Animal Nutrition

1. Partitioning of food energy within the animal and Systems for expressing energy value of foods,
Direct and indirect calorimetry and Carbon Nitrogen balance and comparative slaughter methods.

UPSC PYQ’S

1. Differentiate between the following- (2014, 2015) a) a)

Starch equivalent & Net energy.
b) Digestible energy & metabolizable energy.
c) Metabolic energy & net energy.

2. Give the schematic representation of partitioning of feed energy in the body of lactating cows?
(2016)

3. How energy retention in the animal body is measured by Carbon- nitrogen balance study ? How
does it differ from that of comparative slaughter methods? (2017)

4. Discuss in brief about the various systems of expressing the energy value of feeds and energy
requirements in swine ? ( 2017)

5. Describe different types of calorimetry ? ( 2018)

6. Differentiate between metabolic faecal nitrogen and endogenous urinary nitrogen ? ( 2018)

7. Write a short note on Total digestible nutrients? ( 2020)

8. Describe the partitioning of food energy in the animal body ? ( 2021)

9. Define the term total digestible nutrients and describe the various factors which affect the total
digestible nutrients? ( 2022)

10. Write a short note on metabolizable energy? ( 2023).

1.1 Partitioning of food energy:

The partitioning of food energy within an animal refers to how the energy obtained from consumed food is
allocated and used for various physiological processes and activities. The energy obtained from food is
primarily used for the following purposes:

1. Maintenance Energy: A significant portion of the energy is allocated to maintaining basic

physiological functions, such as maintaining body temperature, circulating blood, and sustaining
cellular processes. This is often referred to as the basal metabolic rate (BMR) or maintenance
energy expenditure.

2. Growth: If the animal is still growing, a portion of the energy is allocated to support growth and
development. This includes the synthesis of new tissues, organs, and bones.

3. Reproduction: Energy is allocated to support reproductive processes, including the production of

gametes (sperm and eggs), gestation, and lactation.
 4. Activity: Energy is expended during physical activity, such as foraging, hunting, mating, and
escaping from predators.

5. Immune System and Repair: A portion of energy is allocated to the immune system for defending
against pathogens and for tissue repair and maintenance.

1.2 Systems for Expressing Energy Value of Foods in Ruminants, Pigs and Poultry:

The expression of the energy value of foods for ruminants, pigs, and poultry is crucial in animal nutrition
to formulate balanced diets and optimize animal performance. Here are some of the commonly used
systems:

1. Gross energy
2. Digestible energy
3. Metabolisable energy
4. Net energy
5. TDN
6. Starch equivalent

1. Gross Energy (GE) is a measure of the total energy content of a given feed or food item. It
represents the total chemical energy contained within the food, including all the potential energy
available from its components. GE is typically expressed in units of energy, such as calories or
joules, per unit weight of the food (e.g., calories per gram).

2. Digestible Energy (DE) is a measure of the energy content of a feed or food item that takes into
account the energy lost in the feces during digestion and metabolism. DE represents the portion of
Gross Energy (GE) that an organism can actually absorb and utilize for various physiological
processes, such as growth, maintenance, and reproduction.

DE = GE (Gross Energy) - FECES (Energy lost in feces)

It is typically measured in kilocalories per kilogram of feed or megajoules per kilogram of dry matter.

3. Metabolizable Energy (ME) is a measure of the energy content of a feed or food item that takes
into account the energy lost in both the feces and urine during digestion and metabolism. ME
represents the portion of Gross Energy (GE) that an organism can absorb, metabolize, and utilize
for various physiological processes after accounting for losses through excretion.

ME = GE (Gross Energy) - FECES (Energy lost in feces) - URINE (Energy lost in urine)

4. Net Energy (NE) is a measure of the energy content of a feed or food item that represents the
energy available to an organism after accounting for all energy losses, including those in feces,
urine, and heat production through digestive and metabolic processes. NE is the actual energy
available for physiological processes such as maintenance, growth, reproduction, and physical
activity.
 NE = GE (Gross Energy) - FECES (Energy lost in feces) - URINE (Energy lost in urine) - HEAT
INCREMENT (Heat production)

Heat increment is the amount of energy lost as a result of chemical and physical processes
associated with digestion and metabolism. HI is greater in ruminants compared to monogastrics.
HI is also called as specific dynamic effect it consists of the following:

● Heat of nutrient metabolism.

● Heat of fermentation.

● Heat production from work by the kidney.

● Heat production from increased muscular activity due to nutrient metabolism.

5. Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) is a measure of the energy content of a feed, expressed in terms
of the weight of digestible nutrients present in the feed. TDN takes into account the digestibility of
various components of the feed, including protein, fiber, carbohydrates, and fat. The formula for
calculating TDN is as follows:
CP +CF+ NFE+2.25.EE)
TDN (%) = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fiber + % digestible N-free extract +
(2.25 x % digestible ether extract)

Factors Affecting TDN Value of Food:

1. Percentage of Dry Matter (% Dry Matter): Feeds with higher moisture content have lower
nutrient concentrations on a fresh matter basis.

2. Digestibility of Dry Matter: The presence of indigestible substances like lignin and acid-insoluble
ash can reduce the overall digestibility of a feed.

3. Presence of Minerals: Minerals themselves do not provide energy to animals, so feeds that are
high in mineral content (e.g., high in ash) will have lower TDN values.

4. Percentage of Digestible Fat: Feeds containing higher levels of digestible fat will have higher
TDN values because fat is a concentrated source of energy.

Merits of TDN:

1. Simplicity: TDN is a relatively simple and straightforward method for estimating the energy
content of feeds.

2. Comparative Tool: TDN allows for easy comparisons between different feeds.
 3. Consideration of Digestibility: TDN takes into account the digestibility of nutrients, including
protein, fiber, carbohydrates, and fat.

Limitations of TDN:

1. Limited Information: TDN does not provide information about specific nutrients beyond

2. Ignores Non-Energy Factors: TDN does not consider factors such as palatability, anti-nutritional
factors, and potential health impacts of feeds.

6. Starch Equivalent (SE) is a concept used to express the energy value of a feedstuff relative to its
fat-producing ability compared to that of pure starch. It provides a measure of how efficiently a
feed can produce fat in animals when compared to the energy-producing capacity of pure starch.

SE is defined as the amount of kilograms of starch required to produce the same amount of fat as
produced by 100 kg of the respective feed. It quantifies the feed's ability to contribute to fat
production in animals. SE is typically expressed in kilograms.

SE = (Weight of fat stored per unit of food / Weight of fat stored per unit weight of starch) x 100

Starch Equivalent (SE) vs Net Energy: The primary difference is in the units of measurement: NE is
typically expressed in calories, while SE is expressed in terms of starch equivalent (kilograms of starch).

For Ruminants:

1. Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)

2. Net Energy (NE)

For Pigs and Poultry:

1. Metabolizable Energy (ME)

2. Net Energy (NE)

1.3 Direct and indirect calorimetry:

Direct Calorimetry:

Principle: Direct calorimetry measures heat production directly by detecting and quantifying the heat
generated by an organism.

Measurement: Direct calorimetry typically involves the use of a calorimeter, a specialized chamber or
device that isolates the subject (e.g., a person or an animal) and measures the temperature change of the
surrounding air or water. As the subject undergoes metabolic processes, such as digestion, respiration, and
physical activity, heat is generated and detected as a change in the temperature of the calorimeter.
 Types of direct Calorimetry:

Adiabatic Calorimeter:

● Adiabatic calorimetry involves placing an animal in a chamber designed to minimize heat loss
through its walls.

● This is achieved by having an outer box or wall that is electrically heated to the same temperature
as the inner wall, preventing heat loss from the inner wall to the outer wall.

● Water circulating in a coil within the chamber absorbs the heat collected by the inner wall, and
changes in the volume and temperature of the water can be used to calculate sensible heat loss from
the animal's body.

Gradient Calorimeter:

● Gradient calorimetry allows for some heat loss through the walls of the animal chamber.

● The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a constant temperature with a water
jacket, and temperature gradients are measured with thermocouples lining the inner and outer
surfaces of the wall.

Advantages of direct calorimetry:

1. Precision and Accuracy: Direct calorimetry provides precise and accurate measurements of heat
production because it directly measures the heat generated by the subject.

2. Useful for Respiratory Studies: Direct calorimetry can be combined with measurements of
oxygen consumption (VO2) and carbon dioxide production (VCO2) to assess respiratory
parameters, such as the respiratory quotient (RQ). This is valuable for studying substrate utilization
and metabolic rate.

3. Quantitative Data: Direct calorimetry provides quantitative data in units of heat energy (e.g.,
calories or joules).

4. Suitable for Diverse Subjects

Disadvantages of direct calorimetry:

1. High Cost: The construction and maintenance of direct calorimeters, especially adiabatic
calorimeters and gradient calorimeters, can be expensive.

2. Confinement of Subjects: Subjects must remain in a confined environment within the calorimeter
for extended periods to obtain accurate measurements.

3. Measurement of Insensible Heat: Direct calorimetry estimates insensible heat loss, including the
latent heat of water vaporized from the skin and respiratory passages.
 4. Invasive for Animals

Indirect calorimetry:

Principle: Indirect calorimetry estimates heat production indirectly by measuring the consumption of
oxygen (O2) and the production of carbon dioxide (CO2) during metabolic processes. It is based on the fact
that the combustion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body requires O2 and produces CO2, and the
amount of O2 consumed and CO2 produced is related to the energy expended.

Measurement: Indirect calorimetry is typically performed using specialized equipment, such as metabolic
carts or gas analyzers. Subjects breathe into a mask or a mouthpiece connected to the equipment, and the
concentrations of oxygen (O2) in the inhaled air and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the exhaled air are analyzed.
From these measurements, the respiratory quotient (RQ) can be calculated as the ratio of CO2 production
(VCO2) to O2 consumption (VO2). This calculation provides information about the substrate
(carbohydrates, fats, or proteins) being metabolized for energy. The RQ serves as an indicator of the type
of substrate being oxidized, such as lipid or carbohydrate, during the metabolic processes. Carbs have an
RQ of 1 while fat have RQ of 0.7 as they require more oxygen.
CO2/O2
Types of Indirect Calorimetry:

1. Closed Circuit System:

● In a closed circuit system an animal, rebreathes the same air within a closed chamber.

● CO2 production is determined by weighing an absorbent before and after its use to absorb CO2.
The change in the volume of the respiratory gas mixture due to oxygen consumption is used to
estimate oxygen use.

● Oxygen consumed by the subject is replaced by a metered supply of pure oxygen.

● Corrections are made for any differences in the amounts of O2 and CO2 present in the circuit air at
the beginning and end of the experiment.

● Methane, if produced, can accumulate in the circuit air, and its amount is determined at the end of
the experiment.

2. Open Circuit System:

● In an open circuit system, the subject is provided with a specific air composition, and the outgoing
air from a chamber or expelled air from a mask is either collected or measured and sampled.

● The collected gas is then analyzed to determine its oxygen and carbon dioxide content using various
techniques, including chemical, volumetric, or nanometric methods.

Thermal Equivalents of Oxygen:

 ● In indirect calorimetry, the thermal equivalents of oxygen are used to estimate heat production from
oxygen consumption.
● For glucose oxidation, the heat production is approximately 5.007 Kcal per liter of oxygen
consumed.
● For mixtures of carbohydrates, the average value is approximately 5.047 Kcal per liter of oxygen
consumed, and for mixtures of fats alone, the average value is approximately 4.715 Kcal per liter
of oxygen consumed.
● These values represent the amount of heat generated per liter of oxygen consumed and are essential
for converting oxygen consumption data into heat production.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ):

● The RQ is a critical parameter in indirect calorimetry, and it quantifies the ratio of carbon dioxide
produced (VCO2) to oxygen consumed (VO2) during metabolism.

● The RQ values differ for various nutrients: For carbohydrates, the RQ is 1 (6 CO2 produced for
every 6 O2 consumed). For fats, the RQ is approximately 0.70 (51L CO2 produced for every 72.5L
O2 consumed). For proteins, the RQ is approximately 0.8 (0.77L of CO2 produced for every 0.96L
of O2 consumed per gram of protein oxidized).

● The RQ provides information about the type of substrate being oxidized for energy, as well as the
proportion of oxygen used for each nutrient.

Advantages of indirect calorimetry:

1. Non-Invasive: Indirect calorimetry is a non-invasive method that does not require any surgical
procedures or the insertion of probes into the body.

2. Objective Assessment: It offers an objective and quantitative assessment of metabolic processes.

3. Substrate Utilization: Indirect calorimetry allows for the determination of which substrates
(carbohydrates, fats, or proteins) are being utilized for energy production.

Disadvantages of indirect calorimetry:

1. Equipment Costs: High-quality indirect calorimetry equipment can be expensive to purchase and
maintain.
2. Complexity: The operation and calibration of indirect calorimetry equipment can be complex,
requiring specialized training and expertise.

3. Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, can

influence gas exchange measurements and require careful control during experiments.

4. Measurement of Protein Oxidation: Indirect calorimetry is less accurate in estimating protein

oxidation compared to carbohydrate and fat oxidation.
Estimation of Protein Catabolism

The quantity of protein catabolized can be estimated based on the output of nitrogen in the urine.
Approximately 0.16 grams of urinary nitrogen (N) is excreted for each gram of protein oxidized, allowing
for an estimation of protein utilization.

1.4 Carbon Nitrogen balance and Comparative Slaughter Methods:

Carbon and Nitrogen Balance Technique: The carbon-nitrogen balance technique provides a direct
method for estimating energy retention in animals by measuring changes in carbon and nitrogen content.

Principle:

● The Carbon-Nitrogen balance study estimates energy retention by directly measuring the amounts
of carbon and nitrogen entering and leaving the body through diet and excretion. The difference
between the intake and excretion of these elements is used to calculate the quantities of protein and
fat stored. Energy retention is then estimated by applying calorific values to these stored nutrients.

● In growing and fattening animals, the main forms of energy storage are protein and fat. While the
body also contains carbohydrate reserves, these are relatively small and remain relatively constant.
The technique involves conducting a balance trial in which the amounts of carbon and nitrogen
entering and leaving the body are carefully measured. Nitrogen is primarily excreted in feces and
urine, while carbon can leave the body through methane and carbon dioxide production. Therefore,
the trial is typically conducted in a respiration chamber.

Calculating Energy Retention:

● To estimate energy retention, one calculates the quantities of nutrients stored (protein and fat) by
their calorific values.

● Protein is assumed to contain 16% nitrogen. The quantity of protein stored is calculated by
multiplying the nitrogen balance by 100/16 (which equals 6.25). This provides an estimate of the
protein stored.

● Protein also contains 51.2% carbon. Therefore, the amount of carbon stored as protein can be
computed.

● The remaining carbon is stored as fat, which contains 74.6% carbon. Fat storage is calculated by
multiplying the carbon balance (minus that stored as protein) by 100/74.6.

● The energy content of the stored protein and fat is then calculated using average calorific values
for body tissues. The specific values can vary by species, but commonly used values are 9.37 Kcal
per gram for fat and 5.32 Kcal per gram for protein in cattle and sheep.
Procedure: Animals are placed in a respiration chamber, where carbon dioxide and methane production
can be measured accurately.

● Nitrogen is primarily excreted in feces and urine, while carbon leaves the body in methane, carbon
dioxide, and other forms. Carbon and nitrogen intake through diet and the amounts excreted are
carefully measured.

● Nitrogen balance is calculated as the difference between intake and excretion of nitrogen. The
quantity of protein stored is estimated by multiplying the nitrogen balance by 100/16 (since protein
contains 16% nitrogen).

● Carbon balance is calculated, and the amount of carbon stored as protein is computed.

The remaining carbon is stored as fat, and fat storage is calculated by multiplying the carbon balance (minus
that stored as protein) by 100/74.6.Energy content of stored protein and fat is calculated using calorific
values for these nutrients.

Advantages of this technique:

1. Direct Measurement: The Carbon-Nitrogen balance technique provides a direct measurement of

energy retention by quantifying the intake and excretion of carbon and nitrogen.

2. Insight into Protein and Fat Deposition: Researchers can determine not only the total energy
retained but also the proportions stored as protein and fat.

3. Estimation of Protein Utilization: Besides estimating energy retention, the technique can also be
used to estimate protein utilization, which is valuable for assessing the protein quality of diets.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex Experimental Setup: Setting up a Carbon-Nitrogen balance study can be complex and
requires specialized equipment, including respiration chambers for accurate measurement of gases
like carbon dioxide and methane.

2. Skilled Personnel: The technique requires skilled personnel with expertise in animal physiology,
nutrition, and analytical chemistry to accurately measure and interpret the data.

3. Expensive Equipment: Acquiring and maintaining the necessary equipment for measuring carbon
and nitrogen intake and excretion can be costly.

4. Labor-Intensive: Carbon-Nitrogen balance studies are labor-intensive, requiring careful

monitoring of animals, sample collection, and data analysis over an extended period. This can be
time-consuming and resource-intensive.
Comparative Slaughter Method:

The Comparative Slaughter method is a valuable technique used to measure energy retention in growing
and fattening animals, especially in poultry and pigs. This method involves slaughtering animals at the
beginning and end of a trial and determining the changes in carcass composition and energy content.

Principle:

● Energy Gain Measurement: The primary goal of the Comparative Slaughter method is to measure
the gain of energy by the animal in the form of protein and fat. It directly assesses the change in
energy content of the animal's body over a specific period.

● Assumption: The method is based on the assumption that the body composition of the
experimental group of animals (e.g., birds or pigs) at the beginning of the experiment can be
accurately predicted from the carcass compositions of comparable animals from the same
population that are slaughtered at the beginning of the experimental period.

Procedure:

1. Initial Slaughter: At the start of the trial, representative animals from each treatment group are
selected and slaughtered. The carcasses are then analyzed for their composition, including dry
matter, protein, and fat content. Energy content can also be calculated from the protein and fat data.

2. Experimental Period: The animals in the experimental groups are raised and fed according to the
study protocol during a specific period, during which changes in body composition and energy
retention are expected to occur.

3. Final Slaughter: At the end of the experimental period, animals from each treatment group are
again slaughtered, and their carcasses are analyzed for composition and energy content.

4. Comparison: The changes in carcass composition and energy content between the initial and final
slaughters are used to estimate energy retention in terms of protein and fat gain.

Advantages:

1. Accuracy: The Comparative Slaughter method provides accurate measurements of energy

retention because it directly measures changes in body composition and energy content.

2. Precision: It can yield precise results, especially when the time interval between the initial and
final slaughters is long, allowing for substantial weight changes.

3. Species Applicability: This method is suitable for chickens and pigs and is particularly valuable
for these species in research and production settings.

Challenges and Limitations:

1. Expense: The Comparative Slaughter method can be expensive, as it involves slaughtering

animals, conducting carcass analyses, and calculating energy content.
 2. Labor-Intensive: It is labor-intensive and requires skilled personnel for animal handling, carcass
analysis, and data interpretation.

3. Sample Size: To obtain accurate results, a sufficiently large number of animals per treatment group
is required. Smaller sample sizes may be prone to the influence of between-animal variation.

4. Time-Consuming: The method can be time-consuming, especially when a significant time interval
is needed for substantial weight changes to occur.

5. Ethical Considerations: Slaughtering animals for research purposes raises ethical considerations
related to animal welfare. Researchers must ensure compliance with ethical guidelines and
regulations.

Differences between Carbon-Nitrogen balance and Comparative Slaughter method :

1. Metabolic Information: The Carbon-Nitrogen balance study provides information about how
carbon and nitrogen are utilized for energy storage. It can estimate protein and fat storage
separately. In contrast, the Comparative Slaughter method provides a total energy retention value
without distinguishing between protein and fat.

2. Complexity and Equipment: The Carbon-Nitrogen balance study requires a respiration chamber
and specialized equipment to measure gases and nutrient intake. The Comparative Slaughter
method involves weighing animals and their carcasses, which is relatively simpler.

3. Sensitivity: The Carbon-Nitrogen balance study is more sensitive to small changes in nutrient
utilization and may be better suited for studying metabolism in detail. The Comparative Slaughter
method may be used for larger-scale assessments of energy retention.

Metabolic Fecal Nitrogen:

● Metabolic fecal nitrogen refers to the nitrogen content that is excreted in feces as a result of dietary
protein intake and subsequent digestion and absorption.

● It primarily consists of undigested or unabsorbed dietary proteins, protein breakdown products, and
microbial protein synthesized in the gut.

● Metabolic fecal nitrogen is a measure of how efficiently the body digests and absorbs dietary
proteins.

● High metabolic fecal nitrogen can be indicative of malabsorption or poor digestion of dietary
proteins.
Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen:

● Endogenous urinary nitrogen refers to the nitrogen compounds that are excreted in urine as a result
of the body's normal metabolic processes. These nitrogen compounds are derived from the
breakdown of body proteins and other nitrogen-containing molecules.

● It includes the breakdown products of cellular proteins and other nitrogen-containing molecules
within the body. This nitrogen is released when cells turnover or when the body needs to eliminate
excess nitrogen.

● Endogenous urinary nitrogen is a measure of the ongoing metabolic processes in the body and is
typically related to the turnover of proteins and the maintenance of nitrogen balance.

● The amount of endogenous urinary nitrogen is influenced by factors like protein turnover, muscle
mass, and overall protein metabolism.