Purpose of respiration-cells require oxygen &nutrients 2 prod ATP.

The process of making ATP=cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration produces ATP; cells need a continuous supply

Glucose + oxygen —> ATP + carbon dioxide + heat

Function of respiratory system depends on cardio system

The respiratory and circulatory systems are the two systems which allow the exchange of
gases between the air and the cells of the body.

Respiratory system consists of the organs that exchange gases between the atmosphere
and the blood; this exchange occurs in the lungs.

Three basic parts (excluding cellular respiration):

Pulmonary ventilation – breathing; inspiration and expiration
External respiration – oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the air and blood
(in the lungs)
Internal respiration – gas exchange between blood and tissue fluid
Cellular respiration –using oxygen to create ATP and remove waste product carbon
dioxide.

The blood transports the gases between the lungs and the cells of the body.

The overall exchange of gases between the atmosphere, the blood, and the cells is
called respiration.

There are 3 basis processes involved in respiration:

Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) – involves inspiration (inflow) and
expiration (outflow) of air between the atmosphere and the lungs.

External respiration – is the exchange of gases (O2

and CO2) in the lungs.

Internal respiration – is the exchange of gases between the blood and the cells
of the body.

Cellular respiration – is the use of O2 to create ATP and the generation of the
waste product CO2.

Organs of the respiratory tract

Nose
Consists of both an external and internal portion.
Function is to warm, moisten and filter the incoming air. It is also involved in smell and
speech.

Pharynx throat: 3 regions–2 of them are only for airflow, 3rd is a pass 4 air & food
Connects nose to larynx
Upper part of the pharynx is for air only
Lower part of the pharynx is passage for air and food/liquids from the mouth

Larynx (voice box)- Connects pharynx with trachea

3 major functions
Provide an open airway
Route air and food into proper channels
Voice production
LARYNX STRUCTURE
Thyroid cartilage: “Adam’s apple”
Glottis - opening
Epiglottis: leaf-shaped- acts like trap door 2 close larynx when eating/drinking;
keeps food/liquids from “going down the wrong tube”
Vocal cords-membranes that vibrate when air passes over them;
allows speech/singing, etc.
Laryngitis-vocal cords can’t vibrate
Cricoid cartilage-landmark for tracheostomy

The esophagus, which carries food to the stomach, lies directly behind the larynx. In
order to prevent food (or liquid) from entering the larynx (and blocking the breathing
passages), there is a small flap of cartilage lying on top of the larynx. This is called the
epiglottis and covers the opening (glottis) during swallowing; the food and liquids are
routed to the esophagus and kept out of the trachea.

If anything except air passes into the larynx, a cough reflex attempts to expel it.

Laryngitis is an inflammation and swelling of some membranes inside the larynx. When
swollen, the membranes cannot vibrate (which is required of speech), so the individual
has difficulty speaking.

Trachea
Location: Between larynx and bronchi, passes into thoracic cavity
Structure:
Stacked C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage (like horse shoes stacked on top of each
other)
Open part of Cs allow esophagus to expand into trachea slightly during swallowing
Provides support - to keep airways open!

Trachea (windpipe)
Is a tubular passageway for air, about 4 ½” long and 1” in diameter.

It extends from the larynx to the bronchi in the thoracic cavity.

The walls of the trachea are composed of horse-shoe shaped cartilage rings stacked on
top of each other.

These hard rings provide a solid support so the tracheal walls do not collapse inward and
obstruct the airflow.

Bronchi
Trachea divides into right and left bronchi - transporting air into and out of lungs.
These branch into smaller and smaller tubes - the entire structure is known as the
bronchial tree.
The smallest of the tubes are the bronchioles
The tubes of bronchial tree contain cartilage (to keep passages open) and smooth muscle
(which helps control air flow), EXCEPT for the bronchioles which do NOT have the
cartilage in their walls.
Asthma - the smooth muscles spasm; no cartilage to keep the passageways open!
How would a bronchodilator medication help?

Bronchi (bronchus = singular)

The trachea divides at its lower end into two tubes called the bronchi; one of these tubes
goes to the right lung and the other to the left lung.

Upon entering the lungs, these tubes divide into smaller and smaller tubules, much like
tree branches. So it is often referred to as the bronchial tree.

The smallest tubes are the bronchioles.

The purpose of the bronchial tree is to distribute the air deep into the lungs’ interiors.

Lungs
Separated from each other by the heart
Some differences between the lungs:
Right lung is shorter, wider
Left lung is longer, narrower
Inside is filled with microscopic alveoli -the structures where gas exchange happens.

Alveoli
Microscopic sac-like structures
Millions in each lung
Walls composed of simple squamous epithelial tissue
Walls also contain elastic fibers
Many capillaries associated with the alveoli which allows RAPID exchange of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide)

Lungs
Paired organs located in the thoracic cavity, separated by the heart.
 The lungs appear somewhat spongy because they are composed of many
microscopic sac-like structures called alveoli. It is at the level of alveoli where the
exchange of the respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) occurs.

Each alveolus (air sac) is composed of simple squamous epithelial tissue. They
also contain some elastic fibers that allow them to stretch during breathing.

The alveoli are highly vascular, allowing the rapid exchange of gases between the
lungs and the blood.

The thin walls of the alveoli and the capillaries allows an extremely rapid diffusion
of gases between the alveoli and the capillaries – illustrating the importance of how the
respiratory and circulatory systems work together.

In emphysema, there is a breakdown of the walls of the alveoli, making it more

difficult to exchange gases.

Separated from each other by the heart

Some differences between the lungs:
Right lung is shorter, wider
Left lung is longer, narrower
Inside is filled with microscopic alveoli -the structures where gas exchange happens.

Respiration Physiology
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): movement of air between environment
(atmosphere) and lungs
External respiration: exchange of gases between lungs and blood in capillaries of the
lungs
Internal Respiration: exchange of gases between blood (capillaries) and body cells

Respiration (3 steps)
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing).
Pulmonary ventilation is the process by which atmospheric gases are drawn
down into the lungs and waste gases are expelled back up through the
respiratory passages and into the atmosphere.

Air flows between the lungs and the atmosphere because there is a
difference in pressures – a pressure gradient is established. The gases
always want to flow from HIGH to LOW pressure.

Inspiration (breathing in; inhalation)

We breathe in when the pressure inside the lungs is less than the air
(atmospheric) pressure.

Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm and respiratory muscles

(intercostals) contract. The contraction results in a larger thoracic cavity
and a decreased pressure. (Any time you increase the size of a
container, the pressure of the gases within it go down.)
 Once the pressure inside the lungs becomes lower than that of the
atmosphere, air flows into the lungs.

This an active process (using energy) because it involves muscle

contraction.

Expiration (breathing out; exhalation)

Also involves a pressure gradient; however, the pressure in the lungs now
has to be greater than in the atmosphere so that air will flow OUT of
the lungs.

Expiration begins when the respiratory muscles relax and the size of the
thoracic cavity decreases.

The decrease in the thoracic cavity size causes the alveoli in the lungs snap
back inward (due to the presence of the elastic fibers), resulting in a
greater pressure in the lungs. Smaller alveoli = greater pressure.

Then, air flows OUT of the lungs into the atmosphere where the pressure is
lower.

Lung volumes
There are expected amounts of air that move into and out of the lungs;
these can be measured with a device called a spirometer.

Vital capacity is the maximal amount of air that moves into and out of the
lungs. It is much higher than the volume of air that moves into and out
of the lungs with normal breathing (called the tidal volume).

Lung disorders can drastically alter these lung volumes.

External Respiration
Is the exchange of the respiratory gases between the alveoli and the blood in the
lung capillaries.

During inspiration, the inhaled air is high in O2 and low in CO2.

Meanwhile, deoxygenated blood flowing into the lungs is low in O2 and high in
CO2.

The gas exchange occurs due to these differences in levels of the respiratory
gases. Both O2 and CO2 travel from their respective concentration gradients (from
high to low).

O2 moves out of the alveoli and into the blood while the CO2 moves out of the blood and
into the alveoli where it can be exhaled.

The process is aided by the thinness of the walls of the alveoli and the capillaries – thicker
tissues would inhibit diffusion.

When the blood leaves the lungs, it is now high in O2 and low in CO2.

Internal Respiration
As soon as external respiration is complete, the blood moves through the pulmonary
veins to the heart (left atrium and left ventricle) and is then pumped throughout the body
to all of the tissues.

In the capillaries of the body tissues, a second gas exchange occurs – called internal
respiration. This is the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and body cells.

Again, this occurs because of concentration differences.

The arterial blood flowing into the tissues is high in O2 and low in CO2; as a result of
cellular respiration, the cells are producing CO2 and using up O2 – so they have high
levels of CO2 and low levels of O2.

Now the O2 moves from the blood into the cells and the CO2 out of the cells and into the
blood to be returned to the lungs for external respiration.

Pulmonary Ventilation
Is the process where atmospheric gases (high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide) are
drawn into the lungs and wastes gases (high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen) are
expelled

Air flow occurs due to a pressure gradient, from HIGH TO LOW

Let’s think about that…how air moves between the atmosphere (air around you) and your
lung

Pulmonary Ventilation

To breathe in (inhale; inspiration) air pressure is higher in the _atmosphere_ and lower
in the _lungs_
To breathe out (exhale; expiration) air pressure is higher in the _lungs_ and lower in the
_atmosphere_

Pulmonary Ventilation
Pressure Gradients

How is this pressure gradient created?

By changing the size of the lungs.

When a “container” gets bigger, the gas pressure in the container goes DOWN.

When a “container” gets smaller, the gas pressure in the container goes UP.
How do lungs change their size?

Inspiration-small to large
Lungs get bigger by contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles (respiratory
muscles)

ACTIVE PROCESS because muscles are contracting.

Respiratory muscles contract.
Thoracic cavity gets deeper & wider (larger).
Vacuum pulls out walls of lungs.
Lungs get larger.
Pressure drops.
Air flows in.

Expiration- large to small

Lungs get smaller by relaxation of diaphragm and intercostal muscles (respiratory
muscles)
Chest cavity gets smaller so do lungs

PASSIVE PROCESS
Respiratory muscles relax & return to original positions.
Thoracic cavity gets smaller.
No vacuum pulling out walls of lungs.
Elastic recoil makes them smaller.
Pressure rises.
Air flows out.

External Respiration
Exchange of gases in the LUNGS
Alveoli after inhaling:
High in O2 content
Low in CO2 content
Deoxygenated blood flowing into the capillaries of the lungs
Low in O2 content
High in CO2 content
O2 moves from the alveoli INTO the blood
CO2 moves OUT OF blood into alveoli (where it can be exhaled)

Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases at the CELLS OF THE BODY
Oxygenated blood flowing to the cells:
High in O2 content
Low in CO2 content
Cells actively engaged in cellular respiration (making ATP)
Low in O2 content
High in CO2 content
O2 moves from the blood INTO the cells
CO2 moves OUT OF cells into the blood
Lung Volumes

There are certain amounts of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs during
pulmonary ventilation.

Measured with spirometer.

Tidal volume - amount moved into and out of lungs with normal breathing; not very
much!

Vital capacity - maximal amount of air that can move into and out of the lungs
Pulmonary volumes and capacities can be affected by lung disorders.

YOUR TURN! Quick check on your understanding of information on respiratory

physiology:

What are the three major physiological processes of the respiratory system?

2. Why do we (ultimately) need oxygen? What process produces the carbon dioxide?
(Hint: These are both related.)

3. What is pulmonary ventilation? Can you describe the events of inspiration and
expiration?

4. What is external respiration? Can you describe the gas exchange - where and how
does it happen?

5. What is internal respiration? Can you describe that gas exchange - where and how
does it happen?

GAS EXCHANGE

External Respiration - gas exchange between the alveoli in the lungs and the capillaries in
the lungs. This happens IN THE LUNGS.

Internal Respiration - gas exchange between the cells of your body and the capillaries in
the body tissues. This happens IN ALL BODY TISSUES.

In both cases, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) want to go from where there are high
concentrations to where there are lower concentrations.

COMMON THEME! HIGH to LOW!

Gas Transport
Oxygen
Most is attached to RBC hemoglobin (97-98%)
Some dissolves directly in the blood (2-3%)
Carbon Dioxide
Some dissolves in the plasma (7%)
Some binds to hemoglobin (23%)
Most is converted to bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) (70%)
The bicarbonate helps maintain your blood’s pH (it acts as a buffer).
If a respiratory disorder affects your ability to exhale carbon dioxide, then the blood’s pH
can become too acidic - known as respiratory acidosis.

Transport of gases
Oxygen
Most of the oxygen is carried in the blood attached to the hemoglobin of the
RBCs; some is also dissolved directly in the blood plasma.

Attachment to hemoglobin allows the blood to carry 50-100X as much

oxygen as could be transported if it were only dissolved in the plasma.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Some is transported on the hemoglobin (on a different portion than
oxygen).

Most of the carbon dioxide is transported in the blood plasma where it is

either dissolved directly in the plasma or is converted into the bicarbonate ion
(HCO3_) which plays a role in helping to maintain the blood’s pH.

Because CO2 levels help regulate blood pH, respiratory disorders which
interfere with the ability to exhale carbon dioxide can cause a harmful
condition called respiratory acidosis. This condition can be fatal.

Control of Respiration
Nervous control - groups of neurons in both the medulla and pons (brain stem) regulate
breathing.
The medulla sends nerve impulses to the breathing muscles to regulate pulmonary
ventilation.
Cerebral cortex
Connections to the medulla
Allows voluntary control of breathing - “holding your breath”
Why is this important?
Chemical control
Carbon dioxide - alters rate of breathing.
Hypercapnia causes hyperventilation.
The buildup of CO2 when you “hold your breath” will eventually override the voluntary
control of breathing.
Other controls
Irritation of pharynx or larynx
Sudden cold stimulus
Sudden severe pain

Control of Respiration
Nervous Control
Brain stem (medulla and pons)
The medulla sends the nerve impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles that control inspiration and expiration. The pons also helps to
regulate normal breathing.
Cerebral cortex
The respiratory centers in the medulla also have connections with the
cerebral cortex so we can voluntarily alter our pattern of breathing
(can “hold” our breath).
This is protective because it enables us to prevent water or harmful gases
from entering our lungs. However, the ability to hold our breath is
controlled by levels of CO2. When the levels of CO2 reach a certain
point, the brain stem overrides the cerebral control and breathing will
begin.
Chemical Control
CO2 is the primary chemical that can alter breathing rates.
Slight increases in the CO2 levels (hypercapnia) are detected by
chemoreceptors in the blood. Nerve impulses are sent to the brain
stem causing hyperventilation (an increase in the breathing rate) to
expel the extra CO2.
Other controls
Irritation of pharynx or larynx – stops breathing, then causes coughing
Sudden cold stimulus
Sudden severe pain

Respiratory Disorders
Acute Bronchitis
Bacterial infection of the bronchi
Usually preceded by a viral upper respiratory infection
Pneumonia
Viral or bacterial infection of the lungs
Bronchi and alveoli fill with thick fluid
Risk factors include:
Advanced age
Weakened immune system
Smoking
Being immobilized
May be localized in specific lobules of the lungs

Pulmonary tuberculosis
Caused by the tubercle bacillus bacterium
Lung tissue develops tubercles around the invading pathogens
Tuberculosis skin test can detect if a person has ever been exposed to the bacteria
Obstructive pulmonary disorders
Air does not flow freely in the airways
Maximal inhalation or exhalation time is greatly increased
COPD – chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Develops slowly, over a long period of time
Smoking, pollutants can be a cause

Asthma
Acute obstructive disease of the bronchi and bronchioles
Marked by wheezing, breathlessness, sometimes a cough and expectoration of mucus
Airways are sensitive to irritants
Is not curable, but treatable with inhalers to control inflammation and stop muscle
spasms
Lung cancer
Linked to smoking
Progressive steps in development of lung cancer:
Thickening of cells lining bronchi
Cells with atypical nuclei appear
Cells break loose and penetrate other tissues (metastasis)