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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Don’t Fall for Flowability Myths 7
Some widely accepted ideas aren’t supported by real-world performance

Master Metering Pumps 11

Understand when to use piston and diaphragm devices for precise liquid dosing

Understand Volumetric Flow Rates 17

Different measurements help compare pneumatic products under changing conditions

Get to Know Six Flow Meter Technologies 21

Learn the pros and cons of each to make the optimal selection

Avoid These Five Mistakes When Selecting a Flow Meter 31

Know your conditions now but anticipate the future

Additional Resources 35

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Don’t Fall for
Flowability Myths
Some widely accepted ideas aren’t supported by real-world performance
By Tom Blackwood, Contributing Editor
F
lowability testing is expensive, as
I mentioned in my November 2017
column (“Conduct Flowability
Tests,” https://bit.ly/3sVSVD4), but usually
pays off in the long run. That being said,
in certain situations some simple tests or
observations could give results almost as
good as an expensive series of evaluations.
In that earlier column, I hinted at one case
where you could avoid tests when the par-
ticle size distribution (PSD) shifted to a
larger size. You might wonder how I knew
the larger PSD would behave that way.
It’s because I understood how flowability
testing is conducted: large particles are
screened from the samples prior to testing.
A little education goes a long way. It’s
important to fully understand not only how
to apply the results of a test but also how
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
they were obtained. Here, for instance, the
testing firm may not want to speculate on
how the large particles will change flowabil-
ity. It is possible they may bring moisture
into the mix and make the mixture sticky.
Fortunately, that’s easy to determine with-
out the flowability tests.
A lot of myths about flowability have
predominated in solids processing. My
favorite is that you can find out how flow-
able a material is by looking at the angle
of repose. First, we must understand what
angle of repose is and how it’s deter-
mined. If you pour beach sand through a
funnel, the slope angle of the pile will be
about 35–45°, depending on which beach
the sand came from and how you run
the test. Keeping the tip of the funnel at
the top of the pile as the sand is poured
7
 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

will give a higher angle than if you have
a large drop distance. Other common
methods of getting angle of repose are to
use a tilting box or a rolling cylinder (see
Wikipedia: https://bit.ly/3dB9q0L); these
can give a different angle than that found
with a funnel. However, simply using a
funnel can provide a handy way to com-
pare an existing material and a new one
destined for the same equipment. A sig-
nificant difference in angle would suggest
performing shear testing; its modest cost
may prevent expensive production prob-
lems in the future.
Another common myth in solids process-
ing is that fluidized solids flow like water.
This is correct as long as the solids stay
in motion. De-aeration can kill this flow
and result in pluggage and segregation.
A corollary to this myth is that vibration
increases flowability. In fact, vibration
often compacts the solids.
Fluidized beds frequently are blamed for
attrition — but this is another myth. While
particle/particle contact is the main source
of attrition and fluidization has a lot of this
contact, finer particles take more energy

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Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 8


than large particles to break. Also, the
fines can act as cushions to breakage.
A particulate distribution that follows a
Fibonacci sequence is a classic example of
this cushioning.
Simpler often is better
when looking at
flowability of solids.
From the early days of pneumatic con-
veying, the use of long-radius elbows was
considered the best way to reduce attri-
tion and pressure drop. This seems logical
because the particles would make the
turn at a lesser angle and a lower veloc-
ity. However, detailed testing of various
configurations has shown that particles
bounce rather than slide and that dense
flow reduces the attrition. One of my
plants handled a very abrasive solid and
was wearing out long-radius elbows every
three months. It switched to short-radius
elbows; these lasted only a few more
months but were easier to replace and
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
incurred a lower pressure drop. Attrition
was insignificant on the product. Another
plant welded a plate over a hole gener-
ated by abrasion; eventually the abrasion
stopped — probably because of cush-
ioning from the dense pocket of solids.
Today, a lot of plants use T-elbows or a
variation of short-radius elbows to avoid
either particle attrition or elbow wear.
Fluidization can be a friend or foe when
it comes to blending. In my November
2016 column (“Beware of Blending Myths,”
http://bit.ly/34mdQTi), I described the
effect of blending time on uniformity.
In the example, friction on the particles
induced a charge that made the blend
less uniform as blend time increased. The
style of blender makes a big difference in
the amount of aerated and dense material,
which can influence the extent of fluidiza-
tion or flowability. Remember that simpler
often is better when looking at flowability
of solids.
TOM BLACKWOOD is a contributing editor for Chemi-
cal Processing. Email him at TBlackwood@putman.net.
9
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Master Metering Pumps
Understand when to use piston and diaphragm devices
for precise liquid dosing
By Amin Almasi, rotating equipment consultant
S
ome processes require dosing a
precise volume of liquid into anoth-
er flow stream in a specified time
period. A metering (or dosing) pump usually
handles the task. The term “metering pump”
refers to the service rather than the particu-
lar kind of pump used. These pumps are not
suitable for injection of gases; however, they
can inject a liquid into a gas stream.
Metering pumps typically must supply
practically constant flow rates of liquids
(when averaged over time) within a wide
range of discharge (outlet) pressures. Man-
ufacturers provide each of their models
of metering pumps with a maximum dis-
charge pressure rating. Because the pumps
are positive displacement devices, they
usually can generate required discharge
pressure if the drivers provide enough
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
power. Of course, selection also must en-
sure the pressure and temperature ratings
and wetted pump materials are compatible
with the application and type of liquid be-
ing pumped. Most metering pumps have a
pump head and an electric motor (driver).
The liquid goes through the pump head,
entering through an inlet line and leaving
through an outlet line.
This article focuses on piston and diaphragm
pumps and presents practical guidelines on
the selection and operation of these meter-
ing pumps in chemical processes.
THE BASICS
A metering pump is a positive-displace-
ment dosing device with the ability to
vary capacity manually or automatically,
as process conditions require. It features
11
 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

a high level of repetitive accuracy and

can pump a wide range of liquids, includ-
ing acids, bases, corrosive fluids, viscous
materials and slurries. The particular fluid
often can pose challenges for engineering,
fabrication, commissioning and operation.

Metering pumps generally handle appli-

cations demanding high accuracy but
relatively low flow rates; they usually are
medium- or high-pressure pumps. A com-
puter, microprocessor or flow-proportion-
ing device commonly controls the pump.

Reciprocating motion (often from a piston)

usually creates the pumping action. The
piston either directly contacts the process
fluid or moves (via air or hydraulic fluid) a
diaphragm between it and the fluid.
During the suction stroke, the piston
moves out, creating a vacuum that pulls
liquid into the pump cavity past an inlet
check valve. During the discharge stroke,
the inlet valve closes and the piston
moves in, pushing liquid through a now-
open outlet check valve. These alternating
suction and discharge strokes repeat over
and over to meter and deliver the liquid.
Changing the stroke length or adjusting
the cycle frequency varies the flow.
Other types of metering pumps, such as per-
istaltic and bellows ones, find use in special
applications. In peristaltic pumps, motor-driv-
en rollers travel along flexible tubing, com-
pressing it to push forward a liquid inside.
PISTON PUMP
Figure 1. A small gearbox powered by an electric
motor drives this single-acting plunger pump.
Source: Grosvenor Pumps.
Bellows pumps move a bellows back and
forth to displace liquid. However, piston and
diaphragm pumps handle the bulk of meter-
ing duties, and so this article focuses on them.
PISTON PUMPS
These positive-displacement devices can
be designed to pump at practically con-
stant flow rates (averaged over time)
against a wide range of discharge pres-
sures. Such pumps produce pressures to
700 Barg; special types can achieve pres-
sure above 1,000 Barg. Figure 1 shows a
single-acting piston pump.
Generally in such pumps, a piston (some-
times called plunger), typically cylindri-

Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 12

 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

cal, goes in and out of a corresponding-
ly shaped chamber in the pump head.
Packing around the piston or a dough-
nut-shaped seal with a toroid-shaped
sphincter-like spring inside that compress-
es the seal around the piston usually holds
the fluid pressure when the piston slides
in and out and makes the pump leak-tight.
The packing or seals can wear out after
prolonged use but can be replaced. The
potential for wear and subsequent leaks
makes piston pumps a bad choice for abra-
sive fluids.
usually possess good suction lift charac-
teristics. The devices produce pressures
to 100 Barg; special variants can achieve
higher pressures. These pumps usually re-
quire no seals; this suits them for handling
abrasives and slurries. In addition, they
are a good choice for dangerous, toxic or
noxious liquids because they obviate issues
of leakage through seals or packing. They
also have good self-priming capabilities
and dry-running characteristics. Some units
boast efficiencies that reach as high as
around 97%.

A single-piston pump (Figure 1) delivers Diaphragm pumps often are electric motor
liquid to the outlet only during the dis- driven (such as the one shown in Figure
charge stroke. If the piston’s suction and 2) but pneumatic- and hydraulic-powered
discharge strokes occur at the same speed,
liquid is metered out half the time the
pump is working; so, the overall metering
rate averaged over time equals half the
average flow rate during the discharge
stroke. Some single-piston pumps feature a
constant slow piston motion for discharge
and a quick retract motion for refilling the
pump head. For such devices, the overall
metering rate practically equals the pump-
ing rate during the discharge stroke.

DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
These pumps use reciprocating movement
to pulse a flexible membrane — usually
made of rubber or a fluoropolymer or other
thermoplastic — to displace liquid with DIAPHRAGM PUMP
Figure 2. This single-acting diaphragm pump
each stroke. The liquid doesn’t penetrate uses corrosion-resistant plastics for wetted
through the diaphragm. Diaphragm pumps parts. Source: Grosvenor Pumps.

Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 13


Gas bubbles entering a pump
head can cause problems.
units also are available. The pumps can be
categorized by what’s on each side of the
membrane:
• Process fluid on one side and com-
pressed air or hydraulic fluid on the
other. Such air-operated or hydraulic
pumps can be used in areas where
electrical devices aren’t suitable or
would be very expensive because of
explosion-proof or electrical-area-clas-
sification requirements; in other words,
they are popular for many applications
to avoid area classification problems or
intermittent electric power availabili-
ty issues. They are more compact and
lighter than other designs.
• Process fluid on one side and ambient
air on the other. Diaphragm flexing
occurs due to the action of a crank,
geared motor drive, lever or other
mechanism. These pumps usually are
more energy efficient than other de-
signs. One reason is because the drive
system doesn’t require expensive com-
pressed air or hydraulic oil. In addition,
they can be tailored to the needs of the
specific application.
Such pumps most often are electro-me-
chanical double-acting designs. In
these, the integral metal core of each
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
membrane is completely covered by
the membrane material on its fluid
pumping side, minimizing the possibil-
ity of fluid contamination. The smooth
mechanically controlled linear drive of
the membranes can ensure low-shear
transfer at precisely controlled rates
even when viscosity, pressure or other
operating parameters change. A vari-
able frequency drive can enable easy
adjustment of flow rates. An exter-
nal electrical control device such as
a pressure switch can limit maximum
discharge pressure if necessary.
• Process fluid on both sides. These
pumps employ one or more unsealed
diaphragms. Flexing of the diaphrag-
m(s) causes the volume to change.
These devices rarely are used.
OPERATING ISSUES
Often, a metering pump can exceed its
pressure rating if it continues running after
a downstream valve closes or line blockage
occurs. For this reason, it is good practice
to place a pressure relief valve ahead of
the valve to prevent over-pressuring the
tubing or piping line. The relief valve set-
ting should be below the maximum pres-
sure rating of the tubing, piping or down-
stream component with the lowest rating.
14
 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

Gas bubbles entering a pump head can
cause problems. The compression motion
compresses the gas but doesn’t necessarily
drive it out of the pump head. In such cases,
the pump may stop discharging liquid even
though mechanically it’s going through the
motions — in reality, it’s just repeatedly
compressing and decompressing the bub-
bles. Preventing this type of “vapor lock” of-
ten calls for degassing of some solvents and
other liquids before pumping.
If the outlet pressure is lower than the in-
let pressure and remains that way in spite
of the pumping, then this pressure differ-
ence opens both check valves simultane-
or not the pump is running. Placing a
correctly rated positive-pressure-differen-
tial check valve downstream of the pump
avoids the issue. Such a valve only will
open if the minimum rated pressure differ-
ential across the valve is exceeded, which
is a possibility with most high-pressure
metering pumps.
Valves are a common source of problems;
diaphragms top the issues for that type of
pump. Metering pumps usually require main-
tenance to valves and diaphragms approxi-
mately every six months to one year.
AMIN ALMASI is a rotating equipment consultant

ously; liquid flows through the pump head based in Sydney, Australia. E-mail him at

uncontrollably. This can happen whether amin.almasi@ymail.com

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Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 15


Understand Volumetric
Flow Rates
Different measurements help compare pneumatic products under
changing conditions
By John Ball, Exair Corp.
F
low rate is the quantity of material
that is moved per unit of time. Gen-
erally, the quantity of material can be
expressed as a mass or a volume. For exam-
ple, mass flow rates are in units of pounds per
minute (lb/min) or kilograms per hour (kg/
hr). Volumetric flow rates are stated in cubic
feet per minute (cfm) or liters per hour (lph).
The complication begins when volumetric
flow rates are used for a compressible gas.
For this discussion, these measurements will
be used:
• cfm — cubic feet per minute
• scfm — standard cubic feet per minute
• acfm — actual cubic feet per minute
• icfm — inlet cubic feet per minute
AIR COMPRESSORS AND
VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
The cfm measurement commonly is used
in rating air compressors. From their
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
history, manufacturers would calculate the
volume of air being drawn into an air com-
pressor by cylinder size. With a motor’s
rotations per minute (rpm), they could
calculate the volumetric air flows. As con-
ditions such as altitude, temperature and
relative humidity change, the cfm value
changes.
To clarify these conditions better, com-
pressor manufacturers decided to add
terms with definitions. (Air compressors
still use cfm as a unit of air flow, but this
now is defined as standard temperature
and pressure.)
The first letter in front of cfm in the list
above now defines the conditions in which
the volumetric air flow is being measured.
This is important for comparing pneumatic
components or for sizing pneumatic sys-
tems properly.
17

Volume is measured by three areas as seen
in the ideal gas law:
• temperature
• pressure
• relative humidity
Equation 1:
V=n*R*T/P
V – volume
n – number of molecules of gas
R – universal gas constant
T – absolute temperature
P – absolute pressure
The air volume can change in reference to
pressure, temperature and number of mol-
ecules. Where is the relative humidity? This
would be referenced in the “n” term. The
more water vapor, or higher RH values, the
fewer molecules of air in a given volume.
THE SCFM MEASUREMENT
The most commonly used term is scfm, and
it also can be the most confusing. The idea of
this volumetric air flow is to set a reference
point for comparisons so that no matter the
pressure, temperature or relative humidity,
the volumetric air flows can be compared at
one reference point. There have been many
debates about an appropriate standard tem-
perature and pressure, or STP, but as long as
you use the same reference point, then you
still can compare the results.
Here we use the Compressed Air and Gas
Institute (CAGI) reference in which the
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
“standard” condition is at 14.5 psia, 68°F
and 0% RH. With that as the reference
point, the actual conditions still need to
be known. As an example, it is like having
a location for a restaurant as a reference,
but if you do not know your current loca-
tion, you cannot reach it. Similarly, we are
“moving” the air from one condition to a
reference or standard condition. We will
need to know where the air began to reach
that reference point. There will be more
about this later in the article.
THE ACFM RATE
The volumetric air flow under actual condi-
tions is acfm. This is the “true” flow rate. Even
though this term hardly is used, there are rea-
sons this value is needed. We can size an air
compressor that is not at standard conditions
and use this value to calculate velocities and
pressure drop in a system. We can correlate
between scfm and acfm.
Equation 2:
acfm = scfm * [Pstd / (Pact – Psat )] *
(Tact / Tstd)
Where:
acfm = actual cubic feet per minute
scfm = standard cubic feet per minute
Pstd = standard absolute air pressure (psia)
Pact = absolute pressure at the actual
level (psia)
Psat = saturation pressure at the actual
temperature (psi)
= actual relative humidity
18

Tact = actual ambient air temperature (°R)
Tstd = standard temperature (°R)
FACTORING A COMPRESSOR’S
INLET EFFECT
One of the newest terms in the history of air
compressors is inlet cubic feet per minute
(icfm). This is when devices are added to
an air compressor’s inlet, affecting flow
conditions. If you have a blower on an air
compressor’s inlet, the volumetric flow rate
changes as the pressure and temperature
rise at the inlet. If a filter is used, then the
pressure drop will decrease the incoming
pressure at the inlet. The devices that affect
an air compressor’s volumetric flow rate
should be considered.
Equation 3 shows the relationship of acfm
and icfm:
icfm = acfm * (Pact / Pf) * (Tf / Tact )
Where:
icfm = inlet cubic feet per minute
acfm = actual cubic feet per minute
Pf = pressure after filter or inlet equipment
(psia)
Tf = temperature after filter or inlet
equipment (°R)
To expand more on scfm and acfm, a tech-
nical question comes up often about the
pressure when using scfm. The reference
point of 14.5 psia is in the definition of scfm.
Remember, this is only a reference point.
The starting location is needed. This would
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
be the acfm value where the air values are
true and actual.
As an example, two air nozzles are rated for
60 scfm. An Exair Super Air Nozzle (model
1106) is cataloged at 80 psig, and a compet-
itor is cataloged at 60 psig. By comparison,
they look like they use the same amount of
compressed air, but do they actually? To sim-
plify Equation 2 above, we can compare the
two nozzles at the same temperature, 68°F,
and 0% RH. This equation can be reduced.
Equation 4:
acfm = scfm * 14.5 / (P + 14.5)
@60 psig competitor:
acfm = 60
 scfm * 14.5 psia/(60 psig + 14.5 psia)
= 11.7 acfm
@80 psig Exair Super Air Nozzle:
acfm = 60 scfm * 14.5 psia/(80 psig + 14.5 psia)
= 9.2 acfm
Even though the scfm rating is the same,
you are using 21% more compressed air with
the competitive nozzle.
When it comes to rating compressed-air
products or air compressors, always ask the
conditions of the pressure, temperature and
RH. The more you know about volumetric
flow rates, the better decision you can make
when selecting a product.
JOHN BALL is an application engineer at Exair Corp.
Reach him at johnball@exair.com.
19
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Get to Know Six Flow
Meter Technologies
Learn the pros and cons of each to make the optimal selection
By Rob Edwards, ABB Measurement & Analytics
F
low measurement is one of the most
important aspects of process control
and is found in a variety of industry
sectors, including upstream, midstream and
downstream oil and gas; chemicals; power
generation; pulp and paper; food and bev-
erage; mining; and water and wastewater.
Typically it relates to media moving
through a closed pipe, although sometimes
open-channel flow is measured in a flume or
weir. It is one of the most frequently mea-
sured process variables throughout industry.
There are many flow applications and a
variety of flowing media to measure, includ-
ing liquids, gases and steam. It can be a
challenging measurement because the pro-
cess can be complicated by high pressures
and temperatures, suspended solids within
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
the fluid and entrained air. So it’s not sur-
prising that no single flow meter technology
can measure all types of media accurately
or meet all application needs.
Instead, process owners are faced with
selecting the optimal meter from the
diverse array of flow measurement technol-
ogies available. Some are uniquely qualified
to meet the needs of certain applications.
In most cases, though, there is application
overlap because the same technologies can
be used in multiple applications.
TECHNOLOGY CONSIDERATIONS
Selecting the right flow meter requires you
to first take a look at what media you’re
measuring, the application process parame-
ters, the accuracy level required and, finally,
your budget for this application.
21

Measurement purpose and application.
First, narrow your search by examining
what media you are measuring and the
specific application parameters, which
may include:
• Flowing media such as liquid, gas
or steam
• Media properties such as viscosity,
density, specific gravity, operating
temperature, etc.
• Process control via process via a pump
or valve
• Flow monitoring from one pipe section
to another
• Flow measurement to bill a customer
through custody transfer that’s going
to require more sophisticated, more
precise technology
• Quality assurance to achieve a precise
mix or a blend of materials
• Safety maintenance by triggering alerts or
alarms in the event of leaks or spills
To narrow the field further, consider some
of the more specific application details:
• Flow rate and pipe particulars: Flanged,
wafer style, material, etc.
• Display requirements: Rate, total flow, etc.
• Output required: Analog or digital, local
or remote display
• Device location: Hazardous area, harsh
environment, etc.
• Additional information/features:
Enhanced diagnostics, conductivity, gas
bubbles in the stream, etc.
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
Accuracy level. Keep in mind the accuracy
level you will need. Different flow mea-
surement technologies deliver different
accuracy levels. You must consider the
application requirement (e.g., how accu-
rate MUST the measurement be) and your
budget (accuracy that fits budget) as you
evaluate the available technologies. Some
measurement data and accuracy variables
to consider are:
• System accuracy
• Repeatability
• Response time
• Upstream and downstream straight
piping length requirements
• Permanent pressure loss
Total cost for application. The final evalua-
tion to keep in mind is your budget. When
looking at the price, a simple, mechani-
cal design initially may be very attractive.
The total of cost ownership likely is to be
higher, though, when you consider that
in a few years you may need to replace
parts because of wear and tear. In some
applications, energy usage also may be a
consideration as some flow meters require
more power than others to operate cor-
rectly (pump power and/or direct power).
THE BIG 6 FLOW
METER TECHNOLOGIES
Six flow meter technologies are used in the
majority of applications. Understanding how
each technology works and the advantages
22

and drawbacks of each will provide a
good foundation for selecting the right
flow meter.
Figure 1 shows the primary technologies
available. The Other category includes ther-
mal mass, positive displacement and turbine
technology. This article won’t cover those.
Instead, we will focus on the six major flow
meter technologies beginning with differen-
tial pressure.
Differential pressure. This is the most widely
used meter, consisting of a flow element,
sensors up and downstream from the ele-
ment and a differential pressure transmitter.
The primary elements could be orifice
plates or venturis, wedges, pitot tubes,
nozzles or other devices.
A common design uses a wedge-shaped
flow element that creates a restriction
Ultrasonic
13%
Coriolis Vortex &
21% Swirl - 6%
Variable
Area-5%
Other
8%
DP Flow
Electromagnetic 24%
23%
PRIMARY FLOW METER TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 1. Most applications use one of six major
flow meter types.
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
within the pipe to create a pressure drop
from one side to the other. As the medium
flows from left to right, the higher pres-
sure ahead of the constriction is compared
to the lower downstream pressure to
derive the differential pressure. The dif-
ference between the two is proportional
to the medium velocity. The higher the
flow velocity, the larger the differen-
tial pressure.
Regardless of the type of primary element
or sensor, the restriction is integrated into
the measuring tube. Different flow elements
are appropriate for different application
conditions. If you have a simple orifice plate
with suspended solids in that stream, that
creates a lot of turbulence, resulting in a
large pressure drop across that restriction.
That makes an orifice a poor choice as the
flow element in this case. A flow nozzle,
for example, will minimize turbulence and
reduce the pressure loss.
Advantages
• Suitable for liquid, gas and steam
• Tolerates extreme process conditions
• Transmitter can be replaced without shut-
ting down the process
• Entirely electronic with no moving parts
• Approved for custody transfer
• A well-understood way to measure flow
Limitations
• Limited rangeability due to nonlinear dis-
charge coefficient
23

• Inferior accuracy compared to
other technologies
• Possible accuracy deterioration from wear
and clogging
• Affected by changes in density, pressure
and viscosity
• Maintenance-intensive (orifice plate)
Electromagnetic (mag flow). This technol-
ogy relies on a magnetic coil that may be
integrated with a primary transmitter or
may have a secondary sensor assembly
connected to a remotely mounted trans-
mitter. The coils typically are mounted on
the top and bottom of the meter tube. A
pair of electrodes is arranged opposite one
another, positioned outside of a metal tube
that has an inert liner such as PTFE (Teflon),
elastomers, ceramics or any one of many
different plastic materials. Liner choice
depends on the application.
Current from the transmitter is applied to
the coil package, creating a magnetic field
across the metering pipe. As liquid flows
through the field, it essentially forces the
negatively and positively charged particles
in solution to separate. That separation
causes an induced voltage between the two
electrodes that is proportional to the flow
velocity.
The beauty of mag flow meters is that they
have no flow obstructions. They are open
pipes with electrodes flush to the liner
walls. The technology has been around for
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
decades and is prevalent in many industries
because of its simplicity and accuracy with
conductive fluids.
Advantages
• Can measure electrical conductivity down
to 5 micro siemens
• Typically doesn’t require much
upstream (3-5D) or downstream (0-3D)
straight piping
• Independent of pressure, temperature
and viscosity
• Works with entrained solids
• Diameter range from 1/10 to 96 in.
• Straight-through tube with no
moving parts
• No pressure losses
Limitations
• Only conductive liquids can be measured
• Measurement less accurate and more dif-
ficult with weakly conductive fluids, e.g.
demineralized water
• Deposits inside measuring tube or on
electrodes can cause errors
Coriolis mass. The concept for this technol-
ogy has been around for a couple hundred
years, but as a practical flow measurement
tool, it has been widely adopted only over
the past 10 to 15 years.
These meters measure direct mass of the
medium using tubes inside a sensor. An
exciter imposes a “twisting” motion in the
medium that creates a uniform oscillation as
24

the medium flows through measuring tubes.
The higher the flow velocity, the greater
the deflection of these oscillating tubes.
Sensors on the element’s inlet and outlet
measure the oscillation time, in a one-to-
one and a half-second time window, which
is the phase shift and is proportional to the
mass flow rate. This provides a direct mea-
surement of the volume of the liquid or gas
flowing in the pipe.
This technology simultaneously can provide
density measurement, which can be useful
when doing mass flow calculations. In addi-
tion to oscillation frequency, the sensors
also measure amplitude. A denser medium
oscillates more slowly.
While the cost of this technology typi-
cally is much higher than others, it does
provide data that others don’t, includ-
ing temperature.
A major benefit is that measurement is
unaffected by density changes. You can
measure large pressure drops across the
flow meter at high flow rates and viscosi-
ties. Because they are insensitive to density,
they are a good choice in applications
in which the physical properties of the
medium are not well-known or variable.
Advantages
• Measurement unaffected by fluid den-
sity changes, making it appropriate in
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
applications in which physical prop-
erties of the fluid are not well-known
or variable
• Suitable for liquid, gas and steam
• Highest accuracy
• Direct mass measurement with density
and temperature
• Applicable to sanitary applications
• Approved for liquid and gas
custody transfer
• Highly reliable/low maintenance
• Unaffected by flow-profile disturbances
• Easy installation; no inlet or outlet
sections required
• Excellent verification and diagnos-
tic capability
Limitations
• Expensive, especially for sizes above 4 in.
• Pressure drop can be a considerably
higher for older “U-shaped” tube designs
and high viscosity fluids
• Limited wetted material selection
• Limited and/or expensive for corro-
sive fluids
• Limited line size
Vortex and swirl. Vortex technology is
based on a principle that was first iden-
tified in the mid-1600s related to the
vortices discovered in flowing water.
Three hundred years later, physicist
Theodore von Kármán explored appli-
cations of this principle as it related to
fluid dynamics. He identified a repeating
25

pattern of swirling vortices responsible for
the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid
around blunt bodies. This effect, known as
the Kármán vortex street, causes things
like the “singing” of suspended telephone
or power lines and the vibration of a car
antenna at certain speeds.
Flow meters based on this principle have
an obstruction referred to as a bluff body
inside a pipe, usually in the middle of the
pipe. The bluff body disturbs the medium
flow, causing recurring vortices on each
side of that body. A mechanical sensing
element measures the frequency of the
oscillations between consecutive vorti-
ces, which corresponds directly to the
flow velocity.
This technology’s major advantages are
that it works with all media, and it has no
moving parts inside the meter. By adding
pressure and temperature, you can look at
mass flow measurement. The most signif-
icant drawback is that it doesn’t perform
very well with low flow rates.
Advantages
• Suitable for liquid, gas and steam over
wide measurement ranges:
• 30:1 gas/steam
• 20:1 liquids
• Available from to 16 in. diameters
• Addition of pressure and temperature can
be used for mass flow measurement
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
• Good accuracy:
• ±0.75% liquid
• ±1.0% gas/steam
• Low pressure loss (typically 0.44 psi)
Limitations
• Pulsating flow reduces accuracy
• Requires long inlet and outlet runs
• Cannot be used for high-viscous fluids
• Inferior accuracy compared to other
technologies at low end of range
• Not ideal for dirty or abrasive fluids
Swirl technology is similar in measurement
principle to vortex (see below) but with
some subtle differences. Swirl meters also
measure pressure variation in flow when
interrupted by an obstruction, but the bluff
body is quite different. The swirl meter has
a stationary turbine rotor at the inlet. It cre-
ates a small, thread-like rotating or spiral
flow of the medium that enlarges and stabi-
lizes as it moves toward the outlet. Sensors
at the outlet use the speed of the rotation
to calculate the flow rate.
The major benefit of this approach is
that, of all flow meters, it has the fewest
requirements for upstream and down-
stream straight piping, which makes it
ideal for tight spaces. In fact, no special
piping usually is required.
Because there are no moving parts inside
the flow meter, there’s nothing to wear
26

out, making it almost maintenance free. As
with the vortex meter, you can do mass
measurement if you incorporate pressure
and temperature with it. It’s available with
two- and four-wire designs for a variety
of communication protocols. But, like the
vortex technology, it doesn’t perform well
with pulsating flows.
Advantages
• Fewest requirements for upstream and
downstream piping
• Excellent accuracy of ±0.5% of rate for
liquids, gases and steam
• Volumetric measurement of liquids, gases
and steam
• Mass flow measurement possible with
pressure and temperature sensing
• Low installation costs because of two-
wire technology
• Lower pressure loss than even
vortex technology
• Dual and triple-sensor design with
redundant analog loops
Limitations
• Pulsating flow reduces accuracy
• Cannot be used for high viscous fluids
• Inferior ability to read at low end of range
compared to other technologies
• Not ideal for dirty, corrosive or abra-
sive fluids
Ultrasonic. Ultrasonic flow meters have
been around for a number of years. The
early designs were based on Doppler
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
measurement; the current technology relies
instead on ultrasonic transit time. Ultra-
sonic signals are transmitted both upstream
and downstream. Sensors measure the
differences in the transit times between
the two signals. That data, combined with
pipe diameter, are used to calculate the
flow rate.
Ultrasonic technology is best-suited to mea-
suring liquids — such as water, cryogenic
liquids and chemicals – but also can mea-
sure gases and vapor. It commonly is used
to measure the velocity of liquids that allow
ultrasonic waves to pass: water, molten
sulfur, cryogenic liquids, chemicals, etc.
Slurries, on the other hand, can interfere
with the ultrasonic signal.
The major advantages of ultrasonic include
the facts that there’s really no pressure loss
and that the technology can be used with
corrosive fluids. The major drawback is you
have to be cautious about sludge deposits
on the pipe walls that can interfere with the
ultrasonic signals. However, more sensors
can help overcome that issue.
Advantages
• Can be used in a range of pipe sizes
• Able to measure highly corrosive fluids
• No pressure loss
• Can be retrofitted by mounting or
welding to a pipe
• Measurement principal independent of
physical properties
27

Limitations
• Measurement results depend on
flow profile
• Medium-to-low accuracy, depending on
acoustic transparency of fluid
• Deposits on pipe/sensor reduce measure-
ment accuracy
• Doppler method applicable only to
certain applications — flow monitoring
Variable area. The final technology dis-
cussed in this paper is variable area (VA).
This technology has also been around
for many years. It relies on a simple mea-
surement principle that works well with
many different liquids. Commonly used
as cost-effective local indication of small
liquid or gas flows, it consists of a vertical,
conical column, narrow at the bottom and
wider at the top, with a specialized float
that moves freely up and down.
Flowing fluid enters the bottom of the
meter, passes upward through a metering
tube, around the float and exits at the top.
Flow rate is read by noting the position
of the float against the calibrated scale
etched on a sight glass. Remote measure-
ments also are possible using sensors that
measure the height of the float. This is an
inferential type of measurement appropri-
ate for relatively clean liquids and gases.
The medium must be clear and clean
enough to see the float level.
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
There are different ways of connecting
the float that can be selected to adapt to
the application requirements. Some use a
spring-opposed vane that moves in rela-
tion to the flow rate, while others use a
spring-opposed piston. The latter is less
sensitive to viscosity differences.
Advantages
• Able to measure liquids, gases or steam
• Low cost
• No power supply needed
• Sight glass designs provide easy, depend-
able on-site flow monitoring
• Low pressure loss
• Able to handle high pressures
Limitations
• Measuring accuracy depends on process
conditions and fluid properties
• Not suited to media that could coat the
measuring tube or float or interfere with
sight glass
• Requires fluid-specific calibration
• Limited turndown (10:1)
• Affected by entrained matter; not suitable
for liquids containing solids
• No totalizing function
SELECTING YOUR FLOW METER
Table 1 provides a summary of how
well each of the six major flow meter
technologies meets the most common
application requirements.
28
 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

Differential Electromagnetic
Liquids Pressure (Mag Flow) Coriolis Mass Vortex & Swirl Ultrasonic Variable Area

Clean *** *** *** *** *** ***

Dirty ** *** *** ** *** **

Conductive *** *** *** *** *** ***

Viscous ** ** *** * *** **

Slurries ** *** *** * ** *

Corrosive ** *** ** ** *** **

Reverse flow ** *** *** * *** **

Pulsating flow * *** *** ** ** *

Differential Electromagnetic
Gases Pressure (Mag Flow) Coriolis Mass Vortex & Swirl Ultrasonic Variable Area

Steam *** * ** *** * ***

Clean *** * *** *** *** ***

Wet ** * ** * ** **

Contaminated ** * ** ** ** *

Corrosive ** * ** ** ** **
*** Performs well, ** Can be used, * Performs poorly

FLOW METER COMPARISON CHART

TABLE 1. This table compares performance for liquids and gases based on flow meter type.

With a better understanding of the differ- As always, we suggest engaging vendors

ent flow meter technologies and how each
can be applied, you now can go back to the
three qualifying factors — media and appli-
cation, accuracy level and cost (budget)
— that we discussed initially. Evaluate each
of those factors with the knowledge learned
about the technology and where to best use
that provide such technologies to gain
more insight into their specific product
capabilities, measurement accuracies,
pricing, etc., to ensure you have all the
facts as you make your decisions.
ROB EDWARDS is flow product manager U.S., ABB Mea-

it to find the optimal technology to meet surement & Analytics. Reach him at robert.i.edwards@

your needs. us.abb.com.

Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 29

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Avoid These Five Mistakes
When Selecting a Flow Meter
Know your conditions now but anticipate the future
By Chris Costlow, Yokogawa Corporation of America
F
low meters play a critical role in the
process world. Over the decades,
flow meter technologies have
expanded the ways customers control
and monitor their utilities, steam, fiscal
metering, etc. Today, a few of the top flow
meter types on the market are the Corio-
lis, magnetic, vortex, ultrasonic, differential
pressure and variable area meters. Several
other technologies, such as turbine, ther-
mal mass and positive displacement, also
are available. Because each flow meter has
positive and negative attributes, careful
consideration is required to avoid purchas-
ing a technology that is inappropriate to
the application.
Digitalization is the next horizon for many
companies as they transition from industrial
automation to industrial autonomy (IA2IA).
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
Experience and edge technology often
struggle to balance as older generations
retire and tech-savvier generations step
into place, but flow meter manufacturers
have risen to the challenge.
For example, some flow meters, such as
Yokogawa’s Total Insight (TI), use advanced
diagnostics and tools to monitor products
over their lifecycles to help plants reach
their goals. These tools bridge the gap
between replacing older technology and
selecting a suitable flow meter — not just
for today’s processes but for tomorrow’s
digital transformation.
With each manufacturer’s various sizing
tools and selection guides, it is easy to
think selecting the right flow meter is a
no-brainer. Unfortunately, that rarely is the
31

case. Although there are many mistakes one
can make when choosing a flow meter, five
common mistakes seem to occur regardless
of flow meter technology. Let’s look into
each of these and see why they cause so
many problems.
1. SELECTING THE WRONG
TECHNOLOGY FOR
THE APPLICATION
As mentioned before, the older generation
is retiring, and that is where the experi-
ence with the process resides. Even though
several flow meter technologies could
operate in an application, some perform
better under certain conditions. For exam-
ple, all flow meters can measure liquids,
but a magnetic flowmeter requires con-
ductive fluid. Processes must be reviewed
thoroughly, including but not limited to
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
the medium’s material safety data sheet
(MSDS), meter run requirements, hazard-
ous conditions, mounting sizes, I/O and
communication requirements.
Most manufacturers provide selection
guides to help choose the right tech-
nology, but prospective users always
should refer to the product’s general
specifications before making a purchase.
In addition, they should reference the
manufacturer’s website or consult their
manufacturer’s representatives if confi-
dence in selecting the correct technology
is lacking (Figure 1).
2. BUYING FOR TODAY
BUT NOT FOR TOMORROW
Everyone has done this: We purchase a new
product only to find it is incompatible with
the manufacturer’s next ver-
sion six months later. Or we
mindlessly replace existing
products year after year.
Instead of being wasteful,
one must think more about
tomorrow than today.
With that in mind, some
manufacturers have imple-
mented an on-demand
FLOW METER
DEMONSTRATION
Figure 1. Consult with your
manufacturer to learn the
ins and outs of a potential
flow meter purchase.
32
 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

approach in their products. For example, a

customer can purchase a Yokogawa Rota-
mass TI Coriolis flow meter with the options
necessary for the process today and add
additional “Features on Demand” if require-
ments change in the future. The customer
determines the timeline (Figure 2).

When purchasing a flowmeter, the

prospective user should investigate
the manufacturer’s history in product
upgrades and design. The product must
be high-quality and capable of operating
not only today but tomorrow. Otherwise,
the flow meter is only as good as those
FEATURES ON DEMAND
VHS or cassette tape players we all have Figure 2. To account for changing process
conditions, “features on demand” allows
in storage at home.
future-proofing a flow meter by providing the
ability to activate features at a later date.

3. SIZING THE METER TO THE

WRONG PROCESS CONDITIONS
This might be the most significant issue
seen across all flow meter technologies.
Most manufacturers offer sizing tools for
certain flow meter technologies, but even
with these advanced systems, entering
the wrong information still will result in
incorrectly sized meters. The problem
is that many customers size the meters
for design conditions instead of actual
conditions.
For example, the process may be designed
to run at 800 gpm; however, the process
never operates at 800 gpm but instead
runs between 100 and 200 gpm. Such over-
sizing leads to many inaccurate readings,
especially for manufacturers that base
accuracy on flow span instead of flat-spec
readings. To avoid such issues, users must
size the meter correctly using actual flow
conditions. In addition, once the process
conditions have been entered, the manu-
facturer’s sizing printout will specify the
device’s accuracy throughout the entire
flow span.
4. NOT SHOPPING AROUND
FOR THE BEST PRODUCT
Just like shopping for a new car or planning
that needed vacation, shopping around for
the best product offering needs to be a part
of our business practices. To ensure they
choose the best product for the application

Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How 33


Putting quality first will reduce costs
and headaches down the road.
and the highest quality product for the
price, prospective users can take advantage
of the Internet and research options.
They should ask a manufacturer for an
on-site demonstration or challenge a sales
representative to prove why this is the
best product for the application. They
also should evaluate the product’s total
lifecycle. Because typical flow meters are
expensive, consideration should not be
limited to today’s investment. It also must
extend to ensuring that the manufacturer
will be there tomorrow to continue pro-
viding support.
5. YOU GET WHAT YOU PAY
FOR, NOW OR LATER
Every company is looking to reduce costs
and increase margins. Sometimes a low-
er-cost flow meter appears to be sufficient
for a process, but its installed cost could be
very high or could cause excess downtime.
Putting quality first will reduce costs and
headaches down the road.
Flow eHANDBOOK: Fine-Tune Your Flow Know-How
www.ChemicalProcessing.com
Proper selection requires researching the
manufacturer’s quality policy and standards.
Knowing a product’s lifecycle, maintenance
history and typical service cost will provide
an idea of the return on investment (ROI) and
operation and maintenance costs. Flow meter
users must keep the cost of a process shut-
down in mind in the event the flow meter is
out of service. Incurring a higher price at the
beginning could provide payback over time.
In summary, the flow meter purchaser must
be familiar with the application, purchase
for today and tomorrow, size the meter for
actual conditions, shop around for the best
product and consider the purchase cost vs.
the operation and maintenance costs over the
product’s lifecycle. Avoiding these Top 5 flow
meter selection mistakes will result in resil-
ient, reliable data that allows the company to
reach its industrial autonomy goals.
CHRIS COSTLOW is the oil & gas industry marketing
manager at Yokogawa Corporation of America. Reach
him at chris.costlow@yokogawa.com.
34
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