EYPME1A

METALLOGRAPHY, PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering

DI0850/DE0850 – POS C
(Diploma Metallurgy)

www.vut.ac.za
Lecturer: Ms. Baloyi N
2024: January Semester 1
 www.vut.ac.za

INDEX
• Introduction
• Tools of a metallurgist
• Metallographic steps
• Microscopes
• Material testing 2

The contents of this presentation is confidential. ©VUT

 Introduction EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

• Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals. Although, the scope of all
inclusive is too big for Physical Metallurgy 1 (EYPME1A). In this module, certain
highlights on the science will be covered for introduction purposes.

• Metallurgy as an art and has been practiced since ancient times. Working metals
varies from ornaments, plates utensils in the 3500 B.C. days, and today
manufacturing of engines or aircraft components.

• This science of refining and shaping metals was first developed by Egyptians and
Chinese. The easiest metals to be worked are gold, silver and copper alloys.

• In those days, investigations of metal structures was done macroscopically.

Therefore, the microstructure were regarded nonexistent. The introduction of
microscopy of metals, clarified the difference in iron and steel.

• In this instance, metallography was introduced. An in this class you will learn the
structure of metals and how they can be influenced to change the properties of
metals.

3
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Conti….
• Metallurgy is really not an independent science since many of its fundamental
concepts are derived from physics, chemistry, and crystallography.

• The metallurgist has become increasingly important in modern technology. In

previous years the great majority of steel parts were made of cheap low carbon
steel that were machine and fabricate easily. Heat treatment was reserved largely
for tools. Designers were unable to account for structural inhomogeneity, surface
defects. etc., and it was considered good practice to use large factors of safety.

• Consequently, machines were much heavier than they should have been, and the
weight was considered a mark of quality. This attitude has persisted, to some
extent. In present times it has been discouraged under the leadership of the aircraft
and automotive industries. They have emphasized the importance of the strength-
weight ratio in good design, and this has led to the development of new high
strength, lightweight alloys.

4
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Conti….
• New technical applications and operating requirements pushed to higher levels
have created a continued need for the development of new alloys. For
example, an exciting development has been the Wankel rotary engine an
internal combustion engine of unusual design that is more compact, lighter,
and mechanically far simpler than the ordinary reciprocating piston motor of
equivalent horsepower.
The metallurgical field may be divided into two large groups:
• Process or extractive metallurgy
• Physical metallurgy-the science concerned with the physical and mechanical
characteristics of metals and alloys. This field studies the properties of metals
and alloys as affected by three variables:
a) Chemical composition-the chemical constituents of the alloy
b) Mechanical treatment-any operation that causes a change in shape such as rolling, drawing,
stamping, forming, or machining
c) Thermal or heat treatment-the effect of temperature and rate of heating and coolling
5
Metallography
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Metallography
• Metallography is the study of the microstructure of all
types of metallic alloys.
• It can be more precisely defined as the scientific
discipline of observing and determining the chemical
and atomic structure and spatial distribution of:
• the grains,
• constituents,
• inclusions or
• phases in metallic alloys.

7
 Name the equipment's EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

(a) (b) Conti….

(c) (d)

8
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Sample preparation

9
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Conti….
• The study starts by: sample preparation which include:
• Cutting/sectioning: Cutting Machine can be used to cut various metal or non-metal
specimens so as to observe the Metallographic structure.
• Mounting: Specimens are embedded in resin to facilitate their handling and to improve the
preparation result. For the best possible result, specimens should be cleaned prior to mounting.
The best possible adhesion of resin to the specimen requires the surface to be free from grease
and other contaminants.
• Grinding: Proper grinding removes damaged or deformed surface material. Grinding removes
material using fixed abrasive particles that produce chips of the specimen material. The process
of making chips with a sharp abrasive grain produces the lowest amount of deformation in the
specimen, while providing the highest removal rate.
• Polishing: Polishing is the final stage in producing a surface that is flat, smooth, scratch-free
and mirror like in appearance. Such a surface is necessary for subsequent accurate
metallographic interpretation, both qualitative & quantitative.
• Etching:
• Follow this stages, the sample will be investigated via microscopy
or tested for mechanical properties
10
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Mounting Factors affecting mounting

• Sample size
• Pressure
• Time
• Amount of resin
• Type of resin

11
Grinding and polishing EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Well ground samples

• Flat
• Same direction scratches
• Same size scratches
• Same color surface
• Visible sample

Well polished samples

• Mirror finish
• Scratch free
• Same color surface
• Visible sample

12
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Etching
Etching principle
• Aimed to reveal internal structures
• Use corresponding chemicals at
prescribed ratios
• Be aware of over/under etching
• Know the typical structures of an
etchant incase the alloy can be
etched with multiple etchants.
• The minimum etching time is
swapping.

13
Structure
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Microscopy
• Macrostructure

• Microstructure

15
 Macrostructure EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

• Macrostructure are physical examination

of components surfaces like shapes, cracks
or faults.
• These techniques are generally a prelude
to microscopic examination; however, in
quality control, they are often used alone
as a criterion for acceptance or rejection.
• The most basic procedure involves simple
visual examination for surface features
such as seams, laps, or scale.
• These destructive methods include the
following procedures:
• Macroetching
• Contact printing
• Fracturing
• Lead exudation

16
Macroetching EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

Macroetching provides an
overall view of the degree of
uniformity of metals and alloys
by revealing:
• Structural detail resulting from
solidification or working
• Chemical uniformity in qualitative
terms
• Physical discontinuities due to
solidification, working, etc.
• Weldment structure or heat-affected
zones from burning operations
• Hardness patterns in non-through-
hardened steels or patterns due to
quenching irregularities
• Grinding damage
• Thermal effects due to service abuse

17
• Example of macroetching EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

18
 Specific etching recommendations EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

• Metals
Over the past century a large number of etching techniques have been developed for many metals and
alloys. The majority of these techniques use chemical etchants, which are often preferred because of
their simplicity. In more recent years, numerous tint etchants and electrolytic and potentiostatic etchants
have also been developed, and these formulations have proved to be most valuable.
1. Light alloys (Aluminum and alloys): examination of as-polished aluminum alloys reveals the
presence of intermetallic precipitates and inclusions and other details such as porosity or cracks.
Etchants reveal the precipitates more clearly and often bring out some not observable in the as-
polished condition; a dilute aqueous HF etch is commonly used .
2. Antimony and bismuth: Etchants employed for revealing the microstructure of antimony and
bismuth and their alloys.
3. Iron and steels: The microstructure of iron and steel has been documented more thoroughly
than any other metal because of the commercial significance of these alloys. Because a wide
variety of iron and steel alloys has been developed and because their properties can be varied
extensively through heat treatment, it is not surprising that many different etchants have been
formulated for specific alloys and conditions.

19
 EYPME1A: Learning Unit 1

cont….
4. Nickel and alloys: Nickel resists attack by alkaline solutions, is slowly attacked by
dilute HCl or H2S04, and is dissolved readily in dilute HN03. Consequently, etchants
for nickel and its alloys are rather strong solutions.

5. Precious metals: The precious metals (gold and silver and the platinum metals—
ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum) are occasionally
examined by metallographers. Gold is not attacked by mineral acids but is etched
by nascent chlorine in aqua regia and by a few very strong oxidizers. Silver is
attacked by HN03 and by hot sulfuric acid but not by cold sulfuric acid or by the
halogen acids.

6. Titanium and alloys Microscopy has played an important role in the development
of titanium alloys. Titanium is attacked by HCl, HF, H2S04, and HN03. The adherent
oxide film on the surface of Ti and Ti alloys requires strong etchants.

NB: for homework: find an etchant for the mentioned alloys and their
microstructure.
20