STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
given interval
Lesson 1: Random Variables
A random variable is a type of
variable whose value depends
upon the numerical outcomes
of a certain random
phenomenon.
❖ Random variable has
no specific value
❖ Can take on many
values
Difference between random and
algebraic variables:
• Random Variables
➢ Have a set of values that
could be the resulting
outcome of a random
experiment
➢ Denoted by capital letters
• Algebraic Variables
➢ Represents the value of
unknown quantity in an
algebraic equation that
can be calculated
Every probability of random
variable:
• Each probability must be
between 0 and 1
➢ 𝟎 ≤ 𝑷(𝒙) ≤ 𝟏
• The sum of all
probabilities is equal to 1
➢ 𝜮 𝑷(𝒙) = 𝟏
A random variable can be either
discrete or continuous.
• Discrete
➢ Are countable numbers of
a distinct value
➢ Example: The number of
students in Grade-11
STEM
➢ These random variables
are whole numbers in
quantity
• Continuous
➢ Can take on any value in a
➢ Example: The amount of
water consumed by an
athlete
➢ These random variables
are measurable and can
be expressed not only by
whole numbers
Lesson 2: Random Sampling
➢ Population is defined as
all subjects under study
➢ Sample is a subset of
population
Why do we use Sample ?
1. It saves the
researcher’s time and
money
2. Enables the
researcher to get
information that they
might not be able to
obtain otherwise
3. Enables the
researcher to get
more detailed
information about a
particular subject
In random sampling, the basic
requirement is that all possible
samples of this size have an
equal chance of being selected
from the population.
Simple Random Sampling
➢ Takes a small, random
portion of the entire
population to represent
the entire data set
➢ Each member has an
equal probability of being
chosen
➢ Examples:
1. Random lottery
2. Tossing a coin
3. Rolling a die
 ➢ However, simple sampling
has one limitation. If the
population is extremely
large, it is time-
consuming to number and
select the samples.
Systematic Random Sampling
➢ A sample is obtained by
numbering each element
in the population selecting
some random starting
point and then selecting
every kth element (third,
or fifth, or tenth, etc.)
➢ The advantage of
systematic sampling is the
ease of selecting the
sample elements. Also, in
many cases, a numbered
lost of the population
units may already exist
Stratified Random Sampling
➢ A sample is obtained by
dividing the population
into subgroup, called
strata (plural of stratum)
based on shared
characteristics (e.g., race,
gender, identity, location,
etc.) and then, random
samples are selected from
each stratum.
➢ Example: Number of
students at CNHS based
on their strand
➢ Advantage: It ensures
representation of all
population subgroups are
important to the study
➢ Disadvantage: When
researchers can’t
confidently classify every
member of the population
into a subgroup
2 types of Stratified Sampling
a. Proportionate
➢ In this approach, the size
of each stratum is
proportional to the size of
population strata
b. Disproportionate
➢ In this approach, the size
of each stratum is not
proportional to the size of
population strata
Cluster Random Sampling
➢ A sample is obtained by
selecting a pre-existing or
natural group called
cluster, and using the
members in the cluster
for the sample
• 3 Advantages of using
Cluster Sampling
1. Can reduce costs,
2. Can simplify
fieldwork, and
3. It is convenient
➢ The major disadvantage of
cluster sampling is that
the elements may not
have the same variations
in characteristics as
elements selected
individually from a
population
Non-Probability Sampling
• Convenience
• Purposive
Lesson 3: Mean and Variance
➢ Mean = average
➢ To have a reliable mean,
we have to toss infinite
BUT that is impossible. So,
we use this formula
instead: 𝝁 = 𝜮 [𝒙 • 𝑷(𝒙)]
 4. The curve is symmetric
For example, 𝒙 = tossing 2 coins about the mean.
𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥 • 𝑃(𝑥) 5. The curve is continuous;
0 1/4 0 that is, there are no gaps
1 2/4 2/4 or holes. For each value
2 1/4 2/4 of x, there is a
𝟒 corresponding value of y.
𝝁= =𝟏 6. The curve never touches
𝟒
➢ Variance = measure of the x-axis.
how data points differ
from mean (how data The total area under a normal
varies) distribution curve is equal to
❖ If the variance is high, 1.00 or 100%. This fact may
data points are very seem unusual, since the curve
spread out never touches the x-axis, but
❖ If the variance is low, one can prove it
data points are close mathematically by calculus.
to mean
𝝈𝟐 = 𝜮 [𝒙𝟐 • 𝑷(𝒙)] − 𝝁𝟐 The Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal
Example: distribution is a normal
𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥 • 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥 2 • 𝑃(𝑥) distribution with a mean 𝝁 of 0
0 1/4 0 0 and a standard deviation 𝝈 of
1 2/4 2/4 2/4 1.
2 1/4 2/4 4/4
𝟔 ❖ To the left of any value
𝝈𝟐 = = 𝟏. 𝟓 ➢ Look up to the z value in
𝟒
the table and use the area
Lesson 4: Normal Distribution given.
If a random variable has a ➢ To the right of any value
probability distribution whose ➢ Look up to the z value in
graph is continuous, bell- table and subtract the
shaped, and symmetric, it is given area from 1.
called ‘normal distribution’. ➢ Or, look up to the opposite
• The graph is called sign. If negative, look at
normal distribution the positive side.
curve
Applications of the Standard
Properties of Normal Distribution Normal Curve
𝑿− 𝝁
1. A normal distribution Formula: 𝒛 =
𝝈
curve is bell-shaped. ❖ If given has two X, use the
2. The mean, median, and formula. And then,
mode are equal and are subtract the area of both z
located at the center at value.
the distribution.
3. A normal distribution
curve is unimodal – it has
only one mode.
Lesson 5: Sampling Distribution
of the Sample Mean
❖ Parameter is a data from
the Population
Symbols:
• population mean – mu
(𝝁)
• population s.d – sigma
(𝝈)
• population variance
(𝝈𝟐 )
❖ Statistics is a data from
the Sample
Symbols:
• sample mean – xbar
(𝒙
̅)
• sample s.d – (𝒔)
• sample variance -
(𝒔𝟐 )
Combination Formula:
𝑵!
➢ 𝑵𝑪𝒏 = 𝒏!(𝑵−𝒏)!
wherein,
• 𝑁 = total number of
samples
• 𝑛 = sample size
Formula for Mean of the Sampling
Distribution of the Sample Mean:
➢ 𝝁𝒙̄ = 𝜮 [(𝒙̄ ) • 𝑷(𝒙̄ )]
Formula for Variance of the
Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Mean:
𝜮(𝒙̄ −𝝁)𝟐
➢ 𝝈𝟐 =
𝑵
Lesson 6: Estimation
➢ Descriptive
❖ to describe
➢ Inferential
❖ to infer
Inferential Statistics
• Point Estimation
➢ Single value that
estimates the parameter
value
• Interval Estimation
➢ Range of values that such
a range contains the
parameter value
Confidence Interval
Confidence Level
➢ Refers to the probability
that the confidence
interval contains the true
population parameter
Law of Significance
➢ Probability that the
confidence interval does
not contain the true
population parameter
➢ Opposite of confidence
level
❖ Symbol: alpha
(𝒂)
Confidence Level
Three most commonly used
confidence level are 90%, 95%,
and 99%
➢ If you desire to be more
confident, such as 99% or
99.5% confident, then you
must take the interval
larger.
Confidence Interval of the Mean for
a Specific 𝒂 when 𝝈 is known:
𝝈
➢ ̅ ± 𝒁𝑪𝑳 •
𝑿
√𝒏
wherein,
➢ 𝑿 ̅ = sample mean
➢ 𝒁𝑪𝑳 = z-value
corresponding a
confidence level
➢ 𝝈 = standard deviation
➢ √𝒏 = sample size
❖ The z-values
corresponding a
confidence level are also
called the critical values.
Critical Values &. Confidence Level ➢ ̅ − 𝒕𝒂 ( 𝒔 ) < 𝝁 <
(𝑿
CL SL CV 𝟐 √𝒏
90% 0.10 1.65 ̅ + 𝒕𝒂 ( 𝒔 )
(𝑿 𝟐 √𝒏
95% 0.05 1.96
99% 0.01 2.58 Margin of Error
𝒕𝒂 𝒔
➢ 𝑬= ( )
Margin of Error 𝟐 √𝒏
Also called the maximum
error of the estimate, is the If looking for:
likely difference between the ❖ One tail = either positive
point estimate of a parameter or negative value
and actual value of the ❖ Two tails = both positive
parameter. and negative value
❖ Formula: 𝑬 = 𝒁𝑪𝑳 •
𝝈 ❖ However, if the tail is not
√𝒏 stated, assume that it is
❖ Upper limit looking for two tails.
➢ 𝑿 ̅+ 𝑬
❖ Lower limit:
➢ 𝑿 ̅− 𝑬

Is the 𝝈 known ?
• If YES, use z-test
• If NO, use t-test

Formula of Sample Size derived

from the formula of Margin of
Error:
(𝒁𝝈)𝟐
➢ 𝒏= 𝑬

Lesson 7: T-Distribution
The z-statistics is used when
the population standard
deviation is known and the
sample size is equal to or
more than 30.
❖ z-distribution is wider
than t
❖ while, t-distribution is
more spread out than z

The d.f can be obtained by

subtracting the sample size to 1.

If 𝒏 < 𝟑𝟎 and 𝝈 is known the

confidence interval for population
mean is