functioning currently
and this understanding helps in determining the interventions to achieve the desired change outcomes, it is
important that:

Diagnosis has to be a collaborative process: Any unilateral approach to diagnosis is never recommended.
It is prudent that the OD consultant along with the key stake holders of the client system jointly approach
the organizational diagnosis process. Correct diagnosis is an output of the collaborative approach of the
client system as well as the OD consultant to identify the areas of change for design outcomes

That diagnosis does not necessarily mean finding faults: It needs to be noted that in the context of
Organization Development, the process of diagnosis is to be taken in the spirit of ‘understanding for further
development’ and not necessarily making a list of things in the organizations that are faulty.

Focus remains on processes and not on persons. Since the spirit of diagnosis is development, the OD
consultant needs to be alert and not play into the hands of the client system by focusing too much on
individuals and not on institutional processes. The idea of diagnosis is not to zero upon ‘Who’s not
Working’ but to examine ‘What’s not working’.

Systemic Challenge: Whatever be the size of the organization and irrespective of the complexity of the
processes, organizations have to be viewed upon as Systems. Often, an error of judgement is made by
focusing on one part of the organization in isolation of other parts. It needs to be understood that diagnosis
must encompass understanding each part of the organization and how the different parts of the same
organization, seemingly different, are linked or likely to be linked causing the effects as experienced by the
organization today. Scope of alignment of the several parts of the organization into a systemic entity must
not escape the diagnosis.

Ethical Challenge: The OD consultant must have his ethical radar on full alert to ensure that any proposal
on diagnostic approach offered by the client system is not an imposition to steer the whole process into
something of its own personal choice in the name and garb of organizational development and change
management systems. The ethical challenge here for the organizational consultant is to ensure that the client
system does not use the OD consultant and the OD endeavour to drive goals of personal interest.
 Unit-4

Interventions

The term intervention refers to all the planned programmatic activities aimed at bringing
changes in an organization. These changes are intended to ensure improvement in the
functioning of the organization- in its efficiencies and effectiveness.

Intervention involves identification of a set of activities, interaction are initiate that we

serves as the most appropriate means for reaching the stated goals and objectives of the change
strategy in the organization development. These interventions are also used to foster the ability to
learn on the part of the target group. Furthermore, it includes all activities that take place
between planning and evaluation stages of program development. These intervention may
include executing coaching and counseling, team building restructuring of the organization
training and development of the members of the organization etc. choice of intervention has to be
made at every stage of the change process from and unfreezing and refreezing.

Various phases of intervention

The initial phase of unfreezing involves assessment of the current status, problem identification,
diagnosis, and choice of appropriate change strategy. For achieving this, the OD consultants
make use a variety of interventions like survey feedback, administration of specially designed
instruments, brainstorming sessions, focused group discussion and interviews, besides accessing
information from secondary sources. Based on diagnosis of the problems, the suitable change
strategy is selected and adapted. The change strategy may involve the target group such as total
organization, its units, individual employs or other internal stakeholders. The strategy would also
include a set intervention targeted at enabling the target group move towards a desirable features
state of the organizational change.

In the moving phase appropriate intervention to implement the change strategy are decided upon.
That target group or groups are actively engaged in choosing the intervention as they are better
informed about the feasibility and ease of exhaustion. The choice of intervention would largely
depend upon a variety of factors like the problem being encountered, change goals that have
been set and the target group’s level of commitment to the change.

The refreezing phase focuses on helping members of the target group internalize the changes
through attitudinal restructuring, behavioral modification and developing appropriate mental
models. Supportive mechanism for reinforcement of change paradigms, attitudes and behaviors
are developed. These reinforcement mechanisms may involve restructuring of policies, systems,
processes and structure of the organization. Unexpected problems and unintended consequences
of intervention are identified and adequately dealt with. It is also essential to evaluate the
effectiveness of change strategy which may lead to design of further intervention.

This model is known as kurt Lewin’s three step change model intervention.
.

OD practitioners use a variety of techno structural interventions. For example, the formal
structure change involves having the employees collect data on existing formal structures and
analyze the details. The purpose is to jointly redesign and implement new organizational
structures. OD experts also use the employee involvement programs like quality circles, TOM,
and quality of work life programs.

It is interesting to understand the TOM- Total Quality Management – approach to develop

customer centric cultures as the organizational response to changing expectation of the
customers. The objective of the TQM is to create a total quality organization and not nearly
provide quality products and service to its customers. Total quality thus applies to all those who
affect and are affected by the organization which includes suppliers, employees, wholesalers,
retailers, shareholders and so on. The quality should become a way of life reflected in all of the
activities of the organization. All members of the organization and groups should exhibit its
manifestation. TQM dries and ongoing continuous process which requires radical change in the
organization design and day-to-day operations.

To that end, wide variety of interventions and organization improvement techniques and
approaches like statistical process control, statistical quality control, quality circles, self-
management team and task forces are employed..

The Role negotiation technique is an imposed structure for controlled negotiations between two
or more parties in which each party agrees in writing to change certain behaviours in exchange
for changes in behaviour by the others. The behaviours are job related.

There are five primary negotiation styles: accommodating, avoiding, collaborating,

competing, and compromising. A successful negotiation often consists of one or more of these
different negotiation styles.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI) is the most widely used instrument for
understanding normal personality differences. It can be effectively used for a variety of purposes
including self-understanding and development, organizational development, problem solving and
team building.

MBTI stands for Myers Briggs Type Indicator. This is a tool which is frequently used to help
individuals understand their own communication preference and how they interact with others.
Having an awareness of what MBTI is can help you adapt your interpersonal approach to
different situations and audiences.
 The MBTI will help your employees learn about their preferred way to communicate, as
well as how to communicate better with other personality types. As an employer, you'll know
how to best deliver information to each employee so they can do their job well.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a set of psychometric questionnaire designed to weigh

psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The Myers
Briggs model of personality developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, is
established on four preferences namely −

 Types of social interaction

 Preference for gathering data
 Preference for decision making
 Style of decision making
With respect to the prescribed Myers Briggs type of indicator, preferences include eight
leadership styles −

 E or I (Extraversion or Introversion)
 S or N (Sensing or iNtuition)
 T or F (Thinking or Feeling)
 J or P (Judgment or Perception)

Sensitivity training refers to one of the organizational development techniques which through
counseling methods works on increasing employee well-being, self-awareness of an individual's
own prejudices and sensitivity to others.

“Transactional analysis is the method used to analyse this process of transactions in

communication with others. It requires us to be aware of how we feel, think, and behave during
interactions with others.” It recognises that our personality is driven by different 'ego states', first
mooted by Sigmund Freud.

Evaluation
Within the Organizational Development (OD) process, evaluation can be described as the
process of assessing the extent to which the desired goals, objectives, and targets are achieved
from the implementation of various change interventions.

Organizational development is achieved through a shift in communication processes or their

supporting structure.
...
Components of the Action Research Model
 Problem diagnosis. ...
 Feedback and assessment. ...
 Planning. ...
 Intervention and implementation. ...
 Evaluation. ...
 Success.
The main types of evaluation are process, impact, outcome and summative evaluation.

6 Evaluation Challenges
 Challenge 1: Poor Planning. ...
 Challenge 2: Lack of Readiness. ...
 Challenge 3: Ineffective Approaches. ...
 Challenge 4: Bad Questions. ...
 Challenge 5: Bad Data. ...
 Challenge 6: Too Much Data.
 Unit-5

Manager as Agent of Change

 To bring about any change in the organization needs a change agent. Change agent may be external i.e. an
outsider who is an expert in introducing change. He is a professional change agent whose services can be
hired for the purpose.
 The change agent may be internal i.e. from within the organization. Most probably he is the manager who
knows the needs of the organization.
 Manager as change agent seeks the same from the top management and be in touch with it. He prepares the
foundation for change and prepares himself to face any reaction and criticism and makes efforts to satisfy all
intelligently. He knows his employees well and can seek their cooperation to carry out with his plans to
implement change.

Skills

 To act as an agent of change, managers must have good communication and interpersonal skills so that they
can explain the benefits and implications of change.
 They must be able to empathize with employees who feel threatened by change and uncertain of their future
role in the company.
 They also must be good motivators to encourage employees to embrace change and make a positive
contribution to its successful implementation.
 In addition, managers need good planning skills to ensure that they can implement the changes effectively in
their own areas of operation.

Information

 To communicate effectively with employees, managers must have a complete understanding of the reasons
for change, the potential benefits and the impact on employees.
 A merger, for example, can give a company access to new markets or increase its production capacity.
 The manager must ensure he keeps employees advised of how the company will handle redundancy and
whether employees will be able to train for new positions.

Decisions

 Managers must make plans to implement the changes in their own areas of responsibility.
 If They must decide if the employees in their departments have the skills to use the new technology. If
necessary, managers plan training programs to develop skills.
 They must also decide if the technology will reduce the number of employees they need to handle the
workload.

Communication
 Communication is essential throughout the change process.
 By explaining the implications of the change to groups and individual employees, managers can build
understanding and trust and dispel rumors that could create barriers to implementing successful changes.
 Managers must make themselves available to answer questions or discuss individuals’ concerns. They must
also motivate employees so that they can maintain the momentum of change and keep their departments
operating productively.

External change agent

They are generally the behavioural scientists who specialise in human behaviour. They work as consultants
for the company and devise its change strategy.

Internal change agents:

They are continuously involved in the change process. They belong to the organisation only and depending
on the need where the change is required, they are selected from different levels and departments. Internal
change agents are usually the managers who are trained by the consultants (external change agents) to
implement change as on ongoing process.

They introduce change within the broad framework of change strategy devised by the external change
agents.

1. Acknowledge and understand the need for change

The first step in any change is acknowledging and understanding the need for change. It’s tempting to see
that something needs fixing and quickly jump to a solution.

A cause and influence diagram is one way of mapping the complexity of a change situation, described under
tools and techniques.

2) Communicate the need and involve people in developing the change

Once you and those working with you have explored the situation and fully understand what needs to
happen, you will then need to communicate this. The communicating to stakeholders framework gives an
approach to considering what is important to others, what motivates them and how this change will affect
them.

3) Develop change plans

Having clearly communicated and developed a shared understanding of the change, you need to detail the
change plans. The first aspect of developing a change plan is to detail where you want to be. Be exact. What
precisely will be different? What are the objectives you want to achieve? What will be the performance
measures? Specify the change you want to see and understand the change.

4) Implement change plans

This is the change itself. Make sure everyone knows what has to happen and what their role it. Provide the
support and watch out for stress. Maintain some routine as far as is possible. Take a look at team/individual
change to understand how people react to change and how you can manage these reactions.

5) Evaluate progress and celebrate success

As soon as you can start identifying what is going well, make sure people are thanked appropriately, their
hard work acknowledged and successes celebrated.

Change management is defined as the methods and manners in which a company describes and implements
change within both its internal and external processes. This includes preparing and supporting employees,
establishing the necessary steps for change, and monitoring pre- and post-change activities to ensure
successful implementation.