WISE IAS Academy

1. Anatomy, Pharmacology and Hygiene:

1. Histology and Histological Techniques: Paraffin embedding technique of tissue processing and
H.E. staining, Freezing microtome, Microscopy Bright field microscope and electron microscope.

2. Cytology-structure of cell, organelles and inclusions; Cell division and cell types- Tissues and their
classification, Embryonic and adult tissues, Comparative histology of organs-Vascular. Nervous,
digestive, respiratory, musculo- skeletal and urogenital systems- Endocrine glands -Integumentary-
sense organs.

3. Embryology of vertebrates with special reference to aves and domestic mammals, Gametogenesis-
fertilization-germ layers- foetal membranes, Placentation and types of placenta in domestic
mammals, Teratology-twins and twinning, Organogenesis, Germ layer derivatives-endodermal,
mesodermal and ectodermal derivatives.

4. Bovine Anatomy- Regional Anatomy: Paranasal sinuses of OX- surface anatomy of salivary
glands, Regional anatomy of infraorbital, maxillary, mandibular alveolar, mental and cornual nerve
block, Regional anatomy of paravertebral nerves, pudendal nerve, median ulnar and radial nerves-
tibial, fibular and digital nerves, Cranial nerves-structures involved in epidural anaesthesia-
superficial lymph nodes

5. Surface anatomy of visceral organs of thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities, Comparative
features of locomotor apparatus and their application in the biomechanics of the mammalian body,
Anatomy of Fowl- Musculo-skeletal system, Functional anatomy in relation to respiration and
flying, digestion and egg production,

6. Pharmacology and therapeutic drugs – Cellular level of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics,

Drugs acting on fluids and electrolyte balance, Drugs acting on the Autonomic nervous system,
Modern concepts of anaesthesia and dissociative anaesthetics, Autacoids, Antimicrobials and
principles of chemotherapy in microbial infections, Use of hormones in therapeutics,
Chemotherapy of parasitic infections.

7. Drug and economic concerns in the Edible tissues of animals, Chemotherapy of Neoplastic
diseases, Toxicity due to insecticides, plants, metals, non-metals, zootoxins and mycotoxins.

8. Veterinary Hygiene with reference to water, air and habitation – Assessment of pollution of water,
air and soil, Importance of climate in animal health- effect of environment on animal function and
performance, Relationship between industrialization and animal agriculture, Animal housing
requirements for specific categories of domestic animals viz. pregnant cows and sows, milking
cows, broiler birds, Stress, strain and productivity in relation to animal habitation.
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Unit 1 Histology and Histological Techniques: Paraffin embedding technique of tissue processing and
H.E. staining, Freezing microtomy, Microscopy, Bright field microscope and electron microscope.

UPSC PYQs

1) Discuss procedure for processing of tissues for paraffin sectioning? (2012).

1.1 Histology and Histological Techniques: Histology is the study of tissues' microscopic
structure to understand their composition and function. Histological techniques involve sample
preparation, fixation, sectioning, staining, and examination using microscopes. These techniques
enable the detailed examination of tissues, aiding in diagnosing diseases and advancing our
understanding of biology and medicine.

1.2 Paraffin embedding technique of Tissue Processing : Paraffin embedding is a fundamental

technique in histology and histopathology that allows for the preservation, sectioning, and
examination of tissues under a microscope. This method is crucial in studying the microscopic
structure of tissues, diagnosing diseases, and advancing our knowledge of biology and medicine.

The paraffin embedding technique involves several steps:

1. Fixation: The tissue sample is first fixed in a formalin solution to preserve its cellular structure and
prevent decomposition.

2. Dehydration: The fixed tissue is dehydrated by gradually immersing it in a series of alcohol

solutions with increasing concentrations. This process replaces water in the tissue with alcohol,
preparing it for embedding.

3. Clearing: The dehydrated tissue is cleared by immersing it in a clearing agent such as xylene or an
alternative solvent. Clearing removes the alcohol and further prepares the tissue for embedding.

4. Infiltration: The tissue is then immersed in molten paraffin wax. Paraffin wax has a melting point
that allows it to be easily handled at a moderate temperature while providing a solid block for
sectioning.

5. Embedding: The tissue, now impregnated with paraffin wax, is carefully placed into a mold, and
additional molten paraffin wax is poured around it. Once the paraffin solidifies, it forms a block
containing the embedded tissue.

6. Sectioning: The paraffin-embedded tissue block is cut into thin sections (usually around 5-7
micrometers thick) using a microtome. These sections are then mounted onto glass slides.
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7. Staining: The tissue sections on the glass slides are stained with various dyes to highlight specific
cellular components or structures. Stains help differentiate different cell types and tissues, aiding
in their identification.

8. Mounting: Once stained, the tissue sections are covered with a glass coverslip and a mounting
medium, which secures the coverslip in place and enhances visibility under the microscope.

1.3 H.E. staining: Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining is a widely used histological technique that
provides crucial insights into the microscopic structure of tissues. H&E staining involves two main dyes:
hematoxylin, a basic dye that stains cell nuclei blue-purple, and eosin, an acidic dye that imparts a pink-red
color to the cytoplasm and extracellular structures.

The H&E staining process consists of several key steps:

1. Tissue Preparation: Thin sections of paraffin-embedded tissue are cut using a microtome and
mounted onto glass slides.

2. Deparaffinization: The mounted tissue sections are deparaffinized to remove the paraffin wax and
make the tissue accessible to the dyes. This is typically done through a series of alcohol and xylene
washes.

3. Hematoxylin Staining: The tissue sections are immersed in hematoxylin, which selectively binds
H- DNA -PURPLE
to the DNA in cell nuclei. This results in a deep blue-purple coloration of the nuclei.
E- CYTOPLASM-PINK
4. Differentiation: The excess hematoxylin is washed off, and the tissue is briefly immersed in an
acid-alcohol solution to differentiate the stain and enhance contrast.

5. Eosin Staining: After differentiation, the tissue is stained with eosin, which colors the cytoplasm,
connective tissues, and extracellular matrix pink or red.

6. Dehydration and Mounting: The stained tissue sections are dehydrated through a series of alcohol
washes, cleared with xylene, and mounted with a coverslip using a mounting medium.

1.4 Freezing microtome: A freezing microtome is a specialized laboratory instrument used in histology
and pathology for the sectioning of frozen tissue samples into thin sections suitable for microscopic
examination. This technique allows researchers and pathologists to study tissues in a near-natural state,
preserving cellular structures and antigenicity. The freezing microtome is particularly useful when paraffin
embedding may alter or damage tissue components.
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Freezing microtome working and its main components:

1. Sample Preparation: Tissue samples are typically frozen quickly using a cryostat or a freezing
chamber to maintain their structural integrity. This rapid freezing minimizes ice crystal formation,
which can damage cellular structures.

2. Mounting the Sample: The frozen tissue specimen is then mounted onto a specimen holder, often
with the use of an embedding medium like Optimal Cutting Temperature (OCT) compound to
provide stability during sectioning.

3. Sectioning: The tissue block is secured in the freezing microtome, which consists of a cutting
platform and a blade holder. The microtome's cryostat chamber helps maintain a consistently cold
temperature. As the microtome advances, the blade slices thin sections (typically 5-20 micrometers
thick) from the frozen tissue block. These sections are collected on glass slides.

4. Staining and Mounting: The sections may then be stained using various histological stains, such
as Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E), to highlight specific structures or cells. Once stained, the
sections are typically mounted with a coverslip and a mounting medium for microscopic
examination.

1.5 Microscopy, Bright field microscope and electron microscope:

Microscopy: Microscopy is a scientific technique that employs microscopes to magnify and visualize
objects and structures too small for the naked eye. It enables the study of cells, microorganisms, molecules,
and materials at the microscopic level, providing valuable insights for research, diagnosis, and
understanding the intricate world of the very small.

Bright field microscope:

1. Bright field microscopes are fundamental tools in the realm of optical microscopy, utilizing visible
light to illuminate specimens.

2. They are widely employed in biological sciences, allowing researchers and students to examine a
variety of specimens such as cells, tissues, and microorganisms.

3. The basic design of a bright field microscope involves a light source beneath the specimen, with
the light passing through the specimen and into the objective lens.

4. One of the primary advantages of bright field microscopy is its simplicity, making it accessible for
routine laboratory use and educational purposes. However, this method has limitations in revealing
fine details due to the diffraction limit of visible light.
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5. They have played a crucial role in foundational biological discoveries, providing insights into
cellular structures and functions.

6. Bright field microscope remains a cornerstone in laboratories, serving as an essential tool for
introductory microscopy studies and routine observations in fields like pathology, microbiology,
and histology. Its ease of use and versatility continue to make it a valuable instrument in scientific
exploration.

Electron microscope: The electron microscope stands as a pinnacle in microscopy, transcending the
limitations of traditional light microscopy. Unlike bright field microscopes, electron microscopes employ
a beam of accelerated electrons rather than visible light, enabling unparalleled resolution and magnification.

This revolutionary technology has two main types:

1. Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) : In TEM, electrons pass through a thin specimen,
forming high-resolution images that reveal intricate internal structures at the nanoscale. This makes
TEM especially valuable in studying biological tissues, nanoparticles, and materials science.

2. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) : SEM, on the other hand, scans a focused electron beam
across the specimen's surface, creating detailed 3D images. SEM excels in providing surface
morphology information, crucial for fields like materials engineering and geology.
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Unit 2 Cytology, Structure of cell, organelles and inclusions; Cell division and cell types, Tissues and
their classification, Embryonic and adult tissues, Comparative histology of organs: Vascular,
Nervous, digestive, respiratory, musculoskeletal and urogenital systems, Endocrine glands,
Integumentary, sense organs.

UPSC PYQs

1) Write about the development of bone, fat and muscle tissues starting from the embryonic stage?
(2013)
2) What is cell division? Write about the various functions of different body tissues in adult animals?
(2014)
3) Describe the histological structure of the ovary with a suitable diagram? (2017)
4) Describe in detail about the histology of testis in bull? (2018)
5) Discuss the histology of adrenal gland? (2019)
6) Discuss the histology of endocrine and exocrine pancreas? (2021)
7) Development of bone, fat and muscle tissues in mammalian embryos? (2021)
8) Discuss the structure and function of sweat glands? (2022)
9) Discuss about development of pituitary gland? (2023)
10) Describe in detail the comparative histology of liver among domestic animals? (2023)

2.1 Cytology-structure of cell, organelles and inclusions: Cytology is a critical field of study that
provides insights into the structure, function, and behavior of cells.

Structure of cell:

1. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It exhibits a complex yet
organized structure, essential for carrying out the multitude of tasks necessary for life.

2. The cell is typically enclosed by a semi-permeable plasma membrane that separates its internal
environment from the external surroundings. Within this boundary, the cell's interior contains
various organelles, each with specific functions.

3. The nucleus, often referred to as the cell's control center, houses genetic material in the form of
DNA, governing cellular activities and heredity.

4. Cytoplasm fills the cell's interior, providing a medium for cellular activities. Endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles are involved in the synthesis, modification, and transport
of proteins.
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5. Mitochondria are responsible for energy production through cellular respiration, while chloroplasts
carry out photosynthesis in plant cells.

6. Structural support is provided by the cytoskeleton, a network of proteins that maintains cell shape
and facilitates intracellular transport. Some cells possess a rigid cell wall external to the membrane,
offering additional structural support and protection.

Cell organelles:

1. Plasma Membrane: The cell's outer boundary, composed of a lipid bilayer, regulates the passage
of substances in and out of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm: A gel-like substance within the cell that houses various organelles and cellular
structures.

3. Nucleus: Often referred to as the"control center," it contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and
directs cellular activities.

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface, while smooth ER lacks ribosomes.

5. Ribosomes: Tiny structures involved in protein synthesis. They can be free in the cytoplasm or
attached to the roughER.

6. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport to their
destination within or outside the cell.

7. Mitochondria: Often called the"powerhouses" of the cell, they generate energy (ATP) through
cellular respiration.

8. Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

9. Vacuoles: Membrane-bound sacs that store water, nutrients, or waste products, depending on the
cell type.

10. Cytoskeleton: A network of protein filaments (microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate

filaments) that maintains cell shape and facilitates intracellular transport.

11. Centrioles: Involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis) and are part of the microtubule-
organizing center.

12. Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Contain chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis,
converting sunlight into energy in plant cells.

13. Cell Wall (in plant cells): Provides structural support and protection to plant cells.
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14. Flagella and Cilia: Appendages that can protrude from the cell's surface, involved in cell
movement or the movement of substances along the cell surface.

15. Nucleolus: Found within the nucleus, it is responsible for ribosome synthesis.

Cell inclusions: Cell inclusions are substances or structures that can be found within the cytoplasm of a
cell. These are diverse intracellular, non-living substances, also known as ergastic substances, not enclosed
by membranes. These include stored nutrients, secretory products, and pigment granules, contributing to
various cellular functions.

1. Glycogen, a glucose storage form abundant in muscles and liver cells, appears as clusters or rosettes
of beta particles under electron microscopy. It serves as a readily available energy source for the
cell and can be broken down into glucose molecules by enzymes during glycogenolysis.

2. Lipids, primarily stored as triglycerides, manifest as droplets in cells, especially adipocytes and
hepatocytes. Fluid at body temperature, lipids serve as a local energy store and contribute to
membrane synthesis and other structural components.

3. Crystals, recognized in cells like Sertoli and Leydig cells, are believed to be crystalline forms of
certain proteins distributed throughout the cell.

4. Pigments, such as melanin in skin cells, play protective roles, while pigments like lipofuscin in
cardiac tissue and neurons may have lysosomal activity. Hemosiderin is formed as a result of
hemoglobin degradation after phagocytosis of aging or damaged red blood cells in organs like the
spleen, liver, bone marrow, and hemal nodes.

2.2 Cell division and cell types: Cell division is a fundamental process in biology that allows living
organisms to grow, develop, repair, and reproduce. There are two primary types of cell division: mitosis
and meiosis.The cell cycle governs these cyclic events in most cells, consisting of two main phases:
interphase and M phase (mitosis).

Interphase:

1. G1 phase- marks a stage of cellular expansion and readiness for DNA synthesis.

2. S phase -DNA replication transpires, leading to the development of sister chromatids, each
comprising both original and newly synthesized DNA strands.

3. G2 phase -ensues, encompassing a brief duration wherein daughter centrioles finalize their
elongation. This phase typically spans 1 to 2 hours, setting the stage for the impending cell division.

4. M phase- succeeding interphase, encompasses two primary procedures: mitosis and cytokinesis.
During mitosis, the cell meticulously segregates replicated chromosomes into two complete sets,
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ensuring that each daughter cell inherits a comprehensive set of chromosomes. Following mitosis,
cytokinesis comes into play, partitioning the cell into two distinct daughter cells.

Mitosis and Meiosis:

Mitosis:

● Purpose: Mitosis is responsible for the growth, maintenance, and repair of somatic cells (non-
reproductive cells) in multicellular organisms.

● Process: The cell duplicates its chromosomes and then divides into two identical daughter cells,
each with the same genetic material as the parent cell.

● Result: Mitosis results in two genetically identical diploid cells, ensuring the preservation of the
organism’s genetic information.

Meiosis:

● Purpose: Meiosis is involved in the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells) for sexual
reproduction.

● Process: The cell undergoes two successive divisions, producing four non-identical haploid
daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

● Result: Meiosis introduces genetic diversity as a result of crossing over and random assortment of
chromosomes during cell division, contributing to the variability seen in offspring.

Meiosis Involves Two Cell Divisions :

1. In Meiosis I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes, which are similar in size and carry the same
genes but may have different versions of those genes, are separated. This ensures that each daughter
cell receives only one copy of each chromosome, reducing the chromosome number by half.

2. In Meiosis II, the sister chromatids, which are the identical copies of each chromosome formed
during DNA replication, are separated. Each chromatid becomes an independent chromosome, and
this division results in the formation of four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of
chromosomes found in the parent cell.
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2.3 Tissues and their Classification:

Tissues consist of similar cells collaborating to fulfill specific functions within an organism.

The four primary tissue types are:

1. Epithelial Tissue: Forms the body's outer layer and lines organs and cavities.

2. Connective Tissue: Provides structural support and connects different body parts. Includes bone,
cartilage, blood, and adipose tissue.

3. Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement and force generation. Skeletal (voluntary movements),
smooth (in walls of organs and blood vessels), and cardiac (specific to the heart).

4. Nervous Tissue: Comprises neurons and forms the nervous system's foundation.

Functions of different body tissues in adult animals:

1. Epithelial Tissue:

● Forms protective barriers on body surfaces and linings of organs.

● Regulates the exchange of substances between different body compartments.
● Participates in secretion and absorption processes.
● Offers protection against physical and microbial threats.

2. Connective Tissue:

● Provides structural support, maintaining the form and shape of organs and tissues.
● Connects various body parts, facilitating movement and coordination.
● Plays a vital role in immune responses and defense against pathogens.
● Serves as a reservoir for energy storage (adipose tissue) and transportation of nutrients and waste
products (blood).

3. Muscle Tissue:

● Skeletal Muscle: Enables voluntary movements and locomotion.

● Smooth Muscle: Found in walls of organs and blood vessels, facilitating involuntary movements
and contractions for processes like digestion and blood flow regulation.
● Cardiac Muscle: Specific to the heart, responsible for pumping blood throughout the circulatory
system.

4. Nervous Tissue:
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● Transmits electrical and chemical signals (nerve impulses) for communication between different
parts of the body.
● Plays a crucial role in sensory perception, allowing animals to respond to stimuli.
● Controls motor functions, coordinating muscle movements.
● Contributes to higher cognitive functions, learning, and memory.

2.4 Embryonic and adult tissues:

Embryonic Tissues:

1. Embryonic tissues are the building blocks of development in multicellular organisms, originating
during the early stages of embryogenesis. These tissues undergo differentiation and specialization
to form the various cell types and organs in the developing embryo.

2. Three primary germ layers give rise to embryonic tissues: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
The ectoderm contributes to the nervous system, skin, and other surface structures. The mesoderm
forms muscles, bones, blood, and the circulatory system. The endoderm develops into internal
organs such as the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system.

Adult Tissues:

1. Adult tissues are the mature, differentiated structures that constitute the organs and systems of an
organism after embryonic development.

2. These tissues are responsible for maintaining the structure and function of organs throughout an
organism's life. Adult tissues undergo repair, regeneration, and turnover, primarily relying on
specialized cells within each tissue type.

Difference between Adult and Embryonic Stem Cells :

Adult Stem Cells Embryonic Stem Cells

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Adult Stem Cells are undifferentiated stem Embryonic Stem Cells are found
cells in differentiated organs/tissues. during the early blastocyst stage.

They are multipotent. It means they can develop They are pluripotent. Hence, they can develop
only into closely related cell types. into any cell.

Location – Bone marrow, brain, blood, liver, Location – Blastocyst

skin, skeletal muscles, adipose tissue.

Development of bone, fat and muscle tissues starting from the embryonic stage:

Embryonic Development of Bone Tissue:

1. Mesodermal Origin: Bone tissue originates from mesodermal cells during embryonic
development.

2. Condensation of Mesenchymal Cells: Mesenchymal cells condense into a soft tissue template,
later giving rise to bones.

3. Osteogenesis: The process of osteogenesis begins with the differentiation of mesenchymal cells
into osteoblasts.

4. Formation of Cartilage Model: In endochondral ossification, a cartilage model forms and serves
as a scaffold for bone formation.

5. Vascular Invasion: Blood vessels invade the cartilage model, bringing osteoprogenitor cells and
nutrients.

6. Bone Formation: Osteoblasts deposit mineralized matrix, replacing cartilage. Osteoclasts

contribute to bone remodeling.

Embryonic Development of Fat Tissue (Adipose Tissue):

1. Mesodermal Origin: Adipose tissue originates from mesodermal cells.

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2. Formation of Fat Cells (Adipocytes): Mesenchymal cells differentiate into preadipocytes and
then mature into adipocytes.

3. Deposition of Fat: Adipocytes accumulate lipids, forming fat droplets in the cytoplasm.

4. Vascularization: Blood vessels grow into the developing adipose tissue to support metabolic
needs.

Embryonic Development of Muscle Tissue:

1. Mesodermal Origin: Muscle tissue originates from mesodermal cells.

2. Myoblast Formation: Myoblasts, precursor cells, form and proliferate.

3. Fusion of Myoblasts: Myoblasts fuse to form multinucleated myotubes.

4. Muscle Fiber Formation: Myotubes further differentiate into muscle fibers (muscle cells).

5. Innervation: Nerve cells extend into muscle tissue, establishing neuromuscular connections.

2.5 Comparative histology of organs- Nervous, digestive, respiratory, musculo- skeletal and
urogenital systems- Endocrine glands -Integumentary-sense organs.

Nervous system organs: The nervous system is a complex network of organs that coordinates and controls
bodily functions.

Brain:
● Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer with neurons organized into six distinct layers, crucial for
sensory perception, motor control, and cognitive functions.
● White Matter: Composed of myelinated axons forming tracts that facilitate communication
between different brain regions.

Spinal Cord:
● Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies and synapses, responsible for local processing of
sensory and motor information.
● White Matter: Comprises myelinated axon tracts transmitting signals between the spinal
cord and the rest of the body.

Peripheral Nerves:
● Axons: Bundles of nerve fibers surrounded by connective tissue, forming the basis of
nerves.
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● Endoneurium, Perineurium, and Epineurium: Connective tissue layers providing structural

support and protection to nerve fibers.

Ganglia:
● Dorsal Root Ganglia: Clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies outside the spinal cord,
involved in relaying sensory information.
● Autonomic Ganglia: Contain cell bodies of autonomic neurons regulating involuntary
bodily functions.

Cerebellum:
● Cortex: Highly folded structure with three layers, coordinating voluntary movements and
maintaining balance.
● Arbor Vitae: Distinct white matter pattern resembling a tree, composed of axons extending
into the cerebellum.

Autonomic Ganglia:
● Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Ganglia: Contain cell bodies of autonomic neurons,
influencing organ functions and homeostasis.

Digestive system:

The digestive system comprises organs that play key roles in the ingestion, breakdown, absorption, and
elimination of nutrients. Here's a brief comparative histology of major organs within the digestive system:

Esophagus:
● Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Provides protection against mechanical abrasion
during the passage of food.

● Muscularis Externa: Smooth muscle layers for peristaltic contractions.

Stomach:
● Gastric Mucosa: Contains gastric pits lined with mucous-secreting cells, parietal cells,
and chief cells.

● Muscularis Externa: Three layers of smooth muscle facilitating mechanical digestion.

Small Intestine:
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● Intestinal Villi: Finger-like projections covered with absorptive epithelium, increasing

surface area for nutrient absorption.

● Crypts of Lieberkühn: Tubular structures containing stem cells for continual epithelial
renewal.

Large Intestine:
● Colon Mucosa: Lacks villi but has numerous goblet cells for mucus secretion.
● Taeniae Coli: Three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle along the colon.

Liver:
● Hepatic Lobules: Structural units with hepatic cells arranged around a central vein.
● Sinusoids: Capillary-like spaces facilitating the exchange of nutrients and waste products.

Pancreas:
● Acini: Clusters of exocrine cells producing digestive enzymes.
● Islets of Langerhans: Endocrine cells (alpha, beta, delta cells) for hormone secretion.

Gallbladder:
● Mucosa: Simple columnar epithelium with absorptive cells.

● Smooth Muscle Layers: Aid in the storage and release of bile.

The comparative histology of liver among domestic animals:

The liver is a vital organ in the digestive system, playing a central role in metabolism, detoxification, and
nutrient storage.

Cattle (Bovine):
● Hepatic Lobules: Hexagonal structural units with a central vein and radiating hepatocytes.

● Kupffer Cells: Phagocytic cells in sinusoids, important for immune function.

● Gallbladder: Present but small, as cattle are ruminants and store bile in the gallbladder to
release it directly into the duodenum.

Swine (Pig):
● Hepatic Lobules: Similar to cattle, with well-defined central veins.
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● Panlobular Arrangement: Central veins are found in the center of each lobule.

● Gallbladder: Present and plays a significant role in bile storage and release.

Sheep and Goat:

● Hepatic Lobules: Similar to cattle with a central vein and radial hepatocytes.

● Gallbladder: Present, and bile storage is essential for digestion.

Horses:
● Hepatic Lobules: Hexagonal in shape, similar to other species.

● Large Kupffer Cells: Horse liver is characterized by large Kupffer cells.

● Gallbladder: Present, but horses have a continuous low-level secretion of bile.

Dogs and Cats:

● Hepatic Lobules: Similar to other mammals, with a central vein and hepatocytes.

● Portal Triads: Consisting of a bile duct, hepatic artery, and portal vein at the corners of
each lobule.

● Gallbladder: Present, with a role in bile storage and release.

Respiratory system: The respiratory system is composed of various organs that facilitate the exchange of
gases, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Trachea and Bronchi:

● Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium: Lined with mucus-secreting goblet

cells and ciliated cells to trap and move particles.

● Hyaline Cartilage Rings: Provide structural support to the trachea and bronchi.

Lungs (Alveoli):

● Simple Squamous Epithelium: Forms the delicate alveolar walls for efficient gas
exchange.
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● Elastic Fibers: Abundant in alveolar walls, allowing for expansion and contraction during
breathing.

Bronchioles:

● Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: Transition from ciliated columnar to cuboidal epithelium

in smaller airways.

● Smooth Muscle: Controls the diameter of bronchioles, regulating airflow.

Alveolar Ducts and Sacs:

● Thinner Walls: Facilitate the transition from bronchioles to alveoli.

● Type I and Type II Pneumocytes: Type I for gas exchange, Type II for surfactant
production.

Pleura:

● Simple Squamous Mesothelium: Lines the pleural cavity, facilitating smooth lung
movements.

● Connective Tissue: Provides support and elasticity to the pleural membranes.

Musculo-skeletal system: The musculoskeletal system in domestic animals comprises bones, muscles,
tendons, and ligaments, providing structural support, facilitating movement, and protecting internal organs.

1. Bone Tissue:

1. Haversian Systems (Osteons): These cylindrical structures are characteristic of compact bone and
are present in varying arrangements in different species.

2. Cancellous (Spongy) Bone: Variations exist in trabecular patterns, with differences in density and
organization.

3. Lacunae and Canaliculi: These structures house osteocytes and facilitate nutrient exchange. Their
density and arrangement can differ among species.
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2. Cartilage:

1. Hyaline Cartilage: Found in joint surfaces, the histology is relatively similar among species, but
thickness and resilience can vary.

2. Fibrocartilage: Present in areas requiring more flexibility and tensile strength, such as
intervertebral discs. Variations exist in fiber arrangement and cell density.

3. Skeletal Muscle:

1. Striated Muscle: Consists of sarcomeres, with differences in fiber type composition (fast-twitch
vs. slow-twitch) based on the animal's locomotor needs.

2. Nuclei Position: Intrafiber nuclei are common in some species, while others have peripheral nuclei.

4. Tendons and Ligaments:

1. Collagen Composition: Variations in collagen fiber type and arrangement influence tissue strength
and flexibility.

2. Fibroblast Density: Differences in fibroblast density affect tissue repair and response to
mechanical stress.

5. Joints:

1. Articular Cartilage: Differences in thickness and cellular composition exist across species.

2. Synovial Membrane: Variations in cell types and vascularity may impact joint health.

Uro-genital system: The urogenital system in domestic animals consists of organs involved in urine
production and excretion, as well as reproductive structures.

1. Kidneys:

● Renal Cortex and Medulla: Variations in the thickness of the renal cortex and medulla exist
among species.
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● Nephrons: Differences in the number and arrangement of nephrons, the functional units of the
kidney, can be observed.

● Glomeruli: Size and structure of renal glomeruli may vary.

2. Ureters:

● Transitional Epithelium: The lining of the ureters may vary, with transitional epithelium adapting
to the stretching and contraction during urine transport.

3. Urinary Bladder:

● Detrusor Muscle: Smooth muscle in the bladder wall can vary in thickness and arrangement.

● Urothelium: The lining of the bladder consists of urothelial cells, and the thickness of the
urothelium may differ.

Histological structure of Ovary: The ovary is a crucial reproductive organ in females, responsible for
producing eggs (oocytes) and regulating female sex hormones.

1. Ovarian Cortex:

● Ovarian Follicles: Basic structural and functional units containing oocytes. Each follicle
comprises an oocyte surrounded by follicular cells.

● Stroma: The connective tissue framework supporting follicles. Blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatics traverse the stroma.

2. Ovarian Medulla:

● Blood Vessels and Nerves: The medulla houses the ovarian blood vessels and nerves, facilitating
communication and nutrient supply.

● Connective Tissue: Contains loose connective tissue supporting vascular structures.

3. Ovarian Follicles:

● Primordial Follicles: Consist of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of squamous

follicular cells.
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● Primary Follicles: Develop from primordial follicles, with a primary oocyte and a single layer of
cuboidal follicular cells.

● Secondary Follicles: Feature an enlarged oocyte, additional layers of granulosa cells, and theca
cells surrounding the follicle.

4. Corpus Luteum (After Ovulation):

● Luteinization: Following ovulation, the remaining follicle transforms into the corpus luteum.

● Luteal Cells: Granulosa and theca cells transform into luteal cells, producing progesterone to
support potential pregnancy.

5. Corpus Albicans (if Pregnancy Doesn't Occur):

● Regression: If fertilization doesn't occur, the corpus luteum regresses.

● Scar Tissue: Forms the corpus albicans, representing the regressed and degenerated corpus luteum.

6. Ovarian Surface Epithelium:

● Single Layer of Epithelial Cells: Covers the surface of the ovary.

● Mesothelial Cells: Part of the peritoneum, contributing to a protective layer.

Histology of testis in bull:

1. Testicular Capsule (Tunica Albuginea):

● Connective Tissue: Forms the outer layer, providing structural support.

● Septa: Extending into the testis, these partitions divide it into lobules.

2. Testicular Lobules:

● Seminal Tubules: Functional units for sperm production.

● Interstitium: Connective tissue between tubules housing blood vessels, lymphatics, and Leydig
cells.

3. Seminal Tubules (Seminiferous Tubules):

● Spermatogenic Cells: Line tubule walls, undergoing spermatogenesis.

● Sertoli Cells: Support spermatogenesis and nourish sperm.
● Lumen: Central cavity where mature sperm are released.
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4. Interstitial Tissue:

● Leydig Cells: Present in interstitial tissue, producing testosterone.

● Blood Vessels: Form a vascular network supporting testis metabolism.

5. Rete Testis:

● Network of Tubules: Collects sperm from seminiferous tubules.

● Sperm Transport: Facilitates movement towards the epididymis.

6. Epididymis:

● Tightly Coiled Tubules: Connect to the rete testis, continuing sperm maturation.
● Sperm Storage: Serves as a site for sperm storage and further development.

7. Vas Deferens:

● Muscular Tube: Links the epididymis to the urethra.

● Sperm Transport: Contracts during ejaculation, propelling sperm towards the urethra.

Comparative histology of endocrine glands: The endocrine system, a complex network of glands that
release hormones to regulate bodily functions, exhibits varied histological features across different glands.

1. Pituitary Gland:

● Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis): Comprised of glandular tissue with distinct cell types
like somatotrophs and corticotrophs.
● Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis): Neural tissue containing pituicytes and storing hormones
from the hypothalamus.

2. Thyroid Gland:

● Follicles: Follicular cells enclose colloid-filled follicles, containing precursor molecules for thyroid
hormones.
● Parafollicular (C) Cells: Situated between follicles, producing calcitonin.
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3. Adrenal Glands:

● Adrenal Cortex: Divided into three zones, each producing specific hormones.
● Adrenal Medulla: Chromaffin cells release catecholamines.

4. Pancreas:

● Islets of Langerhans: Alpha, beta, delta, and PP cells produce glucagon, insulin, somatostatin,
and pancreatic polypeptide, respectively.

5. Parathyroid Glands: Chief Cells Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), involved in calcium regulation.

6. Pineal Gland: Pinealocytes Secrete melatonin, regulating circadian rhythms.

Histology of adrenal gland: The adrenal glands are paired endocrine organs located on top of each kidney.
They consist of two distinct regions: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. Each region has specialized
cells contributing to the production of various hormones.

Adrenal Cortex:

1. Zona Glomerulosa:

● Cell Types: Composed of cells arranged in round clusters.

● Hormone Production: Produces mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, which regulates

electrolyte balance and blood pressure.

2. Zona Fasciculata:

● Cell Types: Composed of cells arranged in long, straight cords.

● Hormone Production: Produces glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol, involved in metabolism,

immune response, and stress regulation.

3. Zona Reticularis:

● Cell Types: Composed of irregularly arranged cells.

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● Hormone Production: Produces androgens, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which

serve as precursors for sex hormones.

Adrenal Medulla:

Chromaffin Cells: Release catecholamines, primarily epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, in

response to stress. These hormones play a key role in the fight-or-flight response.

Histology of Endocrine and Exocrine pancreas: The pancreas is a dual-function organ with both
exocrine and endocrine components, each serving distinct roles in digestion and hormonal regulation.

Exocrine Pancreas:

1. Acinar Cells:

● Cell Type: Comprise the majority of the exocrine pancreas.

● Function: Secrete digestive enzymes into ducts that lead to the pancreatic duct, facilitating
digestion in the small intestine.
● Histological Features: Arranged in clusters called acini, with zymogen granules containing
digestive enzymes.

2. Pancreatic Ducts:

● Function: Collect digestive enzymes from acinar cells and transport them to the duodenum.
● Histological Features: Tubular structures lined by epithelial cells, converging into the main
pancreatic duct.

Endocrine Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans):

1. Alpha Cells:

● Location: Predominantly in the periphery of the islets.

● Hormone: Secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels.
● Histological Features: Polygonal cells with granular cytoplasm.

2. Beta Cells:

● Location: Central portion of the islets.

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● Hormone: Secrete insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.

● Histological Features: Larger cells with more abundant cytoplasm.

3. Delta Cells:

● Location: Interspersed throughout the islets.

● Hormone: Secrete somatostatin, which inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion.
● Histological Features: Smaller cells with granular cytoplasm.

4. Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) Cells:

● Location: Scattered within the islets.

● Hormone: Secrete pancreatic polypeptide, which regulates appetite and digestion.
● Histological Features: Smaller cells with lightly stained cytoplasm.

Histology of the integumentary system and sense organs in farm animals:

1. Skin (Epidermis and Dermis):

● Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin is the epidermis, which is primarily composed
of stratified squamous epithelium. In farm animals, the thickness and composition of the
epidermis can vary depending on the species. It serves as a protective barrier against
physical, chemical, and microbial threats.

● Dermis: Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis, which contains various connective tissue
elements, including collagen and elastin fibers. Blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat
glands, and sebaceous glands are embedded within the dermis. The thickness and
organization of the dermis also differ among species.

2. Hair: Farm animals like cattle, horses, and sheep often have hair (or wool in the case of sheep) as
part of their integumentary system. Hair consists of keratinized cells and is primarily a protective
structure.

3. Sweat and Sebaceous Glands: Sweat glands are responsible for thermoregulation by producing
sweat, which helps in cooling the body. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that
lubricates the skin and hair, preventing dehydration and providing some protection against
microbes.
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4. Hooves and Claws: In animals like cattle, horses, and goats, hooves and claws are specialized
structures made of keratin. They are essential for support and locomotion.

Sense organs in farm animals:

1. Eyes (Vision): Farm animals, like cows, horses, and poultry, have well-developed eyes with a
similar basic structure to human eyes, including the cornea, lens, retina, and optic nerve. The eyes
are adapted to their specific environmental needs, with differences in the placement of eyes on the
head (lateral or forward-facing) and variations in the types of vision (e.g., panoramic or binocular)
among different species.

2. Ears (Hearing): Ears in farm animals like cattle, pigs, and horses are usually composed of external,
middle, and inner ear structures. The external ear collects sound waves, while the middle ear
contains the ossicles (small bones) for transmitting vibrations to the inner ear. The inner ear houses
the cochlea, which is responsible for converting vibrations into electrical signals that the brain
interprets as sound.

3. Nose (Olfaction): - The sense of smell in farm animals is essential for various functions, such as
finding food, detecting predators, and identifying mates. The nasal cavity contains olfactory
receptors that detect odor molecules and transmit signals to the brain for interpretation.
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