CLIMATE CHANGE

Part one

The text discusses the implications of climate change arising from human-caused
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the greenhouse effect is amplified, causing
global warming. The consequences are alarming: melting ice caps, rising water levels,
extreme weather events, drought, loss of biodiversity and social impacts. Limiting warming to
1.5°C is crucial to avoid irreversible shifts. Experts emphasize the need for rapid action to
reduce GHG emissions and mitigate these devastating effects.

Main concepts:

1. Greenhouse effect and warming:

- The increased concentration of GHGs, such as water vapor, CO2 and methane, traps
heat, inducing global warming.
- Ongoing warming is due to human GHG emissions, altering the climate balance.
2. Consequences of climate change:
- Melting ice caps, raising sea levels and threatening coastal areas.
- Periods of drought, extreme climatic events and displacement of ecosystems.
- Loss of biodiversity, impact on agriculture and food insecurity.
3. Need to limit warming:
- Limit the temperature rise to 1.5°C to avoid irreversible shifts.
- Exceeding this limit would result in more severe and less manageable consequences.
4. Causes of climate change:
- GHG emissions of human origin are the main causes of climate change.
- Industrial activities contribute significantly to these emissions.

Conclusion

The text highlights the urgency of action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the
devastating impacts of global warming. Limiting warming to 1.5°C is crucial to avoid
irreversible consequences on our planet, its biodiversity and the populations who depend on
it.

Part two

The text addresses the causes of climate change, attributed to human-caused greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. It highlights the main gases involved, such as CO2, methane and
nitrous oxide, as well as halocarbons, emitted by various industrial activities.

Main concepts

1. Types of GHGs and emissions:

- The main GHGs are CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and halocarbons, all emitted by
human activities.
 - CO2 emissions represent 75% of total GHGs, followed by methane at 18%, nitrous
oxide at 4% and halocarbons at 2%.
2. Sources of GHG emissions:
- The main sources of CO2 are the combustion of fossil fuels, cement production and
deforestation.
- Methane comes from various activities such as livestock, waste management, and
agriculture.
- Nitrous oxide mainly comes from the use of fertilizers and manure management.
- Halocarbons, particularly fluorocarbons, are emitted from refrigeration systems, foam
and aerosol production, and the electronics industry.
3. Concentration and increase in GHGs:
- GHG emissions have increased considerably since the 19th century, disrupting the
climate balance.
- The atmospheric concentration of CO2 increased from 280 ppm to more than 400 ppm
between 1800 and 2017, and continues to increase.
- The melting of permafrost in the Arctic releases additional GHGs (CO2, methane,
nitrous oxide), amplifying climate change.
4. Need to reduce emissions:
- Limiting GHG emissions is crucial to curbing the impacts of climate change.
- Achieving a state of net zero emissions is essential to stabilizing atmospheric
concentrations.

Conclusion

The text highlights human-caused GHG emissions, their impact on climate change and the
need to reduce these emissions to avoid devastating consequences. It underlines the
importance of policies and actions aimed at limiting GHG emissions to preserve the planet's
climate balance.

Overall considerations

In this module, where we explored the impact of streaming on climate change, we saw that
technology-related GHG emissions tend to be "invisible." While many people are aware that a
car that runs on petrol or diesel emits CO2, it is much less obvious to people that streaming is
also responsible for CO2 emissions associated with data centers, data transmission
networks, and the devices that viewers use for streaming. This is why, according to Bela Loto,
streaming is "erroneously dematerialized".

Moreover, even if streaming does contribute to climate change, the GHG emissions
associated with the production of electronic equipment that allows streaming are greater
than the emissions generated by the power consumption associated with streaming itself.
Furthermore, the production of these devices has other environmental impacts in addition to
the GHGs it generates. For example, smartphones contain metals whose mining results in
serious pollution.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

Ocean acidification due to increased atmospheric CO2:

- The pH of the oceans, stable between 8.1 and 8.2 for 20 million years, has
decreased to 8.1 due to the increase in atmospheric CO2, becoming a major
threat to marine ecosystems.
- The balance of atmospheric and dissolved CO2 in water has absorbed 30 to
40% of CO2 due to human activity since the industrial revolution, slowing the
increase in atmospheric CO2 but affecting the oceans.
- Acidification results from the formation of carbonic acid by the dissolution of
CO2 in water, lowering the pH from 8.25 to 8.14 between the 18th century and
the 1990s, increasing acidity by 30%.

Impacts of acidification on marine ecosystems:

- Reduces the concentration of carbonate ions, affecting the formation of shells

and exoskeletons of marine animals, damaging coral reefs, reducing
biodiversity and coastal protection.
- Favors certain organisms better adapted to low pH, altering the composition of
marine ecosystems.
- Negatively affects plankton, the basis of the marine food chain, altering its
growth, influencing the composition and behavior of marine organisms.

Additional effects on marine ecosystems:

- Deoxygenation, linked to the reduction of oxygen in the water by increasing

temperature, reducing mixing between water layers, increased biological
activity and eutrophication.
- The deadly trio of acidification, deoxygenation and increased temperature has
serious and interconnected consequences.

Planetary boundaries and indicators:

- Acidification is one of the nine planetary limits, measured by the degree of

aragonite saturation, crucial for marine organisms.
- The degree of aragonite saturation must remain above 80%, but has not yet
been exceeded in 2022.

Solutions:

- To avoid serious consequences, it is imperative that the concentration of CO2

stops increasing and ideally returns to pre-industrial levels to counter ocean
acidification.
CHEMICAL POLLUTION

New entities = substances responsible for pollution (3 types):

- Synthetic substances (glyphosate, etc.)

- Elements or natural molecules whose concentration is abnormally high (lead,
etc.)
- Modified life forms (GMOs, etc.)

What are their origins and their effects? What characteristics make them primarily of
concern?

- Even if we have problems finding indicators for the planetary limit, it is very
likely that we have already exceeded it
i. Problems: thousands of new entities (one cannot be representative of
the rest)

Origin:

- Agricultural production (pesticides, GMOs)

- Industrial production
- End-of-life treatment of certain products (waste incineration)

Effects

- Pesticides → dangerous to human health, biodiversity (insectivorous birds - less

food for them)
- Plastic materials:
i. Macroplastics (marine animals swallow)
ii. Microplastics (ingested and damage organs, blood flow)
iii. tires

What characteristics make a new entity particularly concerning?

- Toxicity
- Persistence
- Bioaccumulation and biomagnification capacity
- High geographic mobility

Learn from past mistakes to get out of them.

Conclusion

Microplastics are harmful pollutants that exist everywhere in our environment, affecting
living organisms' health. A company has developed a product to reduce their release into the
environment and adopts a circular economy approach. However, this approach is complex
and requires considering every aspect of the product's life cycle. For PlanetCare, it is
important to refurbish and recycle used cartridges to avoid landfilling or incineration. Using
biodegradable plastics is the easiest way to avoid microplastic pollution, but their
environmental impact should be considered.

Summary

Microplastics have negative effects on the environment and living organisms. PlanetCare, a
company focused on environmental protection, aims to reduce microplastic release through
a circular economy approach. This approach involves considering every aspect of a product's
life cycle, including design, materials, production, delivery, and end-of-life management.
PlanetCare encourages clients to return used cartridges for refurbishing and recycling. The
company also seeks applications for recovered microplastics to avoid landfilling or
incineration. While PlanetCare's solution is helpful, avoiding single-use plastic and using
biodegradable plastics derived from sustainable sources should be considered to further
reduce microplastic pollution.

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS LOADING

Summary

The biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus have been profoundly disrupted by
human activity, leading to regional and potentially global consequences. The video capsule
explores the causes and effects of these disturbances on these two cycles.

Nitrogen cycle:

- Atmospheric nitrogen is transformed into reactive nitrogen (ammonium, nitrate)

by soil and water microorganisms, essential for plant growth.
- Human activities such as the use of fertilizers, the burning of fossil fuels and
agricultural production contribute to excess reactive nitrogen in the
environment.
- This excess has negative consequences, such as water pollution,
eutrophication, algae proliferation, reduction of oxygen and the release of
nitrous oxide, a powerful greenhouse gas.

Phosphorus cycle:

- Plants need phosphorus for their growth, extracted from rocks in the form of
phosphates.
- Mining of phosphates to produce fertilizers and other products has disrupted
this cycle, leading to high levels of phosphates in soil and water, contributing to
eutrophication and the formation of dead zones in the oceans .
- Human activity, including livestock farming, aggravates this disturbance.

Consequences and planetary limits:

- The consequences of these disturbances are multiple: water pollution,

eutrophication, loss of oxygen, impacts on aquatic and economic life.
 - Planetary limits for nitrogen and phosphorus have been exceeded, requiring
reduction of human inputs below these limits to avoid widespread negative
impacts.

Researchers recommend reducing human inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into the
environment to avoid more serious consequences on biogeochemical cycles and the
biosphere.

Importance of planetary boundaries:

- Planetary limits define the annual quantities of elements that can be introduced
into nature without risking widespread harmful effects.
- Exceeding these limits has negative consequences for ecosystems, so
respecting these limits is crucial to preserve the planet.

Reducing human inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus below planetary limits is essential to
prevent more devastating impacts on the environment.

The text highlights the disruptions in nitrogen and phosphorus cycles caused by human
activities, their harmful consequences on ecosystems, and the importance of respecting
planetary boundaries to protect the biosphere.

FRESHWATER WITHDRAWALS

Fresh Water Withdrawal and Impact of Human Activities

Water, a vital element for all living things, is at the heart of Kate Raworth's "donut",
representing essential access to clean water. However, human activities have disrupted the
water cycle, affecting its accessibility locally and regionally. These alterations have
repercussions on ecosystems, biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles. Among the nine
planetary boundaries, the "freshwater withdrawal" is crucial, as only 3% of the planet's water
is fresh, the rest being salty.

The water cycle

The water cycle is crucial to life on Earth. Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and flow
into rivers are essential phases of the cycle. Less than 1% of fresh water is available in lakes,
rivers, soils and the atmosphere. Green water, essential for ecosystems, represents
precipitation infiltrated into unsaturated soils, vital for plants.

Disturbances of the Water Cycle

Several factors disrupt this cycle:

- Freshwater withdrawals: for agriculture, industry, and other human uses.

- Climate change: impacting precipitation, creating drier or wetter regions.
- Aerosols and suspended particles: influence the formation of clouds.
- Loss of vegetation cover: deforestation reduces evaporation.
Planetary Limits and Consequences

The global freshwater withdrawal limit has not been exceeded until 2022, but some regions
exceed it locally. This limit focuses on blue water (rivers, water tables). Yet green water, crucial
for ecosystems, is closely linked to other planetary boundaries and biodiversity.

Proposed New Approach

A publication suggests a review of planetary boundaries, integrating green water into "water
change" by broadening the perspective. Recent data indicates that the green water limit has
already been exceeded. Disruptions to the water cycle, whether affecting blue or green water,
have a significant impact on ecosystems, biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles. This is why
they are a major planetary boundary.

Conclusion: The EcoCompteur project uses nudges to encourage users to improve their water
management and change their behaviour. Nudges are gentle incentive strategies that
indirectly modify behaviour. The EcoCounter shows the number of litres of water used in real
time to make users aware of their consumption patterns. Descriptive norms can be an
effective way to nudge people to change their behaviour. However, one must ensure that the
nudge does not backfire. An alternative approach is to convey what people think everyone
should be doing instead of what they are doing.

LAND RECONVERSION

Land conversion and its impacts

Land conversion, also called land-use change, occurs when natural biomes such as forests,
savannahs, or grasslands are transformed into agricultural, urban, or other human activities.
This process alters plant cover and directly impacts climate, the water cycle, biogeochemical
cycles and biodiversity.

Causes and consequences of land conversion

The main causes of this conversion are agriculture, urbanization, infrastructure construction,
energy production and mining activities, with commercial agriculture being the most
predominant. For example, the expansion of pastures for cattle farming is the leading cause
of tropical deforestation, followed by the production of fodder plants, agrofuels and export
goods such as coffee, tea and cocoa.

Effects on the environment and biodiversity

Land conversion deteriorates soil quality, reduces water retention capacity and increases its
susceptibility to erosion. This affects biodiversity by altering or destroying ecosystems,
reducing the richness of bacteria and organisms necessary for biogeochemical cycles.

Specific impacts according to biomes

Deforestation and conversion of biomes, such as tropical, temperate and boreal forests, have
different effects on climate. For example, deforestation of tropical areas leads to local climate
changes, decreasing evaporation and increasing fire risks. Additionally, forests act as carbon
sinks, absorbing CO2 and playing a crucial role in climate regulation.

Planetary boundary and solutions

Deforestation has exceeded the planetary limits set to maintain a viable forest area.
Preserving forests, promoting reforestation and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are
solutions to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Conclusion

In summary, land conversion profoundly affects ecological balance, climate regulation and
biodiversity, highlighting the crucial importance of preserving forests and other biomes for the
future of the planet.

QUIZ:

Cultivated meat has the potential to solve environmental issues and improve animal welfare.
However, its production process is energy-intensive and has its own environmental impacts,
especially if the energy comes from non-sustainable sources. Only two countries have
approved cultivated meat for human consumption, and it is uncertain whether other
countries will follow. Also, the cost of production needs to decrease to make it affordable for
most people. Hence, the meat production sector is unlikely to disappear anytime soon unless
more people stop consuming meat. If we plan to replace conventionally produced meat with
cultivated meat, we must carefully evaluate its potential environmental and social impacts.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Loss of Biodiversity: Causes, Consequences and Solutions

Introduction

Biodiversity is decreasing at an alarming rate, threatening the planet with a 6th mass
extinction due to human activities.

Causes of biodiversity loss

Habitat destruction, overexploitation of resources, pollution, climate change and invasive

species are the main causes identified.

Concrete examples and consequences

Overfishing threatens marine stocks, pollution affects insect populations, climate change
disrupts species ranges, and ocean acidification destroys coral reefs.

Planetary boundaries and current situation

Limits have been set to measure the impact of biodiversity loss, but studies suggest these
limits are already exceeded, highlighting the urgency of the situation.

Solutions and implications

The conservation of biodiversity is essential to maintaining the balance of ecosystems and
ecosystem services vital to humanity. Conservation and ecosystem management measures
are urgent.

Conclusion

Biodiversity loss, mainly due to human activities, threatens the stability of ecosystems,
requiring immediate actions to preserve the integrity of the biosphere and ensure a
sustainable future.

Conclusion

Deforestation causes habitat destruction and biodiversity loss, especially in terrestrial

habitats. Government subsidies meant to support the environment can lead to unintended
consequences. For example, Chile's reforestation policy resulted in the destruction of native
forests while Costa Rica's policies increased the area of native forests. Success depends on
well-planned policies that consider incentive systems and local characteristics, and effective
regulation and enforcement.

AIR POLLUTION

- Air pollution: Comes from molecules such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
heavy metals, volatile organic compounds
- Main sources: Industrial activities, transport
- Health effects: Negative impact on human health

Suspended particles: Aerosols

- Definition: Mixture of gases and fine solid or liquid particles in the air
- Health effects: Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases

Types of aerosols and origins

- Natural aerosols: Ground dust, pollen, volcanic eruptions, natural fires

- Human aerosols: Combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, industrial activities
- Impact: Significant effect on air quality

Impacts of aerosols on the Earth system

- Climatic influence: Affects climate, precipitation, ecosystems

- Solar radiation: Modifies the reflection and absorption of solar radiation, causing
atmospheric cooling or warming

Complexity of aerosol effects

- Climate and ecosystem impact: Complex, depending on particle characteristics and

regional/global factors
 - Cloud formation: Necessary for cloud formation, but increased concentration has
varied effects on climate

Evaluation of impacts and limits

- Complexity of assessment: Difficulty assessing impacts due to variation in aerosol

optical depth
- Suggestion: Use regional boundaries to assess climate and weather system risks

Conclusion

- Air pollution: Various effects on health and the environment

- Challenge: Complex understanding and evaluation, requiring a regional approach
- CityTree limitations: Electricity consumption, environmental impacts of electronic
components
- Fuller's suggestion: Prioritize the prevention of pollution formation, such as the
modernization of urban bus fleets

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The ozone layer: Importance, Threats and Protection

The ozone layer, made up of molecules with three oxygen atoms, acts as a filter for the sun's
ultraviolet rays, protecting life on Earth. Its decline, observed mainly in the 1980s, led to the
notion of a "hole" in the ozone layer, raising concerns for its preservation.

1. Nature and Function of the Ozone Layer

a. Ozone, although present in small amounts throughout the atmosphere, is
concentrated primarily in the stratosphere, absorbing approximately 90% of
harmful ultraviolet rays.
b. However, the presence of ozone in the lower layers of the atmosphere (the
troposphere) at high levels, originating from chemical reactions due to vehicle
and industrial emissions, constitutes an air pollutant, harming human health
and to the environment.
2. Protective Role of the Ozone Layer
a. The ozone layer acts as a shield against ultraviolet rays which, in excess, lead to
DNA mutations, increase the risk of cancer and impact the photosynthesis of
plant organisms, thus affecting ecosystems.
3. Challenges and Threats to the Ozone Layer
a. Emissions of chemical compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have
caused an imbalance between the formation and destruction of ozone, thus
threatening its integrity.
b. The Montreal Protocol's ban on CFCs in 1987 helped reduce emissions, but
other unregulated substances could also harm the ozone layer.
4. Protection Measures and Monitoring of the Ozone Layer
 a. The planetary limit for ozone has been set at 95% of its pre-industrial value, or
275 Dobson units, requiring regular monitoring of the concentration of ozone in
the atmosphere.
b. Although the average thickness of the ozone layer shows signs of recovery since
the 2000s, the recovery process is slow and there are still unregulated potential
threats.
c. The preservation of the ozone layer remains a crucial issue for human health
and the balance of ecosystems, requiring continued vigilance despite the
progress made in its protection.

Conclusion

The Montreal Protocol prevented the depletion of the ozone layer. It offers valuable lessons for
tackling other environmental and social threats by following the "3 Ps" conditions: personal,
perceptible, and practical.

Companies adapted to comply with the protocol by finding alternatives to CFCs with public
support, government involvement, and corporate adaptation. This made it the most
significant environmental success story to date.

However, replacing CFCs with HFCs resulted in greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to
climate change. New synthetic molecules may also harm the ozone layer. Vigilance is
essential, and solutions to one problem may create others.

FOOD

Malnutrition and Food Insecurity: Global Overview

1. Chronic Hunger
o Affects 9.8% of the world's population (2021)
o Wasting and stunted growth in children
o Serious consequences on cognitive and physical development
2. Food Insecurity
o 2.3 billion people affected (2021)
o Reduction in the quality, diversity and quantity of foods
o Consumption of highly processed and nutrient-poor foods
3. Consequences of Food Insecurity
o Increased risks of overweight, obesity, diabetes
o Impact on mental health: anxiety, depression
o Negative effects on children's education and health
4. Micronutrient Deficiencies
o Reviews in mothers and infants
o Affect the development of the brain and nervous system
5. Overeating
o Overconsumption of macronutrients and calories
 o Obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular problems
o 5.7% of children under 5 years old are overweight or obese (2020)
6. Causes of Malnutrition
o Low income, conflicts, climate change, economic shocks
o Agricultural policies favouring cereals over nutritious foods
7. Food Waste
o 17% of global food production wasted (2019)
o Supply chain losses and consumer/retailer waste

Conclusion

- Importance of access to quality food

- Need for effective management of food systems
- Specific Conclusion
o Äss-Bar: Sustainable business model in a traditionally non-profit sector
o Reduction of food waste
o Need for constant review of activities and business model for sustainable
improvement

HEALTH

Access to Health and Global Inequalities

Access to health, a major goal of the United Nations for sustainable development, aims to
ensure healthy lives and well-being for all, regardless of age. This includes the reduction of
communicable diseases such as HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, but also the prevention of non-
communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Income
inequalities, both between nations and within countries, impact access to care, medicines
and vaccines, also influencing pharmaceutical research, often focused on populations with
higher incomes.

Eating habits, such as the consumption of processed foods, contribute to obesity, diabetes
and cardiovascular disease, hitting low-income populations hardest, who have limited access
to quality foods. Additionally, inequalities play a key role in maternal and child health, with
preventable pregnancy-related deaths often due to lack of health infrastructure, conflict and
gender disparities.

Inequalities exacerbate the risk of infant mortality, where babies from uneducated
backgrounds have a higher risk of death. Sexual and reproductive health services reduce risks
for women, as does preventing unsafe abortion. Psychoactive substance abuse, linked to
poverty and social exclusion, as well as unequal exposure to pollution, represent other health
challenges.

Air pollution, exacerbated in disadvantaged neighbourhoods, leads to premature deaths,

while climate change increases diseases linked to heat and water stress, and cardiovascular
and infectious diseases. Inequalities in income and status amplify these effects unevenly
across the world. The ecological crisis also impacts mental health.

To ensure equitable access to health, universal health coverage is crucial, reducing

inequalities in access. Less than half of the world's population had access to essential health
services in 2017. Ensuring such coverage requires robust national health systems, adequately
financed and staffed by skilled personnel. Globally connected data collection systems are
essential for epidemic detection and prevention, such as the IPSN network launched by WHO
in 2023.

EDUCATION

Education and Inequalities of Access

Education, according to Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, affirms the
right to free and compulsory education for all, with an emphasis on equality of access. Yet
challenges persist. In 2021, 244 million children were out of school, a figure estimated to
increase in 2030. Inequalities in access to education are apparent, especially in sub-Saharan
Africa, where out-of-school rates are the highest and increasing, mainly due to conflicts and
wars.

Causes of inequalities in access to education

- Conflicts and wars lead to the closure of schools, discourage the movement of
children and disrupt educational activities.
- The psychological effects of conflicts on children impact their ability to learn.

Individual and collective impacts of education

- Individual level:
o Education promotes personal development, strengthens skills, opens
opportunities and promotes continuous learning throughout life.
- Collective level:
o It increases human capital, improves productivity and promotes civic
engagement, being an essential condition for the proper functioning of
democracies.

Objectives of education

- Strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

- Develop tolerance, empathy, solidarity and critical thinking, essential in a digital
age where disinformation and extremism are widespread.
- Integrate sustainability into study programs to train citizens committed to a
sustainable society.

Links with other inequalities

 - Inequalities in access to education are interconnected with those of income,
gender and health.
- Education levels impact income, thus creating inequalities.
- Historical gender norms lead to disparities, mainly in secondary and tertiary
education, accentuating gender inequalities.
- Education improves health and healthier children perform better in school.

This complex relationship between education and inequality highlights the importance of
promoting equitable, inclusive and quality education for a more just and sustainable future.

INCOME AND WORK

Income and Work in the Social Donut Framework

The text addresses the income and work dimension of Kate Raworth's social donut
framework, describing two key indicators proposed by Raworth: poverty and lack of
employment. It highlights the importance of adequate income and decent employment for
social justice. In 2021, the global unemployment rate was estimated at 6.2%, but this figure
does not capture involuntary reductions in working hours. Unemployment is defined by the
International Labor Organization (ILO) but does not fully capture the lack of work, including
underemployment and long-term unemployment.

Underemployment includes part-time workers wishing to work more hours. Long-term

unemployment affects the employability and mental health of individuals. Unemployment
impacts not only income but also mental health, social integration and self-esteem. It also
has financial impacts on public revenues and expenditure linked to unemployment benefits.

Young people and women are more affected by the lack of employment. The employment
landscape has evolved towards temporary, part-time and independent jobs, offering more
flexibility but often less well paid and secure. These precarious jobs lead to what we call the
"working poor". In 2022, approximately 214 million workers lived in extreme poverty.

The informal sector represents a significant share of global employment, characterized by

precarious conditions and a lack of social protection. Furthermore, illegal practices such as
child labor, forced labor and illegal exploitation of natural resources persist, violating human
rights.

The text highlights the importance of economic and social policies to combat lack of
employment and poverty, highlighting the need for an adequate social protection system and
training opportunities. continues for workers. Some experts envision a future with a massive
lack of jobs, proposing ideas such as a job-independent universal basic income. There are
debates about the scope and implications of such income.

Finally, the text calls for rethinking the economic system and the value of work, encouraging a
society where individual identity is not defined by work alone, but by other forms of social
contribution. In summary, the way in which production and work are organized is a political
and societal choice that guides economic and social policies.

In summary, the text and activity illustrate the complex challenges related to income and work
in the current context, highlighting the implications of changing labor markets, persistent
inequalities and new and necessary approaches to ensure a decent employment and
adequate income for all.

PEACE AND JUSTICE

This text addresses violence, justice and corruption in a global context, highlighting the
consequences and various forms of these problems as well as the means to combat them.

Violence, Peace and Justice

- Prevalence of violence:
o Violence exists not only in times of war but also in the absence of armed
conflicts, including homicides, assaults, rapes, etc.
- Justice and Institutions:
o To ensure peace, justice systems that are fair, non-corrupt and accessible to
all are essential.
- Problems of judicial systems and corruption:
o Dysfunctions of judicial systems and corruption hinder equitable access to
justice.

Armed Conflicts and International Law

- Impacts of armed conflicts:

o Conflicts lead to displacement, human rights violations and various
atrocities such as human trafficking, child soldiers, etc.
- International humanitarian law:
o It establishes rules to minimize suffering and protect civilian populations,
but these rules are often violated.

Consequences of Violence

- Physical and psychological impacts:

o Violence has negative consequences on the mental and physical health of
victims and creates a general feeling of insecurity.
- Violence against children:
o Violence against children, including neglect, has devastating effects on their
physical and mental development.

Global Consequences

- Impacts on migration:
o Conflict and violence lead to massive population displacements, affecting
both migrants and host countries.
 - Correlation with the ecological crisis:
o Environmental problems can also be sources of conflict and migration.

Corruption and Its Impacts

- Definition of corruption:
o Behaviors contrary to ethical standards, resulting in misappropriation of
resources and undermining trust in public institutions.
- Effects on the economy and business practices:
o Corruption alters the economy and is common in business transactions.

Fight against corruption

- Complexity of causes:
o The fight against corruption involves preventive, punitive and awareness-
raising actions.
- Anti-corruption strategies:
o Measures to combat corruption include institutional changes and increased
awareness.

The text highlights the importance of just systems, the fight against violence in all its forms,
and the need to actively fight corruption to ensure a more peaceful and equitable world.

Conclusion

The objectives of the "Peace and Justice" dimension are to promote a world where everyone
has access to justice and can live in a context of peace and security. Yet conflict, violence,
abuse, and insecurity in the face of diverse forms of violence are present in many parts of the
world. Not only do they have physical consequences, but they also cause post-traumatic
stress and other mental health problems. Some initiatives, such as the Favela Art Project, are
succeeding in bringing about real change at local level.

Nevertheless, at the international level, and despite the expressed intention of international
organizations and many governments to promote peace and justice, the production and sale
of lethal weapons continue to take place and, in some countries, justice systems and law
enforcement agencies are unable to address situations of violence, and sometimes they even
contribute to them. In any case, the promotion of peace and justice at a global level requires
international collaboration and a greater capacity to hold the perpetrators of the various
forms of violence accountable for their actions, so that they cannot act with impunity.

POLITICAL REPRESENTATION

Political representation and the social dimension concern the participation of citizens in
political decisions, implying three conditions: the ability to express themselves in the public
space, the choice of political representatives and the accountability of these representatives.
Political and civil rights are essential for this, with political rights enabling free participation in
decision-making processes and civil rights ensuring the protection of the public and private
spheres. Civil rights include freedom of expression, freedom from coercion, and ensuring the
independence of the press.

Political Rights

Political rights guarantee free and non-coercive participation in decision-making processes,

enabling voting, political organizing, and running for public office.

Civil Rights

They protect the private and public spheres by including freedom of expression, limitation of
judicial power, and protection against interference by powerful institutions and groups.

Their Role in Democracies

These rights enable the problematization of social issues, playing a crucial role in generating
public debates. They influence the formulation of laws and help detect problems requiring
political intervention.

Challenges of Current Democracies

Democracies face citizen disengagement, often due to conditions of poverty, violence and a
sense of ineffectiveness of the political system. Insecurity and disillusionment hinder political
engagement.

Education as a Key to Participation

Education plays a crucial role in developing critical citizens capable of understanding and
participating effectively in legitimate political processes.

Democracies generally manage to avoid the extreme forms of political and social repression
found in authoritarian regimes.

This highlights the importance of political and civil rights in democracies, although they face
challenges in maintaining citizen engagement and the legitimacy of the political process.

Conclusion

In this module, we have had the opportunity to explore the relationship between political
representation and the quality of institutions. While the theory video focuses on how civil and
political rights and the quality of institutions allow everyone to participate in the political
process, Table 1 focuses on how the quality of institutions is linked to economic activity. As
you have seen, there are many interconnections between the political system and the
economic system. This is because markets do not operate independently from the
institutional and political environment in which they are embedded. Many social and political
features, such as regulations, social norms, cultural values, the way institutions function,
etc., determine the behavior of economic agents and their interactions, and hence the way
the various markets (goods and services, labor, financial, etc.) operate.
SOCIAL EQUITY

Introduction to social equity and inequalities

Social equity concerns the fair distribution of income and wealth, influencing access to basic
needs such as food, health, education, and housing. Inequalities are observed in both income
and wealth and can arise from a variety of sources, including discrimination based on
ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, religion and disability.

Income and wealth inequality

Income inequality is measured through various indices, such as the Gini Index and the Palma
Index. In 2021, global data showed that the poorest half of the world's population held just 2%
of the wealth, while the richest 10% owned 76%. These inequalities impact poverty, which
mainly affects vulnerable groups such as the elderly, people with disabilities, women,
migrants and refugees.

Causes of income and wealth inequality

Several causes have been put forward, including the distribution of income between work
(salary) and capital (capital income). These inequalities have been attributed to factors such
as the decline in the share of income attributed to work, the impact of new technologies on
employment, and other socio-economic factors.

Consequences of inequalities

Income and wealth inequalities affect social mobility, access to quality education for children
from less advantaged backgrounds, and have an impact on the well-being of individuals. More
egalitarian income and wealth seem to promote happiness and collective well-being.

Discrimination and migration

Discrimination, prohibited by international human rights legislation, as well as poverty, are

major factors of migration. However, migration has varied impacts on the well-being of
migrants and host societies. Illegal migration can pose serious risks for individuals.

Impacts of lack of social equity

The lack of social equity is linked to a feeling of social injustice, causing distress and
weakening the social fabric. Inequalities can reduce individuals’ trust in society and its
institutions.

Conclusion

Tools exist to limit inequalities, but the choice of instruments to reduce these inequalities
depends closely on the economic, political and social context of each country.

The video therefore addresses the importance of social equity, income and wealth
inequalities, discrimination, the social and individual consequences of these inequalities, as
well as their implications for society as a whole.
GENDER EQUALITY

Social Dimension of the Donut Theory and Gender Inequalities

The text discusses the social dimension of Kate Raworth's Donut Theory, highlighting the
differences between "sex inequality" and "gender inequality". He emphasizes that sex refers to
biological characteristics while gender concerns identity and social recognition. Raworth
proposes two indicators for this dimension: representation in parliament and the wage gap.
However, these indicators do not take into account non-binary identities and do not capture
all forms of discrimination.

Gender inequality aims for equality, women's empowerment and the elimination of
discrimination. However, in many countries, women face legal, professional and social
obstacles. They are under-represented in decision-making positions, have a lower activity
rate, earn less and are more affected by unemployment. In addition, they do more domestic
work, face legal restrictions and have less access to education and health.

Women are also more vulnerable to violence, harassment and discrimination. Gender
stereotypes influence social roles, for example by perpetuating the idea that women are
meant for family tasks. Additionally, social norms sometimes lead to harmful practices such
as infanticide, early or forced marriage, and restrict access to health care for women.

Gender inequalities also affect men, locking them into models of toxic masculinity, exposing
them to social risks and influencing their educational trajectories. These inequalities are
linked to economic disparities, unequal access to health and education. People can
experience multiple forms of discrimination, based on multiple characteristics.

Progress towards gender equality varies between countries, with occasional setbacks. The
United Nations recognizes the work to be done. An inclusive approach, beyond the male-
female dichotomy, involves recognizing and valuing individual differences, understanding
prejudices and combating discrimination.

This summary highlights the differences between the terms "gender inequality" and "gender
inequality", while highlighting the multiple forms of discrimination experienced by women,
harmful gender stereotypes and the importance of an inclusive approach to fight against
these inequalities.

Summary of the Quiz on Microfinance in Mauritania

- Empowerment of women through microcredit

- Role of microcredit in the economic empowerment of women
- Microfinance as a way to escape poverty and strengthen women's empowerment
- Social and economic impact of microcredit on women and their families
- Microfinance supported by urban development projects and the World Bank
- Increase in purchasing power thanks to microfinance
 - Limitations and challenges: Social norms and stereotypes that can hinder the
effectiveness of microfinance in empowering women
- Importance of fighting against gender inequalities within the framework of
microfinance projects

HOUSING

Right to Decent Housing and Associated Challenges

The text addresses the right to decent housing, anchored in Article 25 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. According to the UN, in 2022, 1.6 billion people lived in
inadequate housing, of which around 1 billion resided in slums or shantytowns, facing
difficult living conditions.

Conditions for adequate housing:

Adequate housing goes beyond just a roof. It must guarantee security of tenure, offer essential
services (water, sanitation, etc.), ensure the physical security and health of occupants,
remain affordable without compromising access to other fundamental rights, be accessible
to all , allow access to employment opportunities, health and education services while
preserving the cultural identity of the occupants.

Inequalities and Access to Housing:

Inequalities in access to housing concern women, people with disabilities, indigenous

peoples, and are closely linked to income inequalities. In the European Union, 10.4% of the
urban population spent more than 40% of their income on housing. Homeless people
encounter difficulties accessing fundamental rights.

Problems associated with housing:

Criminalization of the homeless, overcrowded refugee and migrant camps, and informal
settlements in developing cities are major problems.

Climate change and housing:

Climate change affects the livability of cities. Urban infrastructure is vulnerable to the effects
of climate change. Experts recommend investments to reduce poverty, adapt housing policies
to climate change and reduce inequalities in access to housing.

The text highlights the impact of climate change on housing inequality and how the most
disadvantaged are more vulnerable to its effects. In addition, it highlights the consequences
on real estate valuation, internal migrations and housing choices due to climate change, such
as the example of Miami and the impact on housing prices depending on the rise in the level
of the sea.
NETWORK

The network dimension, according to Kate Raworth, is based on two key indicators. The first
evokes the existence of a trusted person from whom one can ask for help in difficult times,
depending on the individual's social ties. The second indicator concerns access to the
Internet, allowing the establishment and maintenance of social relationships. In this video
capsule, these two aspects are explored to discuss the impact of the social network on well-
being, using the concept of social capital, approached by different social sciences.

The Concept of Social Capital:

Social capital, as described by Pierre Bourdieu, encompasses resources linked to a network

of institutionalized relationships, requiring constant maintenance to provide the person with
material or symbolic benefits, such as support in times of difficulty or professional
opportunities.

Conceptions of Social Capital:

There are different conceptions of social capital. An individualist approach, to which Bourdieu
adheres, emphasizes how a person's network improves their living conditions. In contrast, a
collective approach emphasizes increasing cohesion within a community, promoting
engagement in collective projects.

The importance of Weak and Strong Ties:

Strong ties (family, close friends) and weak ties (acquaintances) play distinct roles: the former
provides direct support when needed, while the latter are crucial in areas like employment.
The lack of these networks can create inequalities in access to economic, cultural and social
resources.

Internet Access and Digital Divide:

Access to the Internet has become crucial for the establishment of these social networks.
However, inequalities in access to the Internet create what is called the digital divide, dividing
into three levels. The first level concerns material access, the second the skills necessary to
use these technologies, and the third focuses on the benefits reaped. Inequalities in these
levels contribute to socio-economic disparities.

In short, the digital divide creates disparities in access, skills and exploitation of the benefits
offered by new technologies. This can either reduce socio-economic inequalities or reinforce
them, depending on the resources and skills already present in individuals.

ENERGY

Access to Energy and Socio-economic Challenges

Kate Raworth's "doughnut" includes access to energy for safe uses such as cooking, heating
and lighting. Two key indicators are proposed: **access to electricity** and **clean cooking
facilities**. By focusing on these aspects, important observations are made.
Access to electricity

- The World Bank indicates an increase in access to electricity, from 83% in 2010 to 91%
in 2020, but 733 million people were still without it.
- Security of supply depends on multiple factors, including the availability of fuels, the
quality of infrastructure and their resilience to disruptions.
- Income inequalities between and within countries are key determinants of disparities
in access to electricity, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa where a large part of the
population without electricity is concentrated, especially in rural areas.

Access to clean cooking facilities

- The use of fuels such as wood and coal for cooking is linked to deforestation, climate
change and health risks, particularly for women and children.
- In 2020, 31% of the world's population (2.4 billion people) still used polluting cooking
devices, but regional disparities are notable.
- In sub-Saharan Africa, access to clean cooking facilities is particularly low, associated
with income inequalities and differences between rural and urban areas.

These findings highlight persistent challenges in accessing safe and clean energy, highlighting
significant regional and socio-economic inequalities across the world.

WATER

Access to clean water in Kate Raworth's Donut

Kate Raworth's Donut concept considers access to clean water along two fundamental
dimensions: **access to quality water without pollutants or pathogenic microorganisms**,
and **access to water services. basic sanitation**. This video summary first explores access
to drinking water, then looks at access to basic sanitation services.

Access to quality water

Several factors impact the availability of drinking water. Population growth, urbanization and
excessive use of water for agriculture and industry limit access to water. Additionally, climate
change disrupts the water cycle, causing droughts, desertification and extreme events.

In 2018, 2.3 billion people lived in water-stressed regions, and 3.6 billion had insufficient
access to water. Drought not only threatens access to drinking water but also compromises
food security by disrupting crops and the availability of food.

Effects on health and society

The lack of water forces people to travel long distances to obtain water, mainly women and
girls, impacting their health and their access to education or work. In addition, the
consumption of poor quality water is responsible for serious infectious diseases, causing
485,000 annual deaths due to diarrhea according to the WHO.

Importance of basic sanitation

To prevent water-related diseases, two conditions must be met: having adequate drinking
water systems and having sanitary facilities to collect and treat excrement. In 2020, only 54%
of the world's population had access to safely managed sanitation services.

Water resources management

To ensure sustainable access to quality water, it is crucial to have good management of water
resources. This involves continuous monitoring of water levels, collection of water quality
data, maintenance of infrastructure and the ability to make forecasts to manage extreme
events.

Environmental impacts and solutions

Water treatment processes have environmental impacts, contributing to the emission of

greenhouse gases. However, technological choices and effective management can minimize
these impacts.

Adequate management of water resources is essential to guarantee sustainable access to

quality water, especially in the context of climate change.