Ship Construction

Ship Building Materials
15.1.2 Ship Construction- Ship Building Materials

Define Tensile strength, Ductility, Hardness, Toughness,
Yield Point, Ultimate Tensile Stress, Modulus of
Elasticity, Stress/Brittle&Fatigue Fracture, Mild
Steel, Strain
Explain with Stress-Strain Curve
Sketch
Explain Advantages of using Aluminium Alloys, Use of
higher tensile steel and hazards associated with
same, How Aluminium superstructure strength is
preserved.
List Examples where castings and forgings are used
State Ship building steel is tested graded and stamped
with approval mark.
Describe Precautions against corrosion where aluminium is
connected to steel work.
Material Properties

 The behavior of a metal under various loading conditions is
expressed by a number of terms.
 These properties are determined before approving a material for
construction.
 These tests and subsequent approvals of materials for construction
are done normally by classification societies or some other
approved national agencies.
 All the materials used for construction of a ship shall be of
approved type for the purpose and this information shall be made
available to the owner when the ship is delivered after
construction.
Material Properties

 The engineering properties of the metals changes with alloying
elements, temperature and force acting on it.
 These are expressed by a number of terms.
 These properties are determined before approving a material for
construction.
 Classification societies or some national agencies conduct various
tests to determine these properties for approval of materials for
ship construction.
 All the pertinent information about the construction materials shall
be made available to the owner when the ship is delivered after
construction.
Definitions

 Stress: Stress is the force per unit area.
 Stress may be compressive stress or tensile stress.
 When the force is acting in such way to elongate the material the
material is under tensile stress.
 When the force is acting in such a way to crush the material the
stress said to be compressive stress.
 When the stress forces material particles to slide over other then the
material is said to be under shear.
 The force is termed as shear stress.
Definitions

 Tensile Strength: This is the main single criterion with reference to
the materials.
 Tensile strength of a material is a measure of the material’s ability
to withstand the loads upon it in service.
 To express the tensile strength in various loading conditions
normally terms such as ‘stress’, ‘strain’, ‘ultimate tensile strength’,
‘yield stress’ and ‘proof stress’ etc are often used.
 Tensile strength test measures a materials strength and ductility.
 Ductility: This is the ability of a material to undergo permanent
change in shape with out rupture or loss of strength.
Definitions

 Hardness: Hardness is the materials ability to resist plastic
deformation and is usually confirmed by indentation.
 Toughness: Toughness is a combination of strength and the ability
to absorb energy or deform plastically.
 This is condition between brittleness and softness.
 Brittleness: This is the inability of a material to absorb energy and
deform.
 Brittle materials fracture with out appreciable deformation, while
absorbing the energy.
 Malleability: Malleability is the ability of a material to be shaped
by forging or rolling and is similar to ductility.
Definitions

 Plasticity: The ability of a material to deform permanently when
load is applied is termed as plasticity.
 Elasticity: It is the ability of a material to return to the original
shape or size after having been deformed or loaded upon removal
of the load.
 Yield Point: When a material is subjected to tension, initially upon
loading, the specimen will undergo elastic deformation.
 Under this range when the load is removed the specimen will return
to the original dimensions.
 But on continuous application of load after certain point the
material will undergo permanent deformation.
Definitions

 The point where the material changes from elastic deformation is
normally termed as yield point.
 Beyond the yield point the specimen will neck.
 Ultimate Tensile Stress: When the material is subjected to tension,
initially the material will undergo elastic deformation and then after
the yield point permanent deformation will result.
 But even after the yield point stress value will continuously
increase and after a certain point the stress value starts reducing till
it reaches the fracture.
 The highest value of the stress is termed as ultimate tensile strength
of that material.
Definitions

 Modulus of Elasticity: When a material is subjected to tensile
stress with in the elastic limit, the stress is proportional to strain.
 With in Elastic Limit the ratio of stress to strain is a constant
termed as Modulus of Elasticity.
 There are three types of Modulus of elasticity.
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y) is defined as the ratio normal
stress to the longitudinal strain produced in a linear body.
2. Bulk modulus of elasticity (B) is defined as the ratio of normal
stress and volumetric strain.
3. Rigidity modulus of elasticity ( h) It is defined as the ratio of
tangential stress to the shearing strain.
Definitions

 Modulus of Elasticity: When a material is subjected to tensile
stress with in the elastic limit, the stress is proportional to strain.
 With in Elastic Limit the ratio of stress to strain is a constant
termed as Modulus of Elasticity.
 Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y) is defined as the ratio
normal stress to the longitudinal strain produced in a linear
body.
Definitions

Definitions
 Stress:

 When a component or structure is subjected to a force, it is said to
be in a state of stress.
 If the force is acting in a direction to crush or shorten the material,
then it is said to be under compressive stress.
 The material under this condition is said to be under compression.
 If the force tends to elongate the material then the stress acting on
the material is said to be tensile strength.
 The material is said to be under tension.
Definitions
 Brittle Fracture:

 Brittle fracture occurs when an otherwise elastic material
fractures without any apparent sign or little evidence of
material deformation prior to failure.
 Fracture occurs instantaneously with little warning.
 The following factors influence the possibility of brittle
fracture:
 A sharp notch is present in the structure from which the
fracture initiates.
 A tensile stress is present.
 There is a temperature above which brittle fracture will not
occur.
Definitions

Definitions

 The metallurgical properties of the steel plate.
 Thick plate is more prone.
 A brittle fracture is distinguishable from a ductile failure by
the lack of deformation at the edge of the tear, and its bright
granular appearance.
 A ductile failure has a dull grey appearance.
 Fracture initiation point since these tend to point in that
direction.
 The factors which are known to exist where a brittle fracture
may occur must be considered if this is to be avoided.
Definitions

 The metallurgical properties of the steel plate.
 Thick plate is more prone.
 A brittle fracture is distinguishable from a ductile failure by
the lack of deformation at the edge of the tear, and its bright
granular appearance.
 A ductile failure has a dull grey appearance.
 By appropriate design and selection of materials the brittle
fracture is prevented on the ships’ structure.
 Brittle fracture may initiate in welded seams of the ship’s
structure.
Definitions

 Firstly the design of individual items of ship structure must
be such that sharp notches where cracks maybe initiated are
avoided.
 With welded structures as large as a ship the complete
elimination of crack initiation is not entirely possible owing
to the existence of small faults in the welds, a complete weld
examination not being practicable.
 Steel specified for the hull construction should therefore
have good ‘notch ductility’ at the service temperatures
particularly where thick plate is used.
 Provision of steel having good ‘notch ductility’ properties
has the effect of making it difficult for a crack to propagate.
Definitions

 With welded structures as large as a ship the complete
elimination of crack initiation is not entirely possible owing
to the existence of small faults in the welds, a complete weld
examination not being practicable.
 Steel specified for the hull construction should therefore
have good ‘notch ductility’ at the service temperatures
particularly where thick plate is used.
 Provision of steel having good ‘notch ductility’ properties
has the effect of making it difficult for a crack to propagate.
Definitions
 Fatigue Fractures:

 Unlike brittle fracture, fatigue fracture occurs very slowly
and can take years to propagate.
 The greatest danger with fatigue fractures is that
they occur at low stresses which are applied to a structure
repeatedly over a period of time.
 A fatigue crack once initiated may grow unnoticed until the
load bearing member is reduced to a cross-sectional area
which is insufficient to carry the applied load.
 Fatigue failures are associated with sharp notches or
discontinuities in structures, and are especially prevalent at
‘hard spots’, i.e. regions of high rigidity in ship structures.
Stress-Strain Curve

 The ‘Stress – Strain’ curve is a curve between unit load or
stress against unit elongation, known as strain.
 Stresses are usually computed on the basis of original area of
a specimen before the test.
 If the stress when calculated on the basis of area of cross section
corresponding to the stress is termed as “True Stress”
 A plot of true stress Vs strain is called true stress –strain
diagram.
 Such a diagram is rarely used in practice.
 The stress-strain curves help designers to understand how a
given material deforms with increasing loads.
STRESS –
STRAIN
CURVE
STRESS –
STRAIN
CURVE
Stress-Strain Curve

 Metals are tested to ensure that their strength, ductility, and
toughness are suitable for the function they are required to
perform.
 In comparing the strengths of various metals, stresses and
strains are often referred to and require to be defined.
 Stress is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit a
load, and the intensity of stress in the material, which is the
load per unit area, is often stated.
 The load per unit area is obtained by dividing the applied
load by the cross-sectional area of the material.
Stress-Strain Curve

 If a tensile load of P kg is applied to a rod having a cross
sectional area of A mm2, then the tensile stress in the material
of the rod is P/A kg/mm2 .
 Total strain is defined as the total deformation which a body
undergoes when subjected to an applied load.
 The strain is the deformation per unit length or unit volume,
e.g. if the tensile load P applied to the rod of original length l
produces an elongation, or extension, of the rod of amount δl,
then the tensile strain to which the material of the rod is
subjected is given by the extension per unit length.
 i.e. Strain = Extension/Original Length = δl ÷ l.
Stress-Strain Curve

 It can be shown that the load on the rod may be increased
uniformly and the resulting extension will also increase
uniformly until a certain load is reached.
 This indicates that the load is proportional to extension
and hence stress and strain are proportional since the cross-
sectional area and original length of the rod remain constant.
 For most metals this direct proportionality holds until the
material reaches the ‘elastic limit’.
 The metal behaves elastically to this point, the rod for
example returning to its original length if the load is
removed before the ‘elastic limit’ is reached.
STRESS/STRAIN CURVE
Stress-Strain Curve

 If a mild steel bar is placed in a testing machine and the
extensions are recorded for uniformly increasing loads, a
graph of load against extension, or stress against strain may
be plotted as in figure.
 This shows the straight line relationship (i.e. direct
proportionality) between stress and strain up to the elastic
limit.
 Since stress is directly proportional to strain, the stress is
equal to a constant which is in fact the slope of the straight
line part of the graph, and is given by:
A constant = stress ÷ strain.
Stress-Strain Curve

 This constant is referred to as Young’s Modulus for the metal
and is denoted “E” (for mild steel its value is approximately
21100 kg/mm2 or 21.1 tonnes/mm2).
 The yield stress for a metal corresponds to the stress at the
‘yield point’, that is the point at which the metal no longer
behaves elastically.
 Ultimate tensile stress is the maximum load to which the
metal is subjected, divided by the original cross-sectional
area.
 Beyond the yield point the metal behaves plastically.
Stress-Strain Curve

 The metal deforms at a greater, un-proportional rate when
the yield stress is exceeded, and will not return to its
original dimensions on removal of the load. It becomes
deformed or is often said to be permanently ‘set’.
 A ‘proof stress’ or ‘off-set yield point’ is quoted for the
material and this may be obtained by setting off on the base
some percentage of the strain, say 0.2 per cent, and drawing
a line parallel to the straight portion of curve.
 The inter-section of this line with the actual stress/
strain curve marks the proof stress.
Stress-Strain Curve

 The proof stress value is often mentioned in the material
properties for materials where a definite yield point is
difficult to determine. Eg; Aluminium or High Tensile
strength steel etc.
 The ship’s structure is designed for working stresses which
are within the elastic range and much lower than the
ultimate tensile strength of the material to allow a reasonable
factor of safety.
Aluminium Alloys

 There are three advantages which aluminium alloys have
over mild steel in the construction of ships.
 The principal advantage is its light weight compared to same
volume of steel.(aluminium 2.723 t/m3, mild steel 7.84 t/m3).
 With an aluminium structure it has been suggested that up
to 60% of the weight of a steel structure may be saved.
 This is a great advantage as far as merchant ships are
concerned.
 The other important advantage of aluminium is its corrosion
resistance compared to steel.
Aluminium Alloys

 Another important advantage is its nonmagnetic properties.
 Good corrosion properties can be utilized, but correct
maintenance procedures and careful insulation from the
adjoining steel structure are necessary.
 A major disadvantage of the use of aluminium alloys is their
high initial cost (this has been estimated at 8 to 10 times the
price of steel on a tonnage basis).
 This high initial cost must be offset by an increased earning
capacity of the vessel, resulting from a reduced lightship
weight or increased passenger accommodation on the
same draft.
Aluminium Alloys

 The total application of aluminium alloys to construct the
entire structure is not very popular in merchant ships.
 But complete aluminium structures are extensively used in
high speed crafts and small pleasure boats.
 A number of vessels have been fitted with superstructures of
aluminium alloy and, apart from the resulting reduction in
displacement, benefits have been obtained in improving the
transverse stability.
 Since the reduced weight of superstructure is at a position
above the ship’s centre of gravity this ensures a lower centre
of gravity than that obtained with a comparable steel
structure.
Aluminium Alloys

 Pure aluminium has a low tensile strength and is
of little use for structural purposes; therefore the pure metal
is alloyed with small percentages of other materials to give
greater tensile strengths.
 To make structural elements either heat treated or non-heat
treated aluminium alloys are used.
 Generally a suitable heat treatment is necessary to obtain a
high tensile strength.
Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium Alloys

 A heat treated aluminium alloy which is suitable for
shipbuilding purposes is one having as its main alloying
constituents magnesium and silicon.
 These form a compound Mg2Si and the resulting alloy has
very good resistance to corrosion and a higher ultimate
tensile strength than that of the non-heat treated alloys.
 Since the material is heat treated to achieve this increased
strength subsequent heating, for example welding or hot
forming, may destroy the improved properties locally.
Steel Terminology

 Iron Ore: Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic
iron can be economically extracted.
 The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in colour from
dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red.
 The iron itself is usually found in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4,
72.4% Fe), hematite (Fe2O3, 69.9% Fe), goethite (FeO(OH), 62.9%
Fe), limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)) or siderite (FeCO3, 48.2% Fe).
 Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of
the main raw materials to make steel.
 98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel.
Steel Terminology

 Pig Iron: This is the intermediate form of iron ore before it is
converted into steel.
 Pig iron is very high in Carbon content (3.5%-4.5%) and also very
brittle and hence have very limited application.
 The pig iron is indented for re-melting and further conditioning and
so the irregular shape or the inclusion of impurities do not cause
any problem.
 Steel: Steel is basically an alloy of iron containing upto 2.1%
carbon and/or other alloying elements like manganese, chromium,
nickel tungsten etc,.

Steel Terminology

 Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content
greater than 2%.
 Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the
amount ranging from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively.
 Cast iron is normally brittle.
 They have low melting point, good fluidity and cast ability.
 They can be machines and resists deformation.
 They extensively used for casting various machine components like
gear box casing, pipes, cylinder heads etc.
Steel Terminology

 Wrought Iron: Wrought iron is an alloy of iron with very low
content of carbon often less than 0.08%.
 Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and
easily welded.
 This type iron has very low commercial use now as is replaced with
mild steel.
 Mild Steel: Mild steel is iron alloy with carbon content from
0.05%-0.25%.
 Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and
easy to form.
Steel Terminology

 Carbon Steel: Carbon steel is steel with carbon content varying
from 0.12%-2.0%.
 The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel
which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include
alloy steels.
 As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to
become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it
becomes less ductile.
 Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces
weldability.
 In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
Steel Terminology

 Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon
content:
 Low-carbon steel: 0.05-0.25% carbon content.
 Medium-carbon steel: Approximately 0.3–0.6% carbon content.
Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for
large parts, forging and automotive components.
 High-carbon steel: Approximately 0.7–2.5% carbon content. Very
strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.
 Ultra-high-carbon steel: Approximately 2.5–3.0% carbon content.
Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special
purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most
steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder
metallurgy.
High Tensile Steel

 Steels having a higher strength than that of mild steel are employed
in the more highly stressed regions of large tankers, container ships
and bulk carriers.
 Use of higher strength steels allows reductions in thickness of deck,
bottom shell, and framing where fitted in the midships portion of
larger vessels; it does, however, lead to larger deflections.
 The weldability of higher tensile steels is an important
consideration in their application in ship structures and the question
of reduced fatigue life with these steels has been suggested.
High Tensile Steel

 Also, the effects of corrosion with lesser thicknesses of
plate and section may require more vigilant inspection.
 Higher tensile steels used for hull construction purposes are
manufactured and tested in accordance with Lloyd’s Register
requirements.
 These steels contain various alloying elements like Carbon, Silicon,
Manganese, Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Chromium, Nickel,
Molybdenum, Niobium, Vanadium, Nitrogen etc., to various
concentrations.
Use of Castings and Forgings
 Steel Castings:

 Molten steel produced by the open hearth, electric furnace,
or oxygen process is poured into a carefully constructed
mould and allowed to solidify to the shape required.
 After removal from the mould a heat treatment is
required, for example annealing, or normalizing and
tempering, to reduce brittleness.
 Stern frames, rudder frames, spectacle frames for bossings
(where more tan one propeller is employed), and other
structural components may be produced as castings.
 Steel Forgings:

 Forged metal parts can take more stress compared to the
same part made by other methods.
 Forging is a method of shaping a metal by heating it to a
temperature where it becomes more or less plastic and then
hammering or squeezing it to the required form.
 Forgings are manufactured from killed steel made by the
open hearth, electric furnace, or oxygen process, the steel
being in the form of ingots cast in chill moulds.
 Adequate top and bottom discards are made to ensure no
harmful segregations in the finished forgings and the sound
ingot is gradually and uniformly hot worked.

 Where possible the working of the metal is such that metal
flow is in the most favourable direction with regard to the
mode of stressing in service.
 Subsequent heat treatment is required, preferably annealing
or normalizing and tempering, to remove effects of working
and non-uniform cooling.
 Some of the typical parts made out of forging are IC Engine
crank shafts, connecting rods, rudder stock and various other
machinery parts.
Rimmed & Killed Steels

 Rimmed steels are produced when only small additions of
deoxidizing material are added to the molten metal.
 Only those steels having less than 0.2% carbon and less than
0.6% manganese can be rimmed.
 Owing to the absence of deoxidizing material, the oxygen in
the steel combines with the carbon and other gases present
and a large volume of gas is liberated.
 So long as the metal is molten the gas passes upwards
through the molten metal.
 When solidification takes place in ingot form, initially from
the sides and bottom and then across the top, the gases can
no longer leave the metal.

 In the central portion of the ingot a large quantity of gas is
trapped with the result that the core of the rimmed ingot is a
mass of blow holes.
 Normally the hot rolling of the ingot into thin sheet is
sufficient to weld the surfaces of the blow holes together, but
this material is unsuitable for thicker plate.

 The term ‘killed’ steel indicates that the metal has solidified
in the ingot mould with little or no evolution of gas.
 This has been prevented by the addition of sufficient
quantities of deoxidizing material, normally silicon or
aluminium.
 Steel of this type has a high degree of chemical homogeneity,
and killed steels are superior to rimmed steels.
 Where the process of de-oxidation is only partially carried
out by restricting the amount of deoxidizing material a
‘semi-killed’ steel is produced.
Heat Treatment of Steels

 The properties of steels may be altered greatly by the heat
treatment to which the steel is subsequently subjected.
 These heat treatments bring about a change in the
mechanical properties principally by modifying the steel’s
structure.
 The normal heat treatments which is employed in
shipbuilding materials are as described.
1. ANNEALING:
 For annealing the steel is heated to 850°C to 950°C, and then
cooled in the furnace at a predetrmined rate.

 The objects of annealing are to relieve any internal stresses,
to soften the steel, or to bring the steel to a condition suitable
for a subsequent heat treatment.
2. NORMALIZING:
 For Normalising the steel is first heated to 850 to 950OC and
then cooled slowly to a specific temperature and then
allowed it to cool in air.
 The resulting faster cooling rate produces a harder stronger
steel than annealing, and also refines the grain size.
3.

QUENCHING Or HARDENING
 Steel is heated to 850 to 950oC, and then quenched in water
or oil.
 The fast cooling rate produces a very hard structure with a
higher tensile strength.
4. TEMPERING:
 Quenched steels may be further heated to a temperature
between atmospheric and 680°C, and some alloy steels are
then cooled fairly rapidly by quenching in oil or water.

 The object of this treatment is to relieve the severe internal
stresses produced by the original hardening process and to
make the material less brittle but retain the higher tensile
stress.
5. STRESS RELIEVING:
 To relieve internal stresses the temperature of the
steel may be raised so that no structural change of the
material occurs and then it may be slowly cooled.
TESTING OF SHIP BUILDING
STEEL

 Ship construction materials are tested by classification
society approved labs to ensure that their strength, ductility,
and toughness are suitable for the function they are required
to perform.
 Only materials approved by the classification society can be
used for the ship construction.
 In comparing the strengths of various metals stresses and
strains are often referred to and require to be defined.
 Both mild steel and higher tensile steel plates and sections
built into a ship are to be produced at works approved by the
appropriate classification society.
STEEL

 During production an analysis of the material is required
and so are prescribed tests of the rolled metal.
 Similar analyses and tests are required by the classification
societies for steel forgings and steel castings, in order to
maintain an approved quality.
 Destructive tests are made on specimens obtained from the
same product as the finished material in accordance with the
societies’ requirements which may be found in the
appropriate rules.
 These tests usually take the form of a tensile test, and impact
test.
STEEL
 TENSILE TEST:

 A specimen of given dimensions being subject to an axial
pull and a minimum specified yield stress, ultimate tensile
stress, and elongation must be obtained.
 In order to make comparisons between the elongation of
tensile test pieces of the same material the test pieces must
have the same proportions of sectional area and gauge
length.
 Therefore a standard gauge length equal to 5.65 times the
square root of the cross-sectional area, which is equivalent
to a gauge length of five times the diameter is adopted by the
major classification societies.
STEEL

STEEL
 IMPACT TESTS:

 There are several forms of impact test, but the Charpy V
notch test or Charpy U notch test is commonly
 The object of the impact test is to determine the toughness of
the material, that is its ability to withstand fracture under
shock loading.
 The is placed on an anvil and the pendulum is allowed to
swing so that the striker hits the specimen opposite the notch
and fractures it.
 Energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen is automatically
recorded by the machine.
STEEL

STEEL

STEEL

 Basically, making allowances for friction, the energy
absorbed in fracturing the specimen is the difference
between the potential energy the pendulum possesses before
being released, and that which it attains in swinging past the
vertical after fracturing the specimen.
 A minimum specified average impact energy for the
specimens tested must be obtained at the specified test
temperature, fracture energy being dependent on
temperature.
Various tests for welds

MANUFACTURING
AND TESTING OF
SHIP BUILDING
STEEL
GRADING AND STAMPINGOF
SHIP BUILDING STEEL

 Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel
containing 0.15-0.23% carbon and reasonably high
manganese content.
 Sulphur and phosphorus in steel should be kept to a level
below 0.05% as at higher concentrations the welding
properties and rolling ability will be drastically affected.
 Steel for the ship construction has to be certified by the
classification society and will be marked with societies brand
and other particulars.
 Originally ship classification societies had varying
specifications for steel.
SHIP BUILDING STEEL

 In 1959, the major societies agreed to standardize their
requirements in order to reduce the required grades of steel
to a minimum.
 There are now five different qualities of steel employed in
merchant ship construction often referred to as IACS steels.
 These are graded A, B, C, D and E.
 Grade-A is an ordinary mild steel to Lloyd’s Register
requirements and generally used in shipbuilding.
 Grade B is a better quality mild steel than Grade A and
specified where thicker plates are required in the more
critical regions.
SHIP BUILDING STEEL

 Grades C, D and E possess increasing notch-touch
characteristics, Grade C being to American Bureau
of Shipping requirements.
 Once the classification analysis is completed for the
structural steel the respective grade of steel will be stamped.
 Grade E shipbuilding steel plate specification:
Thickness: 6mm-200mm, Width: 1500mm-4000mm, Length:
6000mm-180000mm
GRADES OF STEEL
Sl. Structural Member Steel Grade Requirement
No
1 Sheer Strake or Rounded Gunwale
over 40% length amidships in ships
 Grade-D where thickness <15mm. Grade-
E>15mm.
exceeding 250m in length.
2 Sheer Strake or Rounded Gunwale Grade-A where thickness<15mm.
over 40% length amidships in ships Grade-B where thickness is 15-20mm.
<250m length. Bilge strake (other Grade-D where thickness is 20-25mm.
than for vessels of length<150m Grade-E >25mm.
with double bottom over full
breadth).
3 Bottom plating including keel. Grade-A where thickness<20mm.
Bilge strake(ships of less than 150m Grade-B where thickness is 20-25mm.
and with double bottom over full Grade-D where thickness is 25-40mm.
breadth) Grade-E where thickness>40mm.
4 Side Plating Grade-A where thickness<30mm.
Grade-B where thickness is 30-40mm.
Grade-D where thickness is> 40mm.
Corrosion Control in Aluminium-
Steel Combinations

 When two dissimilar metals are immersed in a common electrolyte
a corrosion cell will be formed.
 The more anodic material will then be corroded.
 When aluminium and steel combinations are considered aluminium
is ore anodic than steel and hence aluminium will get corroded.
 By preventing the formation of these corrosion cells the aluminium
structure can be protected.
 This is normally achieved by sealing any crevices in the joints by
using some sealing agents.
 Another method is by using explosion bonding between aluminium
and steel structures so that no crevices are available for sea water to
enter.
Corrosion Control in Aluminium-
Steel Combinations

Fire Protection When Using
Aluminium

 Apart from corrosion protection when using aluminium alloys, fire
protection is also an important point to consider because of low
melting point of aluminium alloys (Steel~1300oC & Aluminium ~
660oC).
 So during an event of fire the temperature reached may be
sufficient enough to cause collapse of the structure unless
additional insulation is provided.
 For passenger ships the insulation requirements should be sufficient
enough to make aluminium bulkheads to withstand temperature
equivalent for steel bulk heads.
Ship Yard Practice

 The modern ship yards are so designed to achieve:
 Shortest possible building cycle
 Uniform work load
 Economy in construction.
 These are obtained by having a layout that lends itself to an easy
flow of materials from one productive process to another with
elimination of bottlenecks.
 An ideal layout for a modern shipyard is based on a production
flow basis, with the yard extending back from the river or shore at
which the berths or building dock are located.
Ship Yard Practice

 The farthest area from the berths is reserved for the material
stockyard, and between the two are arranged in sequence the
consecutive work and shop processes.
 When the ship yards are designed the following points are to be
planned in advance viz;:
 Size and type of ship to be built.
 Material production per year to be achieved.
 Material handling equipment to be supplied.
 Machining processes to be installed.
 Unit size and weight to be fabricated and erected.
 Amount of outfit and engine installation to be undertaken.
 Administration facilities required.


Ship Yard Practice

 Shipyards usually have a fitting out basin or berth where the
virtually completed ship is tied up after launching and the finishing
off work is completed.
 This is provided with adequate crane reach and the outfitting and
machinery shops are usually adjacent to it.
 With the major part of the outfit and machinery now being installed
in modular or other form during the hull and house fabrication cycle,
this feature of the yard now has less significance.
 An idealized lay out of the ship yard is shown in the figure below.
 This layout is suitable for large as well as small ships.
 The ship construction can be carried out in building berths or docks.



Ship Yard Practice

 Building docks can be of advantage in the building of large vessels
where launching costs are high, and there is a possibility of structural
damage owing to the large stresses imposed by a conventional
launch.
 They also give good crane clearance for positioning units.
 The greatest disadvantage of the building dock is its high initial cost.
 Many yard re-constructions have incorporated undercover
construction facilities in the form of docks or slipways within
building halls.
 Others have building halls at the head of the slipway with advanced
transfer systems installed so that the hull can be extruded out of the
hall onto the slipway for launching.
Ship Yard Practice

 Such facilities permit ship construction in a factory type
environment providing protection from the worst effects of weather
and darkness.
Lines Plans

 The lines plan is a drawing, to a suitable scale, of the moulded lines
of the vessel in plan, profile, and section.
 If the ship’s hull is cut by imaginary parallel planes at different
sections, each sectional plane intersection will be represented by a
line diagram.
 The point of intersection of these planes with the hull results in a
series of lines that are projected onto a single plane located on the
front, top, or side of the ship.
 This results in three separate projections, or views, called the Body
Plan, the Half-Breadth Plan, and the Sheer Plan.
Body Plan

 Planes parallel to the front and back are called stations.
 Transverse sections of the vessel at equally spaced stations
between the after and forward perpendiculars are drawn to
form what is known as the body plan.
 Usually ten equally spaced sections are selected with half
ordinates at the ends where a greater change of shape occurs.
 The station midway between the perpendiculars is called the
midships stations.
 A half transverse section only is drawn since the vessel is
symmetrical about the centre line, and forward half sections
are drawn to the right of the centre line with aft half sections
to the left.
Body Plan

Half-Breadth Plan

 The bottom of the ship is a reference plane called the base
plane.
 The base plane is usually level with the keel.
 A series of planes parallel and above the base plan are
imagined at regular intervals, usually at every meter.
 Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a line at the
points of intersection.
 These lines are called waterlines and are all projected onto a
single plane called the Half-Breadth Plan.
 Each waterlines shows the true shape of the hull from the top
view for some elevation above the base plane.
Half-Breadth Plan
 The bottom of the ship is a

reference plane called the
base plane.
 The base plane is usually
level with the keel.
 A series of planes parallel
and above the base plan are
imagined at regular
intervals, usually at every
meter.
Half-Breadth Plan

 Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a line at the
points of intersection.
 These lines are called waterlines and are all projected onto a
single plane called the Half-Breadth Plan.
 Each waterlines shows the true shape of the hull from the top
view for some elevation above the base plane.
 Since ships are symmetric about their centerline they only
need be drawn for the starboard or port side, thus the name
Half-Breadth Plan.
Sheer Plan

 A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the
center of the ship and parallel to the sides is called the
centerline plane.
 A series of planes parallel to one side of the centerline plane
are imagined at regular intervals from the centerline.
 Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved
line at the points of intersection.
 These lines are called buttock or butt lines and are projected
onto a single plane called the Sheer Plan.
 Each buttock line shows the true shape of the hull from the
side view for some distance from the centerline of the ship.
Sheer Plan

 The centerline plane shows a special butt line called the
profile of the ship.
Wire Frame Modelling

 Wireframing is one of the methods used in geometric modelling
systems.
 A wireframe model represents the shape of a solid object with its
characteristic lines and points.
 Wireframe models are used during ship design to define complex
profile of the ship’s hull.
 In modern ship design the wire modelling is done with help of
computer software like Computer Aided Design (CAD).
 By this the 3-D model of the ship’s hull can be visualized by the
design during the design stage.


 Wire frame modelling enables the ship designer to analyse the
minute details of the ship’s hull.
 Once the line fairing is completed the final body plans will be
prepared.
 The advantages of wire frame modelling is that the ship hulls form
can be visualised in 3-D form and fairing of the shape can be
achieved.
 This enables the shipyard to construct vessel with least deviations
from the envisaged design.
Hidden Line Removal

 Solid objects are usually modelled by polyhedra in a computer
representation.
 A face of a polyhedron is a planar polygon bounded by straight line
segments, called edges.
 Curved surfaces are usually approximated by a polygon mesh.
 Computer programs for line drawings of opaque objects must be
able to decide which edges or which parts of the edges are hidden
by an object itself or by other objects.
 This problem is known as hidden line removal.
 This is done during Computer Aided Design (CAD) used for ship
design.
Rendering

 Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of
generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D
or 3D model by means of computer programs.
 The wire frame model gives only a skeleton view of the image
where as after rendering the ship’s model can be seen as a solid
object as it would be seen after complete construction.
 After rendering is completed the image can be animated to show
views from different angles.
 Where precise features are required like lighting, appearance etc as
for luxury passenger ships, rendering helps in achieving the desired
results.
Standard Fire Test

 The products for installation in ships flying the flag of the flag State
shall be tested and approved by the respective flag state as per the
Fire Test Procedure Code.
 The tests shall be carried out in testing laboratories recognized by
the Administrations concerned.
 The Administration may authorize competent authorities to issue
approvals on their behalf.
 The approval shall be valid when the product is installed on board a
ship.
Standard Fire Test

 Standard Fire Test: The standard fire test referred to is a test
in which a specimen of the division with a surface area of not
less than 4.65sq.m and height or length of 2.44m is exposed
in a test furnace to a series of time-temperature relationships,
defined by a smooth curve drawn through the following
points.
Time Temp:
At end of first 5 minutes 538°C
Standard Fire Test

 Some typical examples of fire divisions are given below for a
passenger ship carrying more than thirty-six passengers.
Bulkhead Adjacent compartments Class
Main fire zone Galley/passageway A-60
Main fire zone Wheelhouse/passageway A-30
Within fire Fan room/stairway A-15

zone
Within fire Cabin/passageway (non-sprinklered zone) B-15
zone
Within fire Cabin/passageway (sprinklered zone) B-0
zone
MMD Questions


 Sketch and label Mid-ship section of a hatch coverless cellular
container ship.
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of such ship over
normal container ships.
 Describe the following and support with sketches where
necessary:
 Stress-Strain graph of Mild steel
 Grades of steel
 Venting arrangement requirements for oil tankers as per
SOLAS.
MMD Questions

 Sketch the midship section of membrane type LNG Carrier.

 Explain the erection sequence in shipyard practice in ship
construction
 Describe the use of computers in ship building
 Describe the tests carried out on steels used for ship
construction.

 Draw the midship section of a double hull oil tanker.
 Discuss advantages and disadvantages of such construction
over the traditional single hull oil tankers.
MMD Questions


 Briefly describe the sequence of events that take place in a
modern shipyard with a flow chart.
 Explain how frames are bent.
 Sketch and describe the midship section of a LNG carrier.
 Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using high tensile
steel in shipbuilding. Draw stress-strain graph for Mild steel
and High tensile steel.
 Define the following w.r.t Chapter II/2 of SOLAS:
 Standard fire test
 ‘A’ Class Division
 Service spaces
MMD Questions

 Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a double hull tanker
and describe its salient features.
 Sketch, label and describe the midship section of a cellular
container ship.
 With the aid of a sketch, describe the impact test conducted
on a metal.
 Define:
 Elongation
 Creep
 Yield point
 With the help of a neat diagram describe one destructive test
for steel.
MMD Questions

 Sketch and label midship section of any gas carrier and
discuss the main features of such ship w.r.t ship
construction.
 Write short notes on:
 Body plan
 Impact test on metal
 Standard fire test
 Grades of steel
 Draw the midship section of a bulk carrier and label all parts.
 Write short notes on gas welding
 Sketch and label a compositely framed bulk carrier.
MMD Questions
 Define:

 Elongation
 Creep
 Plastic deformation
 Yield point
 Describe a badly dented plate can be faired on board ship.
 Explain the meanings of the following terms used in ship
repairing yards with one example for each: Crop and renew,
Insert, Doublers, Tack weld, Spot weld.
 Sketch and label midship section of a spherical type gas
carrier and enumerate the special features of these ships.
MMD Questions

 Make a sketch of the midship section of a double skin bulk
carrier. What are the main features which ensure that it is
strengthened for the carriage of high density cargoes.
 Give examples of locations on the ship where castings and
forgings are used in ship construction.
 Explain the advantages of using aluminium alloys in
construction of super structures.
 Explain the process of connecting aluminium superstructure
to steel deck and hull of the ship.
 Draw the midship section of a cellular container vessel.
Sketch and describe the arrangement of cell guides in the
cargo hold.
MMD Questions

 How is brittle fracture different from ductile fracture?
Elaborate on grounds of temperature, thickness, superficial
appearance, speed of propagation, type of steel used to with
stand and tests used to evaluate the above.
 Explain annealing, ductility and fatigue.
 Describe fire integrity requirements for ventilation systems
 Describe the use of computers in ship building
 Describe body plan, sheer plan, half breadth plan and their
uses.
 What parts of a ship counteract sagging, hogging, racking
and grounding stresses?
MMD Questions

 Describe with help of neat diagrams the following tests:
Tensile test, Bend test, Hardness test.
 Sketch and label midship section of a Ro-Ro vessel.
 What was the traditional method of building a ship? In what
ways is the prefabrication different from earlier method?
What are the advantages of prefabrication?
 Define the following w.r.t Chapter-II/2 of SOLAS as
amended: Central control station, ‘C’ Class division, Service
spaces, Main Vertical zones.
 Sketch and label mid ship section of LPG vessel and write
down five features of these ships.
MMD Questions

 Explain significance different grades of steel for ship
building.
 Briefly describe methods of corrosion control at joint of steel
hull with aluminium superstructure.
 Write short notes on following:
 Functional requirements of fire protection and detection
 ‘A’ class subdivision
 Sprinkler type fixed fire extinguishing system
 Explain the following w.r.t properties and treatment of steel:
Malleability, Ductility, Elasticity, Annealing, Hardening.
MMD Questions

 What is a wire frame model? What are its benefits when used
in hidden line removal and rendering applications? What is
the input data required to prepare the wireframe model for a
new ship being built?
 Explain the purpose of the secondary barrier in gas tankers.
 Explain how a wire frame model in modern ship yard
practice helps in achieving the advantages of plate nesting
and prefabrication.
 Write a short note on management of a steel stockyard.
 Write short notes on any three of the following: Limitation in
the use of oil as fuel, standard fire test, Non-combustible
material, Types of bulkheads, Special category spaces.
LLC66
Load Lines Syllabus

 Brief Outline of Load Line  Minimum Bow Height
Convention:  Factor of Subdivision
 Explain:  Garboard and Sheer
 Conditions of Assignment Strake
of Freeboard  Explain:
 Define:  Multiple Load Lines
 Margin Line  Type-A & B Ships
 Forward and Aft  List:
Perpendiculars  Items to be inspected
 LBP during Annual, Periodical
 Subdivision Load Lines and Renewal Surveys
Load Lines Introduction

 The first 19th century loading recommendations were
introduced by London-based Lloyd's Register of British and
Foreign Shipping in 1835, following discussions between
ship-owners, shippers and underwriters.
 Lloyd's Register recommended freeboards as a function of
the depth of the hold (three inches per foot of depth) and
these recommendations, used extensively until 1880, became
known as "Lloyd's Rule".
 However, the Rule only applied to ships registered with
Lloyd's.

 Concern in the United Kingdom about the growing number
of ship losses led to the appointment of a Royal committee
which in 1836 cited bad design and improper building - but
not overloading - as contributory factors to the
unseaworthiness of ships.
 However, the United Kingdom Government passed a law in
1850 setting up the Marine Department of the Board of
Trade, to enforce application of laws governing manning,
crew competence and operation of merchant vessels.
 In those days, seafarers themselves had little say in the
safety standards aboard.

 Until 1871, it was actually illegal for seafarers to refuse to go
to sea, even on the grounds that the ship they were sailing
on was unseaworthy.
 In 1866 four successive crews refused to serve on a ship
called the Harkaway on the understandable grounds that
even at anchor in a calm sea the ship took on more than one
meter of water a day.
 They were sent to prison.
 In the 1860s, calls for regulations to limit overloading on
ships were growing in the United Kingdom.

 Meanwhile, a coal dealer and liberal Member of Parliament,
Samuel Plimsoll, took up the load line cause.
 Plimsoll began a battle to try and get merchant shipping
laws reformed - against stiff opposition from a minority of
shipowners.
 A Royal commission on Unseaworthy Ships was set up in
1872 and finally the United Kingdom Merchant Shipping
Act of 1876 made load lines compulsory.
 The load line mark included in the legislation - though the
position of the line was not fixed by law until 1894 - became
known as the "Plimsoll Line": a circle with a horizontal line
through the middle.

 Figures on ship casualties probably helped to goad the
British parliamentarians into action: in the year 1873-74,
around the coastline of the United Kingdom, 411 ships sank,
with the loss of 506 lives.
 But this figure only covers the United Kingdom coastline:
between 1867 and 1882, loss of life in British vessels alone
(and excluding fishing vessels) totalled 33,427 seafarers and
5,987 passengers. Ships lost numbered 16,393.
 In 1906, laws were passed requiring foreign ships visiting
British ports to be marked with a load line, while a German
law of 1903 also issued freeboard regulations, spreading the
regulatory net further.

 Load line legislation was introduced in the American
congress in 1920 and failed, but a Load Line Act was passed
in the United States in 1929.
 By that time, there was a proliferation of different freeboard
rules in use by various marine administrations and
classification societies, which meant there was a lack of
global standardization.
 The first international conference on load line regulations
was envisaged for 1913, but the approaching war meant this
planned conference was never held.

 In 1922, however, the British Chamber of Shipping
sponsored a conference, which adopted recommendations
derived from studies on existing regulations elsewhere, with
a view to eventually adopting them as international
regulations.
 Further preparatory work by the major maritime nations of
the time resulted in an international conference held in
London in 1930 - which adopted the first International Load
Line Convention.
 The rules adopted at the conference were not based on
exact scientific principles.

 The 1930 LL Convention was based on the principle of
reserve buoyancy, although it was recognized then that the
freeboard should also ensure adequate stability and avoid
excessive stress on the ship's hull as a result of overloading.
 The rules covered superstructure evaluations, freeboards
and strength standards.
 The minimum freeboard was designed to provide a
standard of "reserve buoyancy”, while the protection of
openings in the hull and superstructures, such as hatches,
ventilators, air pipes, scuppers, overhead discharges and the
access openings in the end bulkhead of superstructures were
an important consideration in the assignment of freeboard.

 Another major concern was the protection for the crew by
consideration of the strength of gangways, guard rails,
lifelines and the height of the working platform itself.
 The calculated freeboard was the basic minimum summer
freeboard in salt water.
 The regulations divided the world into different
geographical/seasonal zones, with different load lines for
each - in recognition of the fact that sea and weather
conditions vary greatly in different sea areas and in
different seasons of the year.

 Special rules were provided for tankers and for the carriage
of timber deck cargo.
 The 1930 load Line Convention was an important step in
establishing universally applicable rules.
 However, the decades following the adoption of the 1930
Convention saw developments in ship design and methods
of construction which began to make the 1930 Convention
rules look outdated.
 Ships, especially tankers, grew considerably in size;
specialized ship designs to meet different trades were
becoming prevalent.

 Machinery spaces in dry cargo ships were being located
away from the traditional midships position; metal
hatchway covers were replacing wooden ones; and welding
was replacing riveting.
 There was general agreement that the 1930 Convention
needed revision, in particular in the sections concerning
aspects relating to ship design and construction.
As a result, maritime nations planned a conference to
adopt a revised Convention.
 In the meantime, the International Maritime
Organization(IMO) had come into being and was clearly the
right Organization to host the proposed conference.
Load Lines Time Line

 1835, Lloyd's Register introduced recommendations
(3”/Foot draught rule) following discussions between ship-
owners, shippers and underwriters.
 In 1894 the load line mark included in the legislation by U.K.
known as the "Plimsoll Line“ for U.K. flag ships.
 In 1906, laws were passed requiring foreign ships visiting
British ports to be marked with a load line.
 Load Line Act was passed in the United States in 1929.
 In 1930 the first International Load Line Convention was
adopted.
based only on the principle of
 The 1930 LL Convention was
reserve buoyancy.
 As the technology developed there was general agreement
that the 1930 LL Convention needed revision.
 1958 IMCO came into force.
 On 5th April-1966 revised Load Line Convention was
adopted in IMCO.
 The ICLL 1966 came into force on 21st July 1968.
 Various amendments were adopted in 1971, 1975, 1979, and 1983
but never came into force.

 The 1988 Protocol, adopted in November 1988, entered into
force on 3rd February 2000.
 The 1988 Protocol revised certain regulations in the technical
Annexes to the Load Lines Convention and introduced the tacit
amendment procedure, so that amendments adopted will enter into
force six months after the deemed date of acceptance unless
they are rejected by one-third of Parties.
 Usually, the date from adoption to deemed acceptance is two
years.
International Convention on
Load Lines (IMO)

 Purpose: To limit the draft to which ship may be loaded and
hence increase safety.
 These limits are given in the form of freeboards.
 The free board requirements took into consideration:
 adequate stability, and
 excessive stress on the ship's hull as a result of overloading.
 In IMO Load Lines convention, provisions are made for
determining the freeboard of ships by subdivision and damage
stability calculations.
International Convention
on Load Lines

 The Load Line regulations take into account the potential hazards
present in different zones and different seasons.
 The technical annex contains several additional safety measures
concerning doors, freeing ports, hatchways and other items.
 The main purpose of these measures is to ensure the watertight
integrity of ships' hulls below the freeboard deck.
 All assigned load lines must be marked amidships on each side of
the ship, together with the deck line.
 Ships intended for the carriage of timber deck cargo are assigned a
smaller freeboard as the deck cargo provides protection against the
impact of waves.
on Load Lines

 The Convention includes three annexes.
 Annex I is divided into four Chapters:
 Chapter I - General;
 Chapter II - Conditions of assignment of freeboard;
 Chapter III - Freeboards;
 Chapter IV - Special requirements for ships assigned timber freeboards.
 Annex II covers Zones, areas and seasonal periods.
 Annex III contains certificates, including the International Load Line
Certificate.
on Load Lines

 Various amendments were adopted in 1971, 1975, 1979, and 1983
but they required positive acceptance by two-thirds of Parties and
never came into force.
 The 1988 Protocol, adopted in November 1988, entered into force
on 3rd February 2000.
 The 1988 Protocol revised certain regulations in the technical
Annexes to the Load Lines Convention and introduced the tacit
amendment procedure, so that amendments adopted will enter into
force six months after the deemed date of acceptance unless
they are rejected by one-third of Parties.
 Usually, the date from adoption to deemed acceptance is two
years.
on Load Lines

 General Principles:
 Structural Strength: As the draft of the vessel increase the
stresses acting on the ship’s hull will increase.
 So a ship with deeper draft requires more free board than a ship
with less free board.
 Deck Height: Height of the weather deck above the water line is a
measure of vessels performance at high seas.
 Hull Form: A ship with high free board at bow and stern
compared to mid ship will be having more reserve buoyancy.
 Length: A long ship with certain free board will be having lesser
reserve buoyancy compared to small ship with same free board.
on Load Lines

 Type of Vessel and Cargo: Tankers and Timber carrying ships
with buoyant cargoes require less freeboard than a passenger liner
or a container ship.
 Seasons and Zones: Weather conditions normally encountered
along a ship’s trade route affects the seaworthiness.
 Ships sailing in North Atlantic in winter are exposed to much more
severe conditions than a ship sailing around South Seas.
on Load Lines

 Standard Damage:
 Vertical extent: from the base line, without upper limits
 Transversal extent: Min B/5 or 11.5 m which ever is less.
 Longitudinal extent: A single compartment, if the
longitudinal internal boundary of the compartment is not
inside the transversal extent.
 This criteria is further scrutinised in tanker design and extend of
assumed damage is determined according to the length of the ship.
 But always the extend of assumed damage will be more than the
minimum prescribed in the load line convention.
CONDITION OF ASSIGNMENT AND
ITS PERIODIC INSPECTION

 CONDITION OF ASSIGNMENT:
 These are the conditions which must be met before free
board is assigned to a ship and load line certificate is issued
following a load line survey.
 Free boards are computed assuming ship to be a completely
enclosed and watertight/ weather tight envelop.
 The convention then goes onto recognize the practical need
for opening in the ship and prescribes means of protection and
closure of such openings.

 These are called condition of assignment, since the
assignment of computed free board is conditional upon the
prescribed means of protection and closure of openings such
as hatchways, doorways, ventilation, air pipes, scuppers etc.
 Following are the conditions which must be met before
assigning the load line :-
1. Enough structural strength should be possessed.
2. Enough reserve buoyancy should be possessed
3. Safety and protection of crew.
4. Prevent entry of water into hull

 Ships are to surveyed annually to ensure that they fulfil the
condition of assignment.
 Most of the condition of assignment are concerned with the
water tight integrity of the ship.
 Hull construction should meet the highest standard laid down
by the classification society.
 This ensures protection against flooding of the ship.
 The superstructure and the bulkheads must be strengthened
sufficiently.

 Some of the condition of assignment which contribute towards
water tight integrity are:-
1. Hatchways
2. Machinery space openings
3. Details of opening in free board
4. Details of opening in super structure deck
5. ventilators
6. Cargo ports
7. Air pipes
8. Scuppers
9. Side scuttles
10. Inlets and discharges

 All of the above parameters ensures watertight integrity and
protection against flooding of compartment.
 If above are not watertight then during rough weather water
can enter into the areas below main deck leading to
progressive or down flooding causing to reduce the free board.
 So, condition of assignment very much contributes towards
water integrity of the ship.
 Also if green sea effect is not reduced and water is being
accumulated on the deck , it can cause free board to reduce
and add free surface effect.

 In rough weather if any longitudinal or transverse girder give way it
can cause structural failure and below main deck may be flooded.
 Because of this, coaming height of hatchways, height of sounding
pipes and vent pipes are prescribed in load line rules.
 Periodic inspections are carried out to ensure that ship condition are
such that above mentioned items are maintained in good order.
 No material alterations shall be done to the hull and super
structures, without prior permission of the assigning authority and
this will be verified during periodic survey.
 This can be found out by reviewing the records of condition of
assignment.

 Some of items which may no longer fulfil the conditions:
 Coaming of hatches, ventilators, air pipes -- corrosion especially at
weather deck level.
 Gangways, rails, bulwarks --- damaged or not properly secured,
which can hamper the safety of crew.
 In engine room ship side valves and stub pieces can get corroded
and thinned down with time, so they need periodic inspection.
 Sealing arrangements of closing devices which are made of
neoprene as they become hard with time and needs renewal.
 Corrosion reduces resilience of locking arrangement.
Definitions

 Margin Line: Imaginary line that is defined to be 3 inches (76mm)
below bulkhead deck.
 After perpendicular (AP): Aft perpendicular is the perpendicular
line drawn to the water line at the point where the aft side of the
rudder post meets summer load line. Where there is no rudderpost
is fitted, the line is drawn through the centerline of the rudder stock.
 Forward Perpendicular (FP): Forward perpendicular is the line
drawn to the water line at the where the foreside of the stem meets
the summer load line.
 Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP): This is the length
between the aft and forward perpendiculars measured along the
summer load line.
Definitions

Subdivision Load Lines

Passenger ships having spaces which are adapted for the
accommodation of passengers and the carriage of cargo
alternatively may have one or more additional load line
marks corresponding to the subdivision drafts approved
for the alternative conditions.
These marks show C1 for the principal passenger
condition, and C2, C3, etc., for the alternative conditions,
however in no case shall any subdivision load line mark
be placed above the deepest load line in salt water.

The freeboard corresponding to each of these load lines
shall be measured at the same position and from the same
deck line as the freeboards determined in accordance with
the International Convention on Load Lines in force.
The freeboard corresponding to each approved
subdivision load line and the conditions of service for
which it is approved, shall be clearly indicated on the
Passenger Ship Safety Certificate.


In no case shall any subdivision load line mark be placed
above the deepest load line in salt water as determined by
the strength of the ship or the International Convention on
Load Lines in force.
A ship shall in no case be loaded so as to submerge the
load line mark appropriate to the season and locality as
determined in accordance with the International
Convention on Load Lines in force.

A ship shall in no case be so loaded that when it is in salt
water the subdivision load line mark appropriate to the
particular voyage and condition of service is submerged.
Factor of Subdivision

Watertight bulkheads divide the ships’ space into sections
to contain the flooding to minimum number of spaces.
Number of watertight spaces are calculated by floodable
length.
Floodable length calculations are required to ensure that
there is sufficient longitudinal stability to prevent the ship
from plunging.
As per the load line convention the minimum free board
is prescribed to accommodate the damages and
subsequent loss of buoyancy.

 In this regard the bulkhead deck is the upper most weather
deck upto which transverse bulkheads are carried.

Ships are to be as efficiently subdivided as possible
having regard to the nature of the service for which they
are intended.
The degree of subdivision is to vary with the length of the
ship and with the service.
The highest degree of subdivision corresponds with the
ships of greatest length, primarily engaged in the carriage
of passengers.

Margin line is a line at least 76mm (3 inches) below the
upper surface of the bulkhead deck at side.
Floodable length at any point in the length of a ship is the
length, that point as the centre, which can be flooded
without immersing any part of the margin line when the
ship has no list.
Formulae are given in load line rules for calculation of a
factor of a subdivision which must be applied to the
floodable length calculations.





From the previous figures it is clear that the floodable
length varies along the ship’s length.
The factor of subdivision is to depend on the length L of
the ship, and for a given length is to vary according to the
nature of the service for which the ship is intended.
Broadly, the factor of subdivision ensures that one, two,
or three compartments must be flooded before the margin
line is immersed.

The ships which achieve these standards are called as one,
two or three compartment ships respectively.
Very small ships would be expected to have a one
compartment and large passenger ships a three
compartment standard.
The maximum permissible length of a compartment is
obtained by multiplying the floodable length by the factor
of subdivision.





 The ship on the left
has compart triangle
above the floodable
length when two
adjacent
compartments are
simultaneously
flooded.
 So this ship is a single
compartment ship.

The factor of subdivision depends upon the length of the
ship and a criterion of service numeral or more simply
criterion numeral.
The step by step procedure for calculation of floodable
length is as given below:
1. Define bulkhead deck and margin line
2. Calculate the factor of subdivision
3. Calculate permeabilities
4. Assess floodable length
5. Plot permissible lengths.

That is, compartment standard is the inverse of the factor
of subdivision that is, with the increase in length of the
ship the factor of subdivision decreases and is lower for
passenger ships than cargo ships.
The above method of calculation is based only on the
floodable length and factor of subdivision etc.
But during the actual scenario of an accident involving
breach of hull, the location of the damage extend of
damage cannot be predicted precisely.

So to address this unknown factor in 2009 SOLAS has
recommended Probabilistic Damage Assessment.
Depending on the location of the damage extend of the
bilging and hence the stability of the vessel will be
affected.


Probabilistic Damage Assessment

While evaluating the probabilistic damage assessment to
calculate the survivability, the following points are taken
into consideration:
 How are ships damaged?
 How often does each type damage happen?
 What are the chances of survival for each type of damage?




 From the afore mentioned data the Attained
Subdivision Index-A is calculated by the following
equation;
 A = Probability of surviving one compartment
flooding + Probability of surviving two
compartment flooding + Probability of surviving
three compartment flooding + etc.
 Attained Subdivision Index “A” must be less than
the required factor of subdivision.

That is :
The probability of ship’s
survival > The minimum
probability of survival from
rules and regulations.
Criterion of Service

The criterion of service is a numeral intended to express
the degree to which a vessel is a passenger vessel.
In principle, a numeral of 23 corresponds to a vessel
engaged primarily in carrying cargo, with
accommodations for a small number of passengers, while
a numeral of 123 is intended to apply to a vessel engaged
solely, or very nearly so, in the carriage of passengers

This numeral represents the criterion of service of the
ship and takes account of the number of passengers, the
volumes of the machinery and accommodation spaces and
the total ship volume.
It decreases in a regular and continuous manner with the
ship length and factors related to whether the ship carries
predominantly cargo or passengers.
 The criterion numeral for ships shall be determined by the following
formulae:-
72 𝑀+2𝑃1
 When P1 is greater than P, 𝐶𝑠 = . Where;
𝑉+𝑃1−𝑃
 𝑃1 = 0.056. 𝐿. 𝑁
 P=The volume of passengers and crew spaces below margin line.
 Cs = the criterion numeral;
 L = the length of the ship (metres)
 V = the volume of ship below the margin line;
 N = number of passengers for which the ship is certified
 M = the volume of the machinery space with the addition of the volume of
any permanent oil fuel bunkers which may be situated above the inner
bottom and before or abaft the machinery space;
72 𝑀+2𝑃
 In all other cases 𝐶𝑠 = .
𝑉
Calculation Procedure for Free Board

 Obtain the tabular freeboard (Regulation 28)
 The ship’s tabular freeboard for the ship’s length (L) is obtained
from the table.
 The tabular freeboard is the freeboard that would be assigned to a
standard ship built to the highest recognised standard and having
five specific characteristics as follows:
 a block coefficient of 0.68;
 a length to depth ratio of 15 i.e. L/D = 15;
 no superstructure;
 a minimum bow height above the load waterline as prescribed by
formulae (depending on Cb and length of ship);
Tabular Free Board For Type-A ship
Tabular Free Board For Type-A ship

 a parabolic sheer of the freeboard deck attaining a particular height at
the forward and after perpendiculars as prescribed by formulae
(depending on the length of the ship).
 Correction for block coefficient (Regulation 30)
 The standard ship has a block coefficient of 0.68.
 If Cb is greater than this the freeboard must be increased.
𝐶𝑏+0.68
 Correction factor =𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 ×
1.36
 A larger Cb causes an increase in the underwater volume, so
freeboard must be increased in order that the reserve
buoyancy amounts to the same percentage of the greater
displaced volume as it would have been had Cb been 0.68.


 Correction for depth (Regulation 31): The standard ship has a
L/D ratio of 15.
 If the L/D ratio is less than 15, which is usually the case, the
freeboard is increased.
 If the L/D ratio is greater than 15 then the freeboard may be
decreased provided that the ship has an enclosed
superstructure covering at least 0.6L amidships, a complete
trunk or a combination of detached enclosed superstructures
and trunks which extend all fore and aft.
 In the figure shown Ship 1 would experience greater sinkage
and loss of freeboard than Ship 2, since in each case, the
volume of buoyancy that has been lost must be regained by
the remaining intact parts of the hull.


 Correction for position of deck line (Regulation 32)
 If the actual depth to the upper edge of the deck line is
greater or less than the depth for freeboard (D), the
difference if greater, shall be added to, or if less shall be
deducted from, the freeboard.

 Correction for superstructure and trunks (Regulations 33 to
37): The standard ship has no superstructure.
 Enclosed superstructures of a significant height are
important in providing reserve buoyancy above the
freeboard deck.
 Freeboard deductions are allowed for effective enclosed
superstructure length as a proportion of the ship’s freeboard
length.
 The deduction in freeboard allowed is determined by a
number of formulae and tables.
Calculation Procedure for Free
Board

 Regulation 36 allows the reserve buoyancy of trunks to be taken

into consideration also.
 Although not precisely defined in the regulations, a trunk may be
regarded as a structure having equivalent bulkhead strength as that
of a superstructure that opens directly into the space below the
freeboard deck and having an average width of at least 60% of the
ship at the position in which they are situated.

 Hatch coamings that have heights equivalent to that of the standard
height of the superstructure as determined by the above table may
be considered as trunks that provide additional reserve buoyancy
for the ship.
 Regulation 37 details the deduction of freeboard that will be
permitted for effective length of superstructures and trunks.
 It is always a deduction in freeboard since the standard ship has no
superstructure.

 Correction for sheer profile (Regulation 38)
 Sheer is defined as being the curvature of the freeboard deck
in a fore and aft direction and the benefits of sheer include:
 Greater reserve buoyancy at the ends of the ship,
particularly forward, ensuring good lift in a head/following
sea;
 Reduces water shipped on deck;
 Reduces risk of foredeck being submerged after collision
thus improving survivability in the damaged condition and
helps to maintain an acceptable angle of heel at which
progressive down flooding takes place.
Board

 Any deficiency in sheer will result in an increase in freeboard.

 Excess sheer will result in a deduction in freeboard.
 The amount of the deduction or increase in freeboard is
determined by formulae.
Board

 Correction for bow height (Regulation 39)
 A minimum allowable bow height must be maintained
when the vessel is floating to the summer load line at its
design trim.
 The assigned Summer Freeboard for a vessel must be
increased, if necessary, to ensure that the minimum bow
height requirements are met.
Bow height

 Bow height is a function of the Length (L), the block
coefficient (Cb), the water plane area coefficient forward
(Cw) and draught (d).
As per Regulation 39 the bow height is defined as the
vertical distance at the forward perpendicular between the
waterline corresponding to the assigned summer
freeboard and the designed trim and the top of the
exposed deck at side shall be not less than:
Bow height

Bow height
L=the length of the ship in m, Cb = the block coefficient

which is to be taken as not less than 0.68
Bow height

Where the bow height required of this Regulation is
obtained by sheer,
 the sheer shall extend for at least 15% of the length of the
ship measured from the forward perpendicular.
 Where it is obtained by fitting a superstructure, such
superstructure shall extend from the stem to a point at least
0.07 L abaft the forward perpendicular, and it shall comply
with the following requirements:
 a) for ships not over 100 m in length it shall be enclosed.
 b) for ships over 100 m in length shall be fitted with closing
appliances to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Bow height

Bow height

Bow height

Bow height is of paramount importance in providing a
safeguard against excessive loads on the foredeck and
forward hatch covers associated with shipping green seas.
While general cargo ships tend to have bow heights
exceeding the minimum ICLL value, some bulk carriers
do operate at the minimum allowable bow height.
Definitions

Garboard strakes are the strakes of shell plating next to
the keel on either side.
Sheer strakes are the upper strakes of shell plating on
either side, next to the upper deck.
The deck stringer is the outboard strake of deck plating,
which is connected to the sheer strake.
Shoe plates are plates that connect the stem to the flat
plate keel.
Coffin plates used for connecting the stern frame to the
flat plate keel.
Definitions

Boss plates are shield shaped plates fitted over the boss of
the stern frame.
Stealer plates: the girth of the ship decreases toward the
ends and so width of the plates must be decreased in these
parts.
Superstructure: It is a decked structure on the freeboard
deck, extending from side to side of the ship or with the
side plating not being inboard of the shell plating more
than 4% of the ship breadth (B).
Definitions

Load Line Survey

LOAD LINE CERTIFICATION:
 All ships must be issued with a load line certificate.
The form of the certificate will depend upon the
Assigning Authority.
The certificate is an International Load Line Certificate it
shall be in the form prescribed by the 1966 Convention as
prescribed by the organisation.
Load Line Survey

A ship will be subject to the following surveys:
Initial survey before the ship is put into service;
Renewal survey at intervals not exceeding five years;
 Annual survey within 3 months either way of the
anniversary date of the load line certificate.
The surveyor will endorse the load line certificate on
satisfactory completion of the annual survey.
Load Line Survey

The period of validity of the load line certificate may be
extended for a period not exceeding 3 months or the
purpose of allowing the ship to complete its voyage to the
port in which it is to be surveyed.
PREPARATION FOR A LOAD
LINE SURVEY
1.

Check that all access openings at ends of enclosed
structures are in good conditions.
2. All dogs, clamps and hinges to be free and well greased.
3. All gaskets and water-tight seals should be crack free.
(Ensure that the doors can be opened from both sides)
4. Check all cargo hatches and access to holds for weather
tightness.
5. Check the efficiency and securing of portable beams.
6. If portable wooden hatch covers are used check that they
are in good condition.
LINE SURVEY
7.

If tarpaulins are used at least two should be provided for
each hatch and in good condition.
8. Inspect all machinery space opening on exposed deck.
9. Check that any manholes and flush scuttles are capable
of being made watertight.
10. Check that all ventilator openings are provided with
efficient weather tight closing appliance.
11. All air pipe should be provided with satisfactory means
for closing and opening.
LINE SURVEY

12. Inspect any cargo ports below the freeboard deck and
ensure that all of them are watertight.
13. Ensure that non return valves on overboard valves are
operating in a satisfactory manner.
14. Side scuttles and openings below the freeboard deck
must have efficient internal watertight deadlights.
15. Check that all freeing ports and scuppers are in
satisfactory conditions.
16. All guard-rails and bulwarks should be satisfactory
condition.
LINE SURVEY

17. De-rust and paint the deck line, load line marks, load
line and the draught marks.
 On the day of the survey ensure that the International Load
Line certificate and associated documentation are available for
inspection.
 Sufficient manpower should be made available for the
operation of hatch covers and the rigging of staging and
ladders to allow the surveyor to view the load line and draught
marks.
 The ship’s stability data book should be on hand for
inspection.
Multiple Load Line

 To get the advantage over the various taxes the ship owner can
request for multiple load line assignment to the flag state
administration.
 When the request is processed the recognized organization of the
flag state will conduct the survey and will issue the additional load
line certificate to the vessel.
 The vessel will be issued with a "Multiple Load Line Booklet“ by
the Assigning authority.
 Stability information for the relevant statutory loading conditions
corresponding to each load line mark will be issued to the ship.
Multiple Load Line

Only one load line certificate should be used at a time.
The other line certificate/s should be kept in a sealed
envelop and should be kept under the safe custody of the
master.
Only one set of marks associated with the Load line
certificate in use, (i.e., is actually “painted in” and visible
at any given time).
Other Load line marks are obliterated or painted out with
the same colour as its background.
Multiple Load Line

The new summer freeboard on each side shall be
physically measured each time, and recorded in the
“Multiple Load Line Assignment Booklet” along with
other relevant details, duly endorsed by the Master.
The company is informed to update the office copy of
“Multiple Load Line Assignment Booklet”, in accordance
with the procedure contained in the safety management
system (SMS).
An official entry is made in the ship’s log book about the
change in load line marking.
Multiple Load Line

During the annual/renewal load line surveys, the RO’s
surveyor shall verify/endorse the Ship’s copy of the
“Multiple Load Line Assignment Booklet”.
While carrying out the annual/renewal surveys, the vessel
will be surveyed for the deepest draft upto which the
vessel is capable of operating.
Multiple Load Line

On satisfactory completion of surveys, all the Load line
certificates shall be endorsed by the attending surveyor.
The GT and NT of the vessel shall remain the same
corresponding to the deepest daft.
The statutory certificates issued under SOLAS and
MARPOL shall show only the greatest deadweight of the
ship.
B-60 & B-100 TABULAR FREEBOARDS

A type ‘A’ ship is any ship designed to carry liquid
cargoes in bulk such as tankers, chemical carriers, LPG
and LNG carriers.
Ships that comply to the following requirements:
 Are designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk
 The cargo tanks have only small access openings which
must be closed by watertight doors, of steel or equivalent
material, provided with gaskets.
 They have low permeability in the loaded cargo
compartments.

 When loaded to the Summer load line, must float in
satisfactory conditions after the flooding due to the
standard damage.
 If the ship has L > 150 m the flooded compartment(s) must
have an assumed permeability of 0.95.
 If the ship has L > 225 m the engine room should be also
considered as a floodable compartment, with an assumed
permeability of 0.85.
A type ‘B’ ship is any ship other than a type ‘A’ ship.


From figures the consequence of a bilged mid
compartment can be assessed qualitatively as given
below:
 In the case of the type ‘A’ ship the cargo oil will run out of
the damaged compartment, resulting in a reduction in
displacement and an increase in the freeboard.
 In the case of the type ‘B’ ship the seawater will run into
the damaged compartment, resulting in an increase in
displacement and a reduction in the freeboard.

If a type ‘B’ ship can satisfy certain additional conditions
of assignment with respect to structure and damaged
stability it will qualify for a reduction in its tabular
freeboard.
This reduction may be 60% the difference between the
tabular A and tabular B freeboard, and in some cases be
100% the difference; hence the terms ‘B-60’ and ‘B-100’.

Ships of type “B”, with L > 100 m, may be assigned
lower freeboards values if they satisfy the following
conditions:
 A ship that when loaded to the Summer load line will float in
a satisfactory condition, after flooding any compartment
other than the engine room.
 If L > 200 m, the engine room must also be considered a
floodable compartment.
 A ship that satisfy these conditions may have freeboard
reduced by 60% of the difference between the values
indicated for the type ”A” and for the type “B”.

The reduction can be increased up to 100% satisfying the
additional requirements:
 To support the simultaneous flooding of 2 adjacent
compartments, by damage of the transverse bulkhead
(not considering the engine room floodable).
Access Doors on Super Structure

All access openings in bulkheads at ends of enclosed
superstructures shall be fitted with doors of steel or
equivalent material, stiffened and fitted so that the whole
structure is of equivalent strength to the un-pierced
bulkhead and weather tight when closed.
The means for securing these doors weather tight shall
consist of gaskets and clamping devices, and the doors
shall be so arranged that they can be operated from both
sides.
Access Doors on Super Structure

Doors shall open outwards
to provide safety against the
impact of the sea.
The height of the sills of
access openings in
bulkheads at ends of
enclosed superstructures
shall be at least 380mm
above the deck.
Deck Zones

Deck Zones

 The LLC establishes also some dimensions of equipment that
affects the safety of the ship and of the crew.
 For the purpose of classifying the openings according to their
location, two zones are specified on the freeboard deck such as 1/4th
length from the FP and rest of the length aft.
 The minimum height of the hatch coamings, as a function of
the deck zone is for Zone -1, 600mm and for Zone-2, 450mm.
Air Pipes

Air Pipes

Windows and Side Scuttles
 Side scuttles are defined
as:
 Having round or oval
openings
 Area ≤ 0.16 m2
(Diameter < 0.45 m).
 Windows are defined as
being:
 Rectangular openings
generally, having a
radius at each corner
relative to the window
size and round or
 Oval openings with an
area > 0.16 m2.

 Side scuttles to the following spaces shall be fitted with hinged
inside deadlights:
 (a) spaces below freeboard deck;
 (b) spaces within the first tier of enclosed superstructures
 (c) first tier deckhouses on the freeboard deck protecting openings
leading below or considered buoyant in stability calculations.
 Deadlights shall be watertight if fitted below the freeboard deck and
weather tight if fitted above.

 The sill of Side scuttles must be above a line that is drawn parallel
to the freeboard deck at side and having its lowest point 2.5% of
the breadth (B), or 500 mm, whichever is the greatest distance,
above the Summer Load Line (or Timber Summer Load Line if
assigned).
 Windows shall not be fitted in the following locations:
 below the freeboard deck
 in the first tier end bulkheads or sides of enclosed superstructures
 in first tier deckhouses that are considered buoyant in the stability
calculations.

 Side scuttles and windows at the side shell in the second tier shall
be weather tight if the superstructure protects direct access to
an opening leading below or is considered buoyant in the stability
calculations.
Guard Railings

 Guard rails or bulwarks shall be fitted around all exposed decks.
 The height of the bulwarks or guard rails shall be at least 1.0 m
from the deck.
 The interval between stanchions to be about 1.50 m.
Guard Railings

Bilge Keels

 Bilge keels are provided to resist rolling.
 The effect of direct resistance of the bilge keel with water is
less.
 They slightly increase the period of roll.
 They upset the transverse streamlines of the ship’s hull and
thus set up eddy currents and increase the ‘wave making
resistance’.
 They increase water pressure over a large area of the ship’s
hull and this pressure acts in such a direction to damp the
rolling.
 For their protection bilge keels are arranged in line with hull
and bottom floors.
Bilge Keels

 If they were to project beyond these limits, they would be
more liable to damage.
 There are chances of bilge keels ripping off when the ship
touches the bottom, but if this to happen then the ship’s
shell plating should remain intact.
 In welded ships the bilge keels are attached to the
continuous flat bar attached to the ship’s hull.
 The outer edge may be riveted or lightly welded so that in
the event of damage the breakage will occur only at the
weaker joint.
 In large ships the bilge keels are very deep.
Bilge Keels

 Unless carefully designed the bilge keels can produce
residual stresses at the bilge plate and this can cause
cracking of bilge plate.
 To prevent this the ends of the bilge keel should be tapered
off gradually and should end over a floor or tank side
bracket, whilst a doubling plating should be welded to the
bilge plate at this point.
Bilge Keels

Bilge Keels

Bilge Keels

Bilge Keels

Bilge Keels

Bilge Keels

Tonnage Convention
Application:
Ships engaged in international voyages
Exceptions: War ships, Ships with L < 24 m
Adopted : 23rd June 1969
Entry into Force: 18th July 1982
Introduction

 Records of measurement of a ship’s size can be traced back to the
13th century.
 According to French (1973), ‘shipping tonnage was a useful
indicator of a country’s commercial (and military) strength
especially during a century when countries concentrated so much
of their energy in extending their commercial empires’.
 It was also used for imposing taxes on ships, indicating physical
carrying capacity of ships and comparison of trade and movement
of goods.
Introduction

 The tonnage measurement methods in the 19th and 20th centuries
were mostly based on ‘George Moorsom’s System’, though the
national rules varied widely across the world.
 In early 20th century, it was recognised that there is a great need
for a single international system.
 It was one of the priorities when IMCO (now IMO) first met in
1959.
 The current international standard for tonnage measurement, is the
‘International Convention on Tonnage measurement of Ships,
1969’ (ITC-69), adopted on 23rd June 1969.
 It entered into force on 18th July, 1982 and was progressively
implemented to cover all merchant ships within the next 12 years.
Introduction

 ITC-69 was primarily aimed to establish an internationally
acceptable system for measuring a ship’s size.
 It was drafted in such a way that the gross and net tonnages,
calculated through a relatively easier method, did not differ
greatly from those calculated under previous methods.
 It resulted in a transition from traditionally used terms Gross
Register Tons (GRT) and Net Register Tons (NRT) to Gross
tonnage (GT) and Net tonnage (NT).
 Right from early ages, the ship-designers, shipbuilders and ship
owners made every effort to get the lowest possible tonnages for a
given deadweight, even by compromising the safety or crew
welfare aspects.
Introduction

 This continued even under ITC-69.
 After ITC-69 was adopted 40 years ago, substantial developments
have taken place in the sizes and types of ships.
Introduction

 According to Moorsom , the purpose of the term ‘tonnage’, as
originally applied to vessels, was not clearly defined whether
‘tonnage’ referred to the ‘weight carrying capacity’ or ‘volume
capacity’ or ‘cargo space’.
 Freight tonnage: In ancient and medieval times, wine was the
most important cargo and the capacity of a ship was mentioned in
terms of the wine casks, or ‘tuns’, carried by it.
 A 100 ‘tun’ vessel meant that it could load 100 casks.
 The volume of a cask (approximately 40 cubic-feet) was related to
one ‘tun’ (or ton) and freight rates for all other cargoes were fixed
using this as a base.
Introduction

 The volume occupied by other cargoes, was divided by 40 to
obtain the equivalent ‘ton’ called ‘freight tonnage’.
 Displacement tonnage : Displacement tonnage is the weight of
seawater displaced by a vessel at a particular draft.
 Two kinds of displacement tonnage were in use, ‘light
displacement tonnage’ and ‘displacement tonnage loaded’ .
 Deadweight tonnage: The difference between ‘light displacement
tonnage’ and the ‘displacement tonnage loaded’ is called
‘deadweight tonnage’, i.e., the weight of additional water
displaced due to cargo weight.
 In older days, the weight of cargo was determined by weighing
and counting the loaded units individually.
Introduction

 For ordinary wooden vessels, deadweight tonnage was about 50%
of its ‘displacement tonnage loaded’.
 This term is comparable to ‘deadweight’ in current terminology.
 ‘Burthen’ or ‘Burden’ was also used to indicate the cargo
capacity.
 Measured tonnage (or ’Old registered tonnage’)
 In medieval times, ships were ‘rated’ for a particular voyage.
 The ‘rating’ depended on the cargo capacity, ship’s age, length and
circumstances of intended voyage (i.e., expected weather
conditions and operating sea area), space allotted for stores and
arms and in addition, on the judgement of shipwrights, masters
and officials based on the above factors.
Introduction

 Hence, there was plenty of room for arguments and negotiations
between ship-owners, charterers and tax authorities, and a ship
could have entirely different ‘rating’ for different voyages or
different purposes or by different persons.
 This practice created confusion and difficulties, since the ship had
to be ‘rated’ each time it sailed.
 Gradually, official estimate of the ship’s ‘rating’ was determined
from the principal dimensions.
 The ‘rating‘ so determined from measurement of dimensions, is
called ‘measured tonnage’.
Introduction

 The ‘measured tonnage’ is also termed ‘old registered tonnage’,
after the introduction of ‘registered tonnage’ in 1786.
 Registered Tonnage (RT): The formula for ‘measured tonnage’
was not widely enforced until 1786.
 Since the taxes and dues were based on tonnage, a lower tonnage
was declared by ship-owners during registration, though the
higher ‘measured tonnage’ was used for building, buying and
selling of vessels.
 The tonnage indicated on the ship’s registration documents is
called ‘registered tonnage’.
 The ‘registered tonnage’ was roughly two-third of the ‘measured
tonnage’, rounded down to the nearest whole number.
Introduction

 In 1786, the law required all vessels to indicate the ‘measured
tonnage’ during registration.
 Thereafter the ‘measured tonnage’ is same as the ‘registered
tonnage’ .
 Gross register tonnage(GRT): The ‘registered tonnage’ was
intended as an indicator of total ‘weight’ of a ship.
 The weight of cargo was assumed to be 50% of the ‘registered
tonnage’.
 As the carriage of lighter cargoes such as cotton became more
frequent, more space was needed for stowage.
Introduction

 Spaces other than cargo space were also utilised for cargo, and
ships with higher volume had higher earning potential.
 Further, the formula-based method for ‘registered tonnage’ led to
the construction of ill-formed vessels with low tonnage, and the
‘registered tonnage’ did not realistically represent the actual
‘weight’ of the ship.
 Due to these reasons, a new term ‘Gross register tonnage (GRT)’
was introduced in the 1854 British Act.
 GRT is determined from the total volume of enclosed spaces.
Introduction

 Each 100 ft3 (or 2.83 m3) is counted as one ton, and GRT is
obtained by dividing the total enclosed volume in ft3 by 100 (or by
2.83 if in m3).
 The GRT could have decimal values.
 The changes in design, transition from wood to iron hull, and
changes in propulsion method meant that the GRT alone could not
signify the cargo capacity.
 Some part of the cargo space was allocated for propulsion
machinery in steamships.
Introduction

 The traditional desire to relate tonnage to income yielding cargo
capacity, led to the development of another registered tonnage,
called the ‘net register tonnage’ (NRT).
 Net register tonnage(NRT): ‘Net register tonnage’ was intended
to represent the earning capacity.
 It is obtained by deducting the volume of spaces not available for
cargo (such as space for propulsion machinery and crew's
quarters), from the volume for GRT, and dividing the resultant
volume in ft3 by 100 (or by 2.83 if in m3).
 The NRT also could have decimal value.
Introduction

 Suez Canal net tonnage (SC-NT): This tonnage is used only for
charging toll for ships transiting the Suez Canal.
 Special rules, recommended at an international conference held at
Constantinople on 18th December, 1873, are used for determining
SC-NT.
 Though these rules are based on Moorsom’s System, they differ in
some aspects such as deductions and exemptions.
 Panama Canal net tonnage (PC-NT): This tonnage is used only
for charging toll for ships navigating through the Panama Canal.
 Separate rules, based on Moorsom’s System and Suez Canal rules,
were developed for PC-NT in 1913.
Introduction

 The principles of ITC-69 were incorporated into the rules in 1994,
and now it is called ‘Panama Canal Universal Measurement
System’ net tonnage, PC/UMS-NT.
 Compensated Gross Tonnage (CGT): CGT is not an indicator of
ship’s size.
 It is a statistical tool developed in 1968, for economic evaluation
of shipbuilding output worldwide.
 CGT reflects the work content and complexity in building
different types and sizes of ships.
Introduction

 For example, one GT of a passenger ship with its sophisticated
accommodation and public spaces requires a significantly higher
level of work content than one GT of a bulk carrier.
 One CGT of either ship roughly reflects the equivalent work
content, and is hence recognised as a superior tool to GT for
comparison of shipyard workload and output.
 CGT is determined from the GT by using two internationally
agreed correction factors.
Tonnage Measurement of Ships

 The convention came into force on 18th July1982 and existing
ships were given12 years for compliance.
 As on now 152 states representing 98.46% of the world tonnage
are parties to this convention.
 The convention was adopted to establish uniform principles and
rules with respect to the determination of tonnage of ships
engaged on international voyages.
 The convention is applicable to all merchant ships of 24m in
length or more.
 As per the convention the determination of gross tonnage will be
carried out by the Administration or Recognized Organization.

 An International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall be issued to
every ship, the gross and net tonnages of which have been
determined in accordance with the present Convention.
 The validity of the certificate is for life time of the ship or change
in administration.
 When the ship changes the Administration, the existing certificate
issued by the previous Administration will be having a validity of
three months after reregister or until the new Administration
issues another International Tonnage Certificate (1969) to replace
it, whichever is the earlier.

 The applications of Tonnage Measurement are many and
varied and are used in the assessment of the following:-
 Harbour Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net
Tonnage.
 Pilotage Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net
Tonnage.
 Light Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
 Canal Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
 Miscellaneous Fees - e.g. Agency, Towage, Dry Docking, P&I,
Registration and Statutory Surveys.
 Criterion for the application of IMO Conventions, e.g. SOLAS,
MARPOL, STCW.
 Basis for the formulation of shipping statistics.
on Tonnage Measurement
of Ships


 As per the convention the ships tonnage shall include Gross
Tonnage(GT) and Net Tonnage(NT).
 The gross tonnage and the net tonnage shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of these Regulations.
 For the calculation of GT and NT the following formulae are to be
used;
 GT=K1V,
 Where ‘V’ is the total enclosed volume of all the spaces of the ship in m3
and K1 is obtained by the formula; K1= 0.2+ 0.02log10V or alternatively
can be can be obtained from the tabulation.

 The net tonnage (NT) of a ship shall be determined by the
formula-
4𝑑2 𝑁2
 𝑁𝑇 = 𝐾2 × 𝑉𝑐 × ( ) + 𝐾3(𝑁1 + )
3𝐷 10
 where
 Vc = total volume of cargo spaces in cubic metres,
 K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10Vc (or as given in tabulation),
 K3 = 1.25 (GT + 10,000)/10,000,
 d = moulded draught amidships in metres
 D=moulded depth amidships in metres

 N1=number of passengers in cabins with not more than 8
berths,
 N2=number of other passengers.
 the factor 4d2 /3D shall not be taken as greater than
unity;
 the K2.Vc. 4d2 /3D shall not be taken as less than 0.25 GT ;
and
 NT shall not be taken as less than 0.30 GT.
 N1+N2 = Total number of passengers the ship is permitted to
carry as indicated in ship’s passenger certificate, when N1+N2
is less than 13, then N1 & N2 shall be taken as zero.

 Under the new load line rules of 1967, ships with two or more
decks may have two alternate tonnages, if the owner requests so.
 When such a ship is loaded to her ordinary load lines, she has her
full tonnage.
 But if the ship has loaded up to a lesser tonnage mark, then the
ship is considered to have a modified tonnage.
 For ships with alternate tonnage the freeboard is calculated taking
upper deck as the freeboard deck and load lines are assigned.
Cargo spaces

 Cargo spaces to be included in the computation of net tonnage are
enclosed spaces appropriated for the transport of cargo which is to
be discharged from the ship, provided that such spaces have been
included in the computation of gross tonnage.
 Such cargo spaces shall be certified by permanent marking with
the letters CC (cargo compartment) to be so positioned that they
are readily visible and not to be less than 100mm (4 inches) in
height.
Enclosed spaces

 Enclosed spaces are all those spaces which are bounded:
 by the ship's hull,
 by fixed or portable partitions or bulkheads,
 by decks or coverings other than permanent or movable awnings.
Excluded Spaces

 An excluded space is a space whose volume is not included while
calculating the tonnage volume.
 As per the Tonnage Convention the spaces which cannot be
considered as an enclosed space shall be excluded during the
volume measurement.
 Spaces having any of the following features to be excluded from
the enclosed spaces such as:
 The space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing
cargo or stores;
 The openings are fitted with any means of closure;
 The construction provides any possibility of such openings
being closed.
Excluded Spaces

 Any open end space on deck shall not be having less than 90% of
the opening.
 Opening on any enclosed space which is having a discontinuity of
at least half the breadth of the deck shall be considered as an open
space.
 A space under an overhead deck covering open to the sea and
weather, having no other connexion on the exposed sides with the
body of the ship than the stanchions necessary for its support.
Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

 A space in a side-to-side erection directly in way of opposite side
openings not less in height than 0.75 metres (2.5 feet) or one third
of the height of the erection, whichever is the greater.
 If the opening in such an erection is provided on one side only, the
space to be excluded from the volume of enclosed spaces shall be
limited inboard from the opening to a maximum of one half of the
breadth of the deck in way of the opening.
Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

 A space in an erection immediately below an uncovered opening
in the deck overhead, provided that such an opening is exposed to
the weather and the space excluded from enclosed spaces is
limited to the area of the opening.
 A recess in the boundary bulkhead of an erection which is exposed
to the weather and the opening of which extends from deck to
deck without means of closing, provided that the interior width is
not greater than the width at the entrance and its extension into the
erection is not greater than twice the width of its entrance.
Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Excluded Spaces

Membrane Tanks


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Ship Building Materials

15.1.2 Ship Construction- Ship Building Materials

Main fire zone Galley/passageway A-60

Main fire zone Wheelhouse/passageway A-30

Within fire Fan room/stairway A-15

 Cs = the criterion numeral;

 L = the length of the ship (metres)

 V = the volume of ship below the margin line;

 N = number of passengers for which the ship is certified

 Regulation 36 allows the reserve buoyancy of trunks to be taken

 Any deficiency in sheer will result in an increase in freeboard.

L=the length of the ship in m, Cb = the block coefficient

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