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Hybrid Power Systems in Multi-Rotor UAVs: A

Scientific Research and Industrial Production
Perspective
Eiad Saif1 , İlyas Eminoğlu2
1
Department of Computer and Electronic Engineering, Sana’a Community College, Sana’a, Yemen
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
Corresponding author: Eiad Saif (e-mail: eiad.saif@scc.edu.ye).

ABSTRACT This study is conducted in the context of two significant challenges facing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
technologies. These challenges are limited flight duration and payload, which have a direct impact on the performance and
areas of application. The Hybrid Power System (HPS) has a prominent role in overcoming these challenges with a view to
expanding the application fields of UAVs to include further areas such as air taxis and air ambulance services. First, this work
systematically reviews the scientific contributions in the past two decades with the aim of exploring the existing design
approaches for HPSs in multi-rotor UAVs. To do that, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) has been followed. The selected
articles have been reviewed, analyzed, evaluated, and then classified according to the scope of the study, research trends,
design methodologies, main findings/shortcomings, and future work. Retrieved data shows that the Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) and the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller were the most commonly used. Fuel Cells (FCs) still
need more research and experiments to overcome practical constraints, while solar-powered UAVs require more surface areas
to absorb large amounts of solar radiation. Second, to keep up-to-date with technological advances in this area, this research
surveys, analyses, and discusses the available commercial models of HPS that can be used in UAVs along with some examples
of hybrid-powered UAVs. The intended goal of this paper is to stimulate and help researchers and those interested in the
challenges of electric UAVs and guide them to develop this field more efficiently from an industrial/scientific perspective.

INDEX TERMS Hybrid Power System, Hybrid-powered multi-rotor UAV, Systematic Literature Review.

I. INTRODUCTION The expansion of UAV applications has covered various

The technological revolution that the world has witnessed in
recent years has brought about a qualitative integration
between many systems in different fields such as smart
robots, artificial intelligence, remote sensing systems, and
wireless communication systems. These advances have
extended UAVs also, which have been used for both military
and civil applications. This has led to significant growth in
the production of various types and designs. At Christmas
celebrations in the United States in 2015, nearly a million
drones were distributed as gifts [1]. Between 2020 and 2026,
the prospects for the drone market are startling, as the global
drone market is expected to grow exponentially from $22.5
billion in 2020 (828 thousand units sold in 2021) to $41.3
billion by 2026 (almost 1.4 million units) [2]. At the
beginning of 2027, the market value of UAV payload is
expected to reach $ 3 billion, approximately 80% which will
be dominated by the radar and communications systems
sector [3]. Given the enormous diversity in the production of
UAVs, their future seems absolutely limitless [4].
areas of daily life and is still increasing. They can perform
external and internal tasks in very difficult environments,
and it is expected that in the future the UAV application in
harsh and difficult environments will further increase
significantly [5]. In addition, UAVs can be used in ocean
exploration by combining information technology and
artificial intelligence techniques [6]. Many previous studies
have indicated that in the future, the demand for civilian
usage of UAVs will increase as the demand on the military
side slows down [7].
Most previous studies on the review of unmanned aircraft
systems varied in different concepts and considerations. The
possibility of using UAVs in education and in collecting data
from inaccessible locations has been systematically
reviewed [8]. Using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR),
the adoption and use of UAVs have been investigated: in
sub-Saharan Africa from the perspective of socio-economics
[9]; for health purposes [10]; for urban traffic analysis [11].
In the work of [12], vehicle routing issues using UAVs

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
between 2005 and 2019 were studied from an academic
viewpoint. A comprehensive study was conducted on the
flight mechanisms, configurations, and applications of
UAVs in [13].
UAVs have been actively researched recently [14]. They
are increasingly being used by many hobbyists and
researchers as well as in engineering and science fields [15].
Rotary wing UAVs, including multi-rotors, are characterized
by high maneuverability, vertical take-off, and landing in
confined spaces. These features make multi-rotor vehicles an
attractive research platform for countless research and
projects in the academic and industrial fields. With all its
advantages, there are restrictions imposed on battery-
powered UAVs, which are limited flight time and payload.
In other words, there is a price to pay for these advantages in
terms of short flight time [16] and limited payload, which
makes them less efficient [17]. Helicopters and quadcopters
face this challenge (poor endurance) more due to their low
efficiency compared to fixed-wing aircraft [18].
Consequently, the expansion of endurance and range of
UAVs is an important topic of study worldwide [19].
Therefore, it can be considered the main problem for many
of these aircraft applications [20].
The study of endurance in UAVs is related to the type of
power source used in the vehicle. The power source affects
the endurance of the aircraft and even limits this ability
significantly [21]. According to Jaeger and Adair [22], in
order to increase flight endurance in the design of
electric/battery-operated UAVs, results in an increase in the
weight of the built-in battery, but increasing the total weight
of the UAV and therefore more energy is used. A study by
[23] provides an overview of the hybrid-electric propulsion
and energy management methodologies of hybrid aircraft. In
that paper, the authors addressed the energy management
methodologies for hybrid aircraft while proposing
algorithms to improve the vehicle's safety system in the event
of engine failure.
In most prior studies, researchers have tended to focus on
the external structure of UAVs, classification, and areas of
application. Studies have often focused on general reviews
of new and emerging technologies in the field of UAVs and
their utility. However, they have extensively disregarded
power sources, their limitations, and their evident effect on
performance, productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, and
expansion. Thus, there is a need for additional academic
studies and in-depth reviews to investigate this gap from the
point of view of scientific research, empirical studies, and
industrial products.
The authors have been noting the growing interest in
endurance and payload issues in UAVs from a research
perspective. More specifically, the role of hybrid power
systems (HPSs) in solving these problems and further
development of hybrid-powered UAVs. The SLR
mechanism was adopted on this specific topic in the analysis,
organization, and classification of previous studies through a
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meta-analysis approach with the aim of summarizing the
used methodologies, academic contributions, shortcomings,
and future works, and highlighting the most cited studies and
the contributing countries.
The current study goes beyond the previous review
studies, as the SLR included articles published in the past
two decades (2000-2021) within the scope of the most
famous and widely used digital scientific databases:
Clarivate Analytics - Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, and
IEEE Xplore Digital Library. What is more, it has largely
devoted attention to empirical studies and also focused on
the post-deployment stage of the HPSs by mentioning some
authors' concerns and future proposals to ensure successful
use, safety, and continued and effective development.
Moreover, necessary data, such as methodologies, main
results, shortcomings, and future proposals are discussed.
Specifically, academic studies are categorized according to
the approach, core components of the designed system, and
control methods. Regarding the industrial and commercial
aspects, the technical specification parameters of the
available commercial products have included the following:
type, maximum power, payload weight, Maximum Take-Off
Weight (MTOW), power-to-weight ratio, power-to-MTOW
ratio, flight endurance, and application area.
HPSs and their use in multi-rotor UAVs from the point of
view of scientific research and the industrial sector have been
reviewed in section I. Section II describes the configurations
of HPSs and their incorporation into UAVs. The
methodology of the SLR, the main research questions, and
the evaluation criteria are described in Section III. Section
IV discusses and analyzes the main findings and
contributions of published studies from the previous two
decades. Different types of the latest commercial hybrid
powertrains, commercial engines used in UAVs, and hybrid-
powered multi-rotor UAVs are presented in Section V,
followed by an analysis of the results, and a discussion of
performance parameters, including the preliminary design
considerations. Finally, Section VI concludes with a
summary of the salient outcomes of the paper accompanied
by development proposals about the future of this technical
field in academia and the industry.
II. HYBRID SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Hybrid energy combines many energy sources such as
Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs), Fuel Cells (FCs),
batteries, solar cells, and supercapacitors (SCs). UAVs
generally use the structure of this system to provide hybrid
power to increase endurance and improve performance.
Thus, choosing the appropriate hybrid power source
structure with an optimal power management system will
contribute to the efficient operation of advanced UAVs [24].
HPSs branch out as either series, parallel, or series-parallel
structures [25], [26]. Fig. 1 shows the configurations of HPS
that could be used in the UAV’s power system. In general,
all configurations have their advantages and disadvantages.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
For example, in the series system, the Electric Generator
(EG) fully provides the momentum, thereby making the
control easy. The parallel configuration is the most widely
used and most suitable for UAVs with long endurance tasks
[25]. Considering the weight, the series-parallel system is
heavier than a parallel system. Whereas the parallel
configuration has advantages, including the ability to drive
propellers through the engine or by the Electric Motor (EM)
separately, or both together [27].
A. UAV and Hybrid System
Numerous recent scientific research studies have addressed
the use of different power systems and their impact on
performance and flight time. Many of them have focused on
the HPSs. In [28], authors proposed the use of a hybrid-
electric propulsion system (HEPS) in UAVs used in
surveillance to overcome the problems that relate to the
limitations in performance and endurance. Other works [29]
and [30] applied parallel HEPS. Harmon in [29] used neural
network algorithms to allow the operator to specify
proportional significance between the use of gasoline,
electricity, and recharging relying on the planned task. In
consequence, the author recommended using a computerized
dynamometer to test more fuel-efficient ICEs and propulsion
systems.
The application of alternative energy sources to UAV
power systems has been investigated in [31]. Consequently,
the authors pointed out that the HPS (FC combined with a
battery) is able to improve flight endurance and satisfy all
power requirements for the UAV flight. Although this type
of system is widely used in UAVs, according to research
[32], many critical issues need to be studied in the future.
Furthermore, systems that use FCs as an energy source are
considered to be heavy in weight compared to ICEs [33].
This is due to systems associated with FCs such as support
and storage systems.
Despite all technological advances, hydrogen systems in
general and FCs in particular face current technological
challenges, and researchers and industrial companies need to
work together in solving these challenges [34]. In another
paper [35], the HPS was used to overcome the limiting factor
for energy storage in the UAV power system. The acquired
results showed that the hybrid system is appropriate for flight
missions that require additional energy. According to the
authors, in future work, this model could be improved with
experimental data and other forms of hybrid techniques, such
as SCs, could be evaluated.
III. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF HPSs IN MULTIROTOR
UAVs FROM A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
PERSPECTIVE
In view of the scarcity of studies concerned with a
comprehensive review of the use of hybrid systems in multi-
rotor UAVs from a scientific and commercial perspective,
this paper provides an analysis of the academic contributions
in the past two decades and explores research gaps and future
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proposals. Moreover, the state-of-the-art in hybrid generator
technology along with the models of multi-rotor UAVs that
use the HPS methodology have been studied.
A. Research Methodology
1) RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions posed here are aimed at problems that
define the framework of the study and the variables that must
be addressed. In this study, research questions focus on HPSs
in multi-rotor UAVs, the endurance, and payload as shown in
Table 1.
2) RESEARCH DATABASES
Through the initial research process within the most well-
known and credible scientific databases, namely: WoS, IEEE
Xplore, and Scopus, 268 results were retrieved. The
frequently used keywords and terminology in the previous
research studies were used with the inclusion of Boolean
operators ‘‘OR’’ and ‘‘AND’ to ensure the relevance of the
search results to the main objective of the study.
3) STUDY PROCESS
The research methodology was chosen with the guidance of
an electronic search and the selection of research studies by
following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [36]. It consists of
four main stages, and each phase contains several steps. At
each phase, inclusion/exclusion criteria (see Table 2) are
implemented to determine which studies will be excluded
and which will be included. In the first stage, identification,
studies are searched in different databases. This is done by
using the main and most frequently used keywords and
terminology in recent research in order to find relevant
studies. The second stage, sorting, involves scanning articles
by title and abstract. The third stage, eligibility, includes
evaluation by going in-depth reading of the contents of the
selected studies. Finally, the fourth stage is the inclusion of
studies that fulfill the assessment criteria used in the review
study. Fig. 2 depicts the systematic search process flow
diagram.
B. STUDY SELECTION
Several steps were introduced with the aim of limiting the
studies related to the research issue and excluding studies
that did not address the main research issues. The first stage
of the filtering (n = 154) contained the elimination
requirement; duplicate articles, written in a language other
than English, and unpublished articles. The second stage
(screening process) focused on examining the remaining
articles (n = 114) according to the title and their relevance to
the research topic, as well as scanning the abstract and
contents related to the issue under investigation. Based on
this step, (n = 46) results, (n = 41) studies that have no
relevance to the topic of the research, and inaccessible papers
(n = 5) have been excluded. The number of articles included
for the eligibility stage (n = 68). According to the criteria
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
listed in Table 2, in-depth reading and analysis excluded a
number (n = 45) of articles owing to their lack of any
empirical results and (n = 23) irrelevant articles. After a
comprehensive analysis and applying the quality and
assessment criteria, (n = 19) articles were selected as a final
study sample for their conformity with the research questions
and study scope.
C. PUBLICATION ANALYSIS
Publications are classified according to their sources and
year of publication, as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore,
publications were categorized based on the number of times
the articles in the database have been cited, over time (see
Fig. 4).
Although a time restriction (2000-2021) is imposed on the
publication time of the reviewed studies, there was only one
article each year for the years 1984, 1985,1986, and 1988,
according to the Scopus database, and the year 1985 only had
one study based on the WoS database.
D. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
The keywords included in the studied articles contributed to
identifying the researchers' interests and access to the most
frequently used scientific terms and topics that were
constantly discussed in the studied records. VOSviewer
(visualization of similarities) software, developed by [37], is
designed with the aim of displaying large bibliometric maps
in an easy and clear way. It was used to assign the co-
occurrence network to keywords and the main terminology
of the records.
Fig. 5, obtained by VOS viewer software, demonstrates
the set of keywords visualization related to integrating the
HPS into UAVs. According to the frequent keywords,
different clusters have been formed. It can be observed that
the network visualization illustrated several clusters
represented in different colors. These groups are formed and
clustered according to the author's keywords such as hybrid
system, UAV, propulsion system, payload, flight time,
internal combustion engine, and control system.
Based on the databases used in this study, a quantitative
analysis of records is presented in terms of country, the
number of studies, and the database. This is realized using
Sankey diagrams [38] as shown in Fig. 6. According to the
chart, the country that dominates in terms of the number of
publications on the proposed topic is the US, with (n = 61)
studies, followed by China with (n = 51), India (n = 18),
Spain (n = 14), South Korea and Croatia with (n = 10) studies
each, and Poland with (n = 9) studies.
E. THE MOST CITED STUDIES
The most cited studies over the past 20 years were reviewed
according to the final study sample of included articles for
systematic synthesis. The most-cited article was entitled
"Fuel cells for airborne usage: Energy storage comparison"
[35], which was published in the International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy. Next comes the second most cited study
entitled "Design and implementation of a gasoline-electric
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hybrid propulsion system for a micro triple tilt-rotor VTOL
UAV" [27], which was published in (2017 IEEE 6th Data-
Driven Control and Learning Systems Conference). Table 3
outlines the six most cited papers given by WoS, IEEE
Xplore, and Scopus.
IV. MAIN FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This part is devoted to explaining, analyzing, and discussing
the main contributions of the retrieved studies through the
SLR method. In addition, the methodologies, future
challenges, and research trends were discussed.
A. ANALYSIS OF THE MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS AND
LIMITATIONS
Synthesis of literature findings focuses on the HPS in multi-
rotor UAVs, whether the objective is modeling, simulation,
or practical implementation. In Table 4, the data in each
study were evaluated and presented based on the following
factors:
 Field/Objective of the research
 Design Methodology
Future Works
Several studies [27], [39]–[50] have used ICE in the
designing of propulsion systems. The main results of these
studies indicated the advantages of using HPS in the
possibility of doubling the energy density [42]; obtaining high
efficiency and longer endurance in tilt-rotor type vertical take-
off and landing (VTOL) UAVs [27]; qualitative development
of multi-rotor UAVs [48]; expanding flight endurance with
efficient power consumption [41]. In the study by Cabanas et
al. [39], an ICE (DLE-111- Two Stroke: 8.4 kW, 2.86 kg) was
coupled mechanically with Brushless DC (BLDC) motor
(ROTOMAX 150 cc:9.8 kW, 2.5 kg) as a generator to produce
a 3-phase AC voltage. The acquired AC voltage was rectified
using an active rectifier composed of a semiconductor
transistor known as MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors) and the rectified voltage was
controlled by an FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Arrays)
and stored in SCs. Although the preliminary results indicated
a maximum power generation of about 7.75 kW (50 V, ~150
A), realistic operating conditions weren't indicated,
specifically, supplying an actual load such as a multi-rotor
UAV platform. Benbrook and Hagen [47] developed a HPS
with a total capacity of 1 kW. The designed hybrid system was
based on ICE (3W28i - Two Stroke: 2.00 kW, 1.2 kg)
mechanically coupled to a BLDC motor (KDE7215XF).
Based on the experimental test data sets obtained by a
dynamometer, the overall system efficiency was increased by
replacing heavier units with lighter alternatives. In addition, an
electronic control unit (ECU) was used to increase fuel
efficiency. As a result, the overall efficiency increased by 1%,
while the overall weight of the system decreased.
A hybrid system composed of ICE (Zenoah G320RC: 2.4
kW, 2.3 kg), EG (MTO6374–170–HA–C: 3.55 kW, 0.83 kg),
with a battery was modeled and implemented in the work by
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
Krznar et al. [42]. From their findings of simulation and
practical experiments using a test bench, it was concluded that
the total weight of the hybrid system is two times smaller
compared to the battery-based system. Accordingly, it is
possible to achieve a twofold increase in energy density using
HPS. Further, the matching in a series-HPS has been studied
by authors in [48]. In their study, the HPS composed of ICE
(OS FS-91: 1.2 kW, 0.65 kg) and EG (E-flite Power 160:2.5
kW, 0.65 kg). Owing to mismatching between the ICE and
EG, high efficiency was not achieved. Consequently, to obtain
the required efficiency, the HPS could be redesigned based on
determining the best common and convergent operating points
for both (ICE and EG). McKinney et al. [49] highlighted the
implications of incorporating HPS into a Small Unmanned
Aircraft System (sUAS) by designing a test stand consisting
of ICE (Desert Aircraft 50cc: 3.73 kW, 1.33 kg) and EG
(Turnigy Rotomax 50cc: 5.3 kW, 1.8 kg). Based on the
collected experimental data sets related to vibration and noise,
the vibrations could affect the overall performance of the flight
system, particularly the avionics system. Therefore, some
companies specializing in the production of autopilot units try
to isolate the control system and sensors from the propulsion
system.
Regarding integrating turboshaft engines into HPS, Moody
et al. in [51] have studied and implemented two-hybrid system
prototypes. In the first phase, electrical testing was conducted
for BLDC EM (Rimfire 50cc: 5 kW, 1.25 kg) as an engine that
drives BLDC EM (Tornegi Rotomax 100cc: 8 kW, 2.1 kg) as
an electric generator. The initial testing results showed an
electrical efficiency of 63% in the electrical coupling stage
under varying loading conditions. In the case of integrating a
turboshaft engine (KingTech K60TP G2: 7.3 kW, 2.4 kg) as
the prime source of the power system, the turboshaft-powered
EM experienced an instability problem when it was loaded
from the electrical front as exhibited unwanted vibration and
oscillation. Accordingly, problems of turbulence, vibration,
and oscillation are arguably the most challenging in
turboshaft-engine-powered hybrid systems.
Other kinds of studies have addressed the use of FCs [35],
[46], [52]–[54]. To analyze the performance of the FC hybrid
system of a multi-rotor UAV, a model is presented and
applied to a 25 kg MTOW multi-rotor X8 UAV [54]. The
authors aimed, through the numerical model, to identify the
preference for using a hybrid FC system or batteries to obtain
better flight endurance. According to the study findings, the
use of FCs or lithium-polymer (LiPo) batteries of similar size
(12.2 kg) will achieve a flight time of 99 minutes using FCs
compared to 59 minutes if powered by LiPo batteries. More
specifically, by using the hybrid system (FC and battery), the
endurance was improved by 76% compared to the LiPo
batteries.
The same is presented by authors in [35], who developed
a numerical simulation model with the aim of determining
the most appropriate power system (FC, battery, hybrid
system) for UAVs. The results of the numerical simulation
have shown the following: 1) A 7 kg take-off weight
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quadcopter UAV can be powered with a hybrid system (FC
+ battery) with a weight of 4.4 kg, while the same vehicle
can be operated with a 6.6 kg lithium battery with the same
amount of energy, which means saving weight even further
than 30%; 2) The hybrid system seems more suitable for
long flights, while lithium batteries are still the best option
for short flights (less than an hour with a 7 kg take-off
weight).
In another issue, the impact of the composition and
efficiency of the propulsion system, hydrogen storage, and
battery performance in the HPS has been studied by Apeland
et al. in [53]. The analysis was carried out in various multi-
rotor configurations (Octocopter and Hexacopter). Using the
measurements of the thrust stand (RCbenchmark 1780), it
was found that the coaxial configuration of the multi-rotor
UAV causes efficiency loss by 20-30%, while the single
configuration reduces power consumption at 25 kg take-off
mass by 700 watts. In a similar but evaluation study by
Ahluwalia et al. [52], according to the selected study cases
(multi-rotor and tiltrotor eVTOL), the findings of the
comparison indicated that FCs (with/without small batteries)
are best suited for powering multi-rotor eVTOLs (within a
60-mile range in an urban scenario, (4-5C) charge/discharge
rate, and 2500 kg MTOW). Despite the hybrid FC costs of
12 times the cost of LiPo batteries, the hybrid FC system
provides better endurance than LiPo batteries [54] and
outperforms them in tiltrotor electrically-powered (eVTOL)
vehicles [52].
B. METHODOLOGY AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
Table 5 lists the methodology used in each study more
specifically by defining the generation sources for the hybrid
system and control system strategies. As shown in this table,
the PID control method was the most widely used in [27],
[42], [44], [45], [50]. In addition, most of the empirical
studies depended on using ICE to generate the required
power and on batteries as energy storage. Solar cells as a
source of energy and SCs as a store of energy were the less
widely used. The downside of solar-powered systems is the
need for a large area of exposure to solar radiation, and this
increases the UAV's overall weight accordingly. More
specifically, this challenge is evident in multi-rotor UAVs,
which have a very limited area for radiation exposure.
Other studies have developed the control system in the
HPSs to: obtain a constant voltage [41]; store data digitally
[51]; control the charging and discharging states of batteries
[42]; matching the main engine with the generator [27]. In
the same context, Krznar et al. [45] indicated that it is
possible to carry out experimental validation of the control
components in the HPS by designing a laboratory test
platform. Furthermore, the results also demonstrated that the
control system still has some errors (related to sensor offset
errors) in the steady state of the closed-loop control in both
the ICE's speed and the rectified voltage.
Further studies have attempted to expand flight endurance
and payload. To do that, an interesting methodology has been
proposed and applied with the aim of separating the main
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
lifting force and the attitude control system [40], [41], [43],
[44], [50], [55]. In [43] and [44], ICEs create the main lift
force, while the EMs achieve attitude control. Depending on
this concept, the efficiency was increased by 10-15%, while
the designed control system had the ability to meet the
desired control effects [44]. Lu et al. [40] proposed a hybrid
system with two parts (hybrid and four rotors). The coaxial
rotors in the hybrid part generated the main lifting force
while the four rotors provided the required power for
maneuvering. Nevertheless, from a design perspective, the
proposed configuration seems to be complicated with respect
to the attitude control system, which requires further
experimental tests to prove the overall efficiency. The works
[50] and [55] by Lin et al. have proposed the integration of a
HPS into a dual quad-rotor as the main lifting force was
generated by 4 gasoline engines (GT-33: 2.95 kW, 0.95 kg)
while 4 BLDC motors satisfy stabilization and maneuvering
requirements. The proposed configuration seems quite
complicated, therefore, in order to achieve stable lift, the
incremental PID algorithm and the linearization of the
throttle-to-RPM method were used to precisely control the
engine RPM. However, despite a successful initial flight test
being conducted, the needle tuning of the engines could
change in different weather conditions (hot or cold). In
addition, the proposed normalization methodology was not
ideal.
Another study was carried out by Ranasinghe and
Gunawardana [41], in which the hybrid system consists of
ICE (DLE-60: 5.2 kW, 1.5 kg) and four EMs (T-motor U12
KV100). The ICE was used to provide thrust force during
horizontal flight while the battery-powered EMs were used
during take-off and landing operations. Due to the lack of
real-time flight tests, the effectiveness and total efficiency of
the proposed system with respect to the control system and
energy consumption cannot be verified. In a similar manner,
the designed hybrid system in the work [27] consists of ICE
(RCGF-10cc: 1.4 kW, 0.57 kg), and EM (SII-4020-540: 1.85
kW, 0.672 kg). Aiming at obtaining high efficiency during
take-off, landing, and cruising operations, this prototype has
been implemented in a small three-tilt-rotor VTOL UAV.
According to the proposed concept, the ICE was used as the
main power in the fixed-wing cruise phase, while the EM
was the main source in the VTOL phase.
With regard to the overall system weight, the authors in [47]
and [48] demonstrated the importance of reducing the total
weight. In order to achieve that, Hageman and McLaughlin in
their article [48], have pointed out the need to define carefully
the mechanical linkage between the engine and the generator.
Beyond that, the two studies [35] and [42] have dealt with
one of the performance factors related to weight, which is
specific energy. Based on the results using a test bench, it
was concluded that the HPS (ICE + EG) has a specific energy
of 300 Wh/kg, while the battery pack's specific energy is
around 140 Wh/kg [42]. Specifically, the numerical
simulation by Ustolin and Taccani [35], has shown that the
hybrid system (FC + Battery) with a weight of 4.4 kg equals
6.6 kg lithium battery to store the same amount of energy. It
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can be interpreted that (FC + Battery) in 1 unit in weight
equals a lithium battery of 1.5 units in weight. According to
the combined studies [35] and [42], it can be roughly stated
that the specific energy of HPS's components can be
arranged as follows: (ICE + EG: 300 Wh/kg) > (FC +
Battery:1.5 × 140 Wh/kg = 210 Wh/kg) > the lithium battery
pack energy density (140 Wh/kg). Generally, and
computationally speaking, it can be interpreted that the
specific energy of 1 unit in weight of (ICE + EG) equals 1.4
units in weight of (FC + Battery) and 2.14 units in weight of
lithium battery.
Finally, it is worth noting the future challenges that still
exist in integrating hybrid systems into multi-rotor UAVs,
which are represented by:
Regarding the fuel-powered systems (Piston-based
engines): power-to-weight ratio, Specific Fuel
Consumption (SFC), Time Between Overhauls (TBO), and
cooling system; vibrations caused by combustion noise and
mechanical noise [56]; response speed [44].
In terms of turboshaft engines, a power system based on a
small turboshaft engine (7.3 kW) was evaluated for a small
UAV [51], but proper operation with a full load was not
achieved. Despite a more powerful range of turboshaft
engines (~1000 kW) being commercially available [57], the
design of a turboshaft-powered generator for UAVs
requires more attention from academia.
Disadvantages of using hydrogen in a hybrid FC system
namely: high cost, flammability, and difficulty in storage
and transportation [46]. These complications contribute to
reducing their application in UAVs [27]. Moreover, FCs
require: future development [46]; experimental tests [35]–
[54]; optimization of them in HPSs in terms of performance
and mass [53]; and further studies to address their weight
and onboard storage units [52]. On the bright side, from the
commercial and industrial side, there is a more powerful
range of FC engines commercially available on the road
(~136 kW, Toyota™ Mirai) [58]. Perhaps most
impressively, one of the leading manufacturers of
commercial FCs (Ballard™) has FC modules with output
power ranging from 500 W to 1200 kW. From the technical
data available from the manufacturer, the FCs of 45 kW, 70
kW, 100 kW, and 120 kW have a weight of 145 kg, 240 kg,
275 kg, and 275 kg, respectively [59]. Thus it can be
relatively said that their power-to-weight ratio ranges from
0.3 to 0.48. It would be useful to mention that some
examples of commercial hybrid generators (ICE + Battery)
(given in Table 6) have power-to-weight ratio ranges
between 0.5 to 1.4. Therefore, the design of FC-powered
UAVs requires more attention from academia and the
industry.
Low generation efficiency in solar cell-powered systems in
relation to UAV missions [27], [46]. The challenge also
remains, particularly in multi-rotor UAVs, since there is not
enough area for solar cell placement.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
V. HPSs IN MULTI-ROTOR UAVs FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
In another vein, it is interesting to highlight the industry's
technological development with respect to HPSs and hybrid-
powered multi-rotor UAVs. This part is dedicated to
focusing on the recent technological developments regarding
some of the latest commercial models of these systems.
A. HYBRID POWER SYSTEM GENERATORS FOR UAV
There are some available commercial models of hybrid
powertrains and engines that can be used in UAVs. In a
remarkable development of HPSs, LaunchPoint has
developed hybrid-electric GenSets for UAV systems. This
innovative technology provides additional opportunities for
the development of commercial aviation systems that require
extended flight durations or heavy payloads such as air
transportation and cargo delivery systems [60]. HPS055
generator GenSet with a maximum power of 5.5 kW, with a
total weight of 11.3 kg [61] has been shown in Table 6.
Foxtech Hobby has also produced the NOVA-2400
generator (continuous power: 2.4 kW, 4.2 kg in weight, fuel
consumption: 2 kg/hour). The MTOW (for the Gaia 160
platform) with this generator can reach 23 kg (generator: 4.2
kg + platform: 11.8 kg + fuel: 5 kg + payload: 2 kg) and can
fly for 2.5 hours [62]. The GAIA 160 Elite Hybrid Drone
system has a take-off weight of only 13.7 kg without a
payload and can fly with a take-off weight (of 19.7 kg) for
about 3.5 hours with (6 kg fuel), and for 3 hours with (3 kg
fuel) [63]. In the same context, Fly Dragon Drone Tech
produces hybrid generators designed for multi-rotors. The
FD23K generator produces a power of 23 kW (weight: 39.5
kg, fuel consumption: 17.5 kg/hour) capable of extending the
flight time to about 3 hours with a MTOW of 150 kg [64].
Pegasus has developed a hybrid powertrain capable of
generating (maximum power: 4 kW, weight: 3.5 kg, TBO =
200 hours) that can operate a larger UAV with a weight of
up to 25 kg [65]. Walkera also produced the G120 EFI engine
capable of generating 7.4 kW (9.9 hp) with a MTOW = 45
kg. Table 6 shows in detail the technical specifications of the
latest commercial hybrid generators and engines for UAVs.
Fig. 7 illustrates the correlation between the available hybrid
generators' maximum output power and the MTOW. As
noted, the ratio of the maximum power generated by the
engine to the MTOW ranges between (0.1-0.15).
For further technical specifications to enrich the current
research, communication with leading companies in the field
of manufacturing and production of hybrid UAV generators
was established. Unfortunately, the response has been
minimal, and some of them referred to the public data sheet
available on the websites. On the positive side, it was
highlighted that the MTOW parameter depends on onboard
power, mission profile, lifting system, vehicle type, payload,
and financial returns/considerations. In addition, it was
emphasized that the hybrid approach is a better way to extend
the UAV’s flight range/duration compared to pure electric-
powered UAVs.
1 VOLUME XX, 2022
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B. HYBRID-POWERED MULTI-ROTOR UAV
Multi-rotor UAVs have many advantages that have made
them important for either researchers or hobbyists. HEPS has
the characteristics of combining the advantages and
eliminating the disadvantages of the power sources that make
up the hybrid system. It enables UAVs to fly in electric mode
while minimizing the side effects of heat, noise, and emissions
[66].
The linkages between scientific research fields and
industrial sectors contribute to reciprocal knowledge transfer
and developing technologies. As detailed earlier, there are
many academic studies endeavoring to incorporate HPSs for
powering UAVs. This section aims to create a scientific-
industrial interaction by mentioning some of the latest
commercial models of hybrid-powered multi-rotor UAVs as
illustrated in Fig. 8.
The HYBRiX 2.1 is a versatile hybrid flying platform that
provides up to 4 hours of operational flight time with a payload
of only 25 kg. Its large endurance makes it more suitable for
long aerial missions and even in adverse weather conditions.
Similarly, the additional rotors on the Perimeter 8+ provide
more thrust and increase the payload capacity to 7.5 kg with 2
hours of endurance and more than 6 hours with no payload.
Both contain a backup system (batteries) that ensures a safe
landing for refueling and returning aloft. Table 7 summarizes
the technical specifications of these models and others.
The growing development of HPS is increasing in order to
raise flight time and endurance. Accordingly, the field of
hybrid aircraft applications could be expanded in the future.
Since 2016, South Korea has been developing a hybrid-
powered UAV (Fig. 9.a). The HPS combines an ICE with
battery power with a view to increasing flight endurance by up
to about two hours [67]. South Korea is also seeking, by 2025,
to introduce a commercial air transport service in urban cities
to reduce traffic congestion [68]. In another application, the
Workhorse Group Incorporated (an American manufacturing
company) has produced a hybrid-electric VTOL aircraft
(Model SureFly) (Fig. 9.b) for use in carrying a pilot and
passenger/cargo (MTOW = 680 kg) able to fly for one hour.
SureFly's hybrid power system relies on a 150 kW (200 hp)
gasoline engine to drive twin generators to provide electrical
energy for the propellers’ rotation. In addition, it contains dual
lithium battery packs (7.5 kWh each) for an emergency
landing in the event of a malfunction in the main engine [69].
C. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section discusses the most significant parameters
affecting the determination of the purpose of the power system
design and the mission to which the designed vehicle will be
applied. They are the maximum power, empty weight, payload
weight, MTOW, weight fractions, power-to-MTOW ratio, and
power-to-weight ratio.
1) POWER-TO- MTOW RATIO
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
A major parameter in the design phase that determines the
mission of unmanned flight systems is the ratio of maximum
power to the MTOW. Based on the data available from the
manufacturers, Fig. 10 shows the relationship between
maximum power and MTOW for some commercially
available hybrid-powered UAV models. As shown, it roughly
ranges between (0.1-0.2) kW/kg. Obviously, the importance
of this ratio is highlighted in its contribution to identifying the
maximum power generated by the powerplant, and the
MTOW of the UAV which includes the empty weight and
payload.
2) WEIGHTS RELATIONSHIPS
(PAYLOAD/EMPTY/MTOW)
On the basis of the information provided in Table 7, Fig. 11.
(left figure) shows the overall distributions of the UAVs'
weight in terms of MTOW, empty weight, and payload
weight. The technical findings in this figure indicate that the
MTOW is proportional to the payload and empty weights.
Therefore, multiplying these weights doubles the MTOW.
On the other hand, a mass fraction measurement is a factor
for estimating weights. The empty mass fraction compares the
empty weight against the MTOW. Similarly, the payload mass
fraction is the ratio of the maximum payload weight to the
MTOW. Fig. 11. (right figure) illustrates these two
parameters, noting that these fractions did not show a direct
correlation to MTOW similar to what is pointed out in [70].
D. PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Power is one of the main parameters of engines and is closely
related to weight. Analyzing the link between the power and
weight of the engine is considered an essential first step in the
design phase of the propulsion system.
Focusing on the products of commercial companies dealing
with HPSs and their uses in powering multi-rotor UAVs,
continuous advances can be observed in increasing payload
and flight time. The progressive development of hybrid
systems will contribute to expanding the application areas of
multi-rotor UAVs to include promising fields in the future
such as air taxis and air ambulances. In this section,
commercial hybrid powertrains with a power ranging from
(2.4 to 40) kW have been studied and analyzed. From Fig. 12
(left figure), it is evident the power-to-weight ratio of ranges
between (0.5 to 1.4), and the DLE128HD engine has the
highest one.
In a similar way, commercial engines that are used in
UAVs, whose power ranges between (8.5-149) kW, have been
also investigated. It is worth noting that these engines can be
converted to a full hybrid engine by adding a generator set. As
reflected in Fig. 12 (right figure), the power-to-weight ratio
ranges between (1.5-2.7), and the highest ratio was for the
RT1200-P engine. In this respect, it should be pointed out that
using an engine with continuous power of about 112 kW (150
hp), it is possible to design a multi-rotor UAV for heavy lifting
tasks (Air taxi, Air ambulance, Heavy lift cargo,). Also
noteworthy, it is possible to double the generated power by
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integrating two, three, or four engines to obtain a total output
power of 223.7 kW (300 hp), 335.6 kW (450 hp), and 447 kW
(600 hp) respectively.
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Starting with the challenges facing electric UAVs represented
in the feasibility of flight time and payload, this paper provides
an academic and technical research view of hybrid-powered
multi-rotor UAVs. The literature specifically addressing HPS
issues has been reviewed in terms of a research field,
objective, main findings, and future work. In order to
accomplish that, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR)
approach has been followed. Consequently, relevant studies
were collected in the past two decades (2000-2021) and
analyzed, and valuable data were extracted and presented in
Tables 4 and 5.
Regarding the experimental studies, this study has
systematically reviewed the research methodology, the
components of generation in the hybrid system, and the
control algorithms. Publication time, search engines, most
frequently used keywords and terminology, most highly-cited
articles, and countries with the highest contribution were
analyzed. Network visualization and Sankey diagrams were
used to display the data (Co-Occurrence of Keywords,
Distribution of highest contribution countries) in an easy-to-
explain manner. VOS viewer software was used with the aim
of analyzing the content of the retrieved studies. According to
the results of the analysis, the ICE had the highest share in the
proposed designs, while the use of SCs in storing the generated
power was much less compared with batteries. Additionally,
it was noted that the PID control methodology was the most
widely used in adjusting the engine rotational speed and
attitude control system. As for energy sources (FCs, batteries),
they still need more development and attention from academia
and the industry. Although FCs represent a promising
technology for the future, they need further practical
experiments to overcome the complications and challenges of
using hydrogen. These concerns, along with the low specific
energy of the battery (Wh/kg), have contributed to reducing
the use of FCs and batteries in some fields of UAV
applications.
On the other hand, the preliminary design considerations
for heavy multi-rotor UAVs have been discussed.
Performance parameters like maximum power, MTOW,
empty weight, payload weight, power-to-weight ratio, and
power-to-MTOW ratio were analyzed. These analyses have
been conducted for:
 hybrid commercial engines with output power ranges
between (2.4 to 40) kW and power-to-weight ratio ranges
between (0.5 to 1.4),
 commercial engines that are used in UAVs with output
power from (8.5 to 149) kW and power-to-weight ratio
ranges between (1.5 to 2.7), and
 some available commercial hybrid-powered UAV models.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958
The importance of performance parameters in defining and
implementing the relationship between the engine's maximum
power and the UAV's MTOW was highlighted, mainly
through the power-to-weight and power-to-MTOW ratios. In
this regard, for example, if an engine with a power-to-weight
ratio of 0.15 and a continuous power of about 112 kW is
selected, it is possible to determine the UAV's MTOW at
about 747 kg.
Based on the retrieved empirical academic studies that have
sought to integrate HPSs in UAVs, it was found that the
maximum power of the used engines was less than 8 kW for
ICEs and turboshaft engines and less than 2 kW for FCs. In
addition, from the results achieved by an experimental test
bench work and another numerical simulation study, it can be
estimated that the specific energy (Wh/kg) of 1 unit in weight
of (ICE + EG) roughly equals 1.4 unit in weight of (FC +
Battery) and 2.14 unit in weight of lithium battery-only.
For scalability and comparison fairness of ICE, turboshaft
engine, FC, and battery pack, which can be tested and
evaluated for a few power ranges of 10 kW, the future study
may lead to the release of a list of reliable and scalable
performance parameters such as (power-to-weight ratio,
specific energy, Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC), and Time
Between Overhauls (TBO)). Consequently, the authors
recommend that the future direction of the HPSs' development
in UAVs is to include a high-power powertrain and thus
extend the endurance and payload capabilities.
Finally, under the current challenges of limited payload and
flight duration in electric UAVs, there are broad and real
opportunities for researchers and developers in both academia
and the industry to improve the UAVs' endurance and payload
capabilities. At this point, hybrid power systems (HPSs) play
a crucial role in increasing the required power while
maintaining the high efficiency of the overall system. This can
be accomplished by increasing the power-to-weight ratio
(related to MTOW) while reducing the (SFC) (related to
endurance). Nevertheless, the complexity of integrating more
than one power source to drive the UAV requires further
development/optimization aimed at controlling/managing the
generated power to operate the propulsion system and store
the excess power simultaneously.
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LIST OF FIGURE CAPTIONS

FIGURE 1. Configurations of the hybrid power system (reproduced from [28]).

FIGURE 2. Systematic search process flow diagram.

FIGURE 3. Breakdown of publications per year.

FIGURE 4. Times cited over time.

FIGURE 5. Network visualization of keywords used in published literature.

FIGURE 6. Distribution of published documents among countries.

FIGURE 7. Power-to-MTOW of some available hybrid engines.

FIGURE 8. Examples of hybrid powered-multirotor UAVs.

FIGURE 9. (a) Hybrid Drone octocopter used by Korean [67]; (b) A personal hybrid-electric aircraft (SureFly) [71].

FIGURE 10. Power-to-MTOW of some available hybrid-powered multi-rotor UAVs.

FIGURE 11. Empty and payload weight against MTOW for commercial available hybrid-powered UAVs (left figure); Empty and payload weight fractions
(right figure).

FIGURE 12. Power-to-weight ratio of available commercial engines: (left figure) Hybrid powertrain; (right figure) Fuel commercial engines for UAVs.

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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 1. Configurations of the hybrid power system (reproduced from [28]).

VOLUME XX, 2022

11

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 2. Systematic search process flow diagram.

FIGURE 3. Breakdown of publications per year.

VOLUME XX, 2022

11

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 4. Times cited over time.

FIGURE 5. Network visualization of keywords used in published literature.

12
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 6. Distribution of published documents among countries.

FIGURE 7. Power-to-MTOW of some available hybrid engines.

VOLUME XX, 2022

13

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 8. Examples of hybrid powered-multirotor UAVs.

FIGURE 9. (a) Hybrid Drone octocopter [67]; (b) A personal hybrid-electric aircraft (SureFly) [71].

14

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 10. Power-to-MTOW of some available hybrid-powered multi-rotor UAVs.

FIGURE 11. Empty and payload weight against MTOW for commercially available hybrid-powered UAVs (left figure); Empty and payload weight
fractions (right figure).

VOLUME XX, 2022 15

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

FIGURE 12. Power-to-weight ratio of available commercial engines: (left figure) Hybrid powertrain; (right figure) Fuel commercial engines for UAVs.

17
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

LIST OF TABLE CAPTIONS

TABLE 1. Research questions.

TABLE 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
TABLE 3. Most-cited articles.
TABLE 4. Evaluation of the eligible studies for systematic synthesis.
TABLE 5. Evaluation of the selected studies according to verification methodology, core components of HPS design, and
control system strategy.
TABLE 6. Technical data of some commercial examples of hybrid generators and engines for UAVs.
TABLE 7. Technical specifications of some commercially-available hybrid Multi-rotor UAVs.

17
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

TABLE 1. Research questions.

Research questions Motivation and reasons

What are the contributions of hybrid power systems (HPSs) in increasing
the electric–powered multi-rotor UAVs’ endurance?
What are the contributions of hybrid power systems (HPSs) in increasing
the electric–powered multi-rotor UAVs’ payload?
These questions aim to reveal and classify the models of hybrid power
systems (HPSs) used in driving multi-rotor UAVs, and to identify technical
problems and shortcomings by synthesizing the findings of existing research.
The questions are designed to highlight the motivations for adopting HPS in
UAV technology based on empirical evidence along with exploring the
effective proposals in future recommendations.

TABLE 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria

English papers Non-English language
Papers that can provide answers to Incomplete articles (reports, conference abstracts, posters, no author, not accessible)
research questions
Only empirical studies Studies that did not contain practical experiments or future practical recommendations.
Papers published between 2002 and 2021 Matching papers not published between 2001 and 2021
Studies in the context and domain of HPS Articles that are not related to the terminology of the research questions
in UAV technology

TABLE 3. Most-cited articles.

Authors Title Source of Publication Year Total Citations

WoS Scopus IEEE
Ustolin and Fuel cells for airborne usage: Energy storage International Journal of Hydrogen 2018
13 16 -
Taccani comparison Energy
[35]
Lu et al. Design and implementation of a gasoline-electric 2017 IEEE 6th Data Driven Control 2017
2 13 8
[27] hybrid propulsion system for a micro triple tilt-rotor and Learning Systems Conference
VTOL UAV
Apeland et Suitability analysis of implementing a fuel cell on a Journal of Aerospace Technology 2020
- 9 -
al. [54] multirotor drone and Management
Lin et al. Engine Controller for Hybrid Powered Dual Quad- IECON 2015 - 41st Annual 2015
6 7 5
[55] Rotor System Conference of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society
Lu et al. Parameter matching of hybrid coaxial rotors and multi- AUS 2016 - 2016 IEEE/CSAA
2016 5 5 4
[40] rotor UAV's power system International Conference on Aircraft
Utility Systems
Ahluwalia Performance and cost of fuel cells for urban air INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
2021 4 4 -
et al. [52] mobility HYDROGEN ENERGY

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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

TABLE 4. Evaluation of the eligible studies for systematic synthesis.

Ref. Research Focus Research Methodology Future works

[45] Modelling and The HPS consists of an ICE and a brushless DC (BLDC) Future work includes designing control algorithms
simulation generator, whilst the control system consists of a PI/PID aimed at managing the power generated and
controller. consumed. Furthermore, the design and
The proposed model includes the control of the ICE's speed and implementation of a laboratory test tool can be done
the rectified voltage/current. for the purpose of experimental validation of the
HPS's overall components.
[52] A technical and The study focused on powertrains systems (battery, FC, hybrid). Regarding FCs technology for air taxis, the
economic In addition, performance metrics included: engine power, weight following topics require further future studies:
evaluation of air (engine, storage system, maximum take-off), fuel consumption Strengthening of FCs
taxis. and cost, and capital and total cost. Weight of FCs and accessories
On-board storage unit

[39] Hybrid power The available commercial HPSs used in UAVs were reviewed. The current design of the prototype requires more
system The designed prototype of a hybrid generator consisting of an future work in order to become an industrial product.
ICE, BLDC generator, and SCs.
Active Rectifying was employed by means of MOSFETS.

[43] Hybrid power The “distributed load” methodology in designing a HPS (ICE and NM
system Battery) was used.
[42] Hybrid power Modeling, designing, and implementing a HPS (ICE, EG, and Design and implementation of a hybrid system with
system Battery) a capacity of about 1000-1200 watts with an
additional power margin of 300-500 watts along
with the design of a multi-rotor UAV with a (10-12)
kg MTOW.
[53] Fuel cell hybrid Analysis of the effect of central system parameters of a hybrid FC Further research and experimental tests can be
system system in a multi-rotor UAV. Accordingly, the impact of the carried out to improve hybrid FC systems in terms of
composition and efficiency of the propulsion system, hydrogen performance and payload.
storage, and battery performance in the HPS was studied.

[54] Fuel cell hybrid Designing a numerical simulation model to analyze and measure Further analysis of the hybrid FC system features
system the suitability of a hybrid FC system for a multi-rotor UAV. for different sizes of UAVs is preferable.
The designed model can be improved by studying
the impact of environmental conditions on the
performance of FCs.
The model can be validated by using experimental
data.

[46] Power sources for Analysis of power sources (FCs, fuel power, solar cells, hybrid FC technology needs more attention and future
multi-rotor UAVs sources) for multi-rotor UAVs. development
Thin-film perovskite solar cells could represent
great prospects in the future.
Although lithium batteries are the main power
source for multirotor UAVs, lithium-ion batteries
are in urgent need of improvement.
Developing a power source capable of providing
longer endurance and higher payload remains the
ultimate goal of UAV development research.

[51] Power system Design and integration of a power system prototype based on a Developing an automated control system to obtain a
based on turboshaft engine for small multi-rotor UAVs aiming at extending constant voltage from turboshaft-powered EM in
turboshaft engine flight range and endurance. different operating conditions (different electrical
for small multi- loads, different turboshaft throttle/RPM). In
rotor UAVs addition, digital data logging is a necessity to operate
turboshaft engines in a safe manner with load
(without limit-cycle).

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[47] Hybrid power Expanding the flight duration in multirotor UAVs based on HPS Improving engine, motor, and ESC performance.
system (ICE and BLDC). Optimizing the cooling system at a reduced
possible power cost.
Reducing the overall system weight.

[44] Hybrid multi-rotor Design a separate lift and attitude control system for a hybrid NM
UAV control multi-rotor UAV.
strategy The attitude and speed controller are designed depending on the
backstepping-PID control method.

[35] Use of fuel cells or Development of a numerical simulation model to determine the Validation of the designed model through
hybrid systems for preference for using FCs or HPS (FC, battery) in UAV systems. experimental data. In addition, SCs can be used in
UAV propulsion. future hybrid systems.
[49] Hybrid power Analyzing the practical implications of integrating a hybrid NM
system electric power system (ICE and EM) in multi-rotor UAVs with
aim of improving endurance and providing design insights for
future development.
[48] Hybrid power Study of the performance of a series HPS by coupling between The efficiency and weight of the series HPS can be
system ICE and EM in small UAVs (sUAVs). improved by selecting a distinct coupling between
ICE and EM.
[27] Hybrid power Design and implementation of a hybrid propulsion system (ICE, The designed prototype needs more future work,
system EM) to drive a micro triple tilt-rotor VTOL UAV. which is modeling, optimization, testing, and control
In addition, a dynamic model of attitude control based on a PID of the propulsion system, including an accurate
controller is presented. dynamometer to achieve reliable matching between
the EMs and the engine.
[50], Hybrid power Design of a control system based on the PID controller for a NM
[55] system hybrid-powered multi-rotor UAV.
The proposed HPS was integrated into a dual quad-rotor.

[40] Hybrid power Power matching and performance testing of the hybrid UAVs NM
system (coaxial rotors and multi-rotor).
[41] Hybrid Propulsion Design and implementation of a hybrid propulsion system (ICE, Improving the control and positioning system
System for VTOL EM) for a VTOL UAV to carry out surveillance and (reconnaissance and surveillance missions), real-
UAV reconnaissance missions. time validation, and utilizing a turboprop engine
instead of the gasoline engine.

TABLE 5. Evaluation of the selected studies according to verification methodology, core components of HPS design, and control system strategy.

Ref. Validation Generation Sources for HPS Control

Simulation/Modeling/ Experimental Fuel ICE Generator Battery Super Solar Methodology
Technical Evaluation Cell (BLDC) Capacitor Power

[45]  - -   - - - PID
[52]  . -  - -  - - NM
[39] -  -     - NM
[43] -  -  -  - - NM
[42]   -    - - PID
[53] - -  - -  - - NM
[54]    - -  - - NM
[46]  . -   -  -  NM
[51] -  - -  - - - NM
[47] -  -    - - NM
[44]   -  -  - - PID
[35]  , -  - -  - - NM
[49] -  -   - - - NM
[48] -  -   - - - NM
[27]   -    - - PID
[50], -  -    - - PID
[55]
[40] -  -    - - NM
[41] -  -  -  - - NM

VOLUME XX, 2022 23

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

* T. E= Technical Evaluation; M= Modelling; S= Simulation; NM= None Mentioned.

TABLE 6. Technical data of some commercial examples of hybrid generators and engines for UAVs.

UAV Type Engine Type Engine Model Power Range (kW) Weight Manufacturer/ Ref. Country
(kg)
UAV Hybrid 8.9 6.2 DLE / China
[72]

DLE128HD
Commercial Hybrid 5.5 (max) 9.5 LaunchPoint/ USA
aerospace, 5 (continuous) [61]
automotive,
and air taxi
companies

DA150
Long Hybrid 40 (max) 59 LaunchPoint/ USA
endurance, 35 (continuous) [61]
hybrid
electric flight
for UAV and
UAM
Rotax 582UL
Multi- Hybrid 2.4 (continuous) 4.2 Foxtech Hobby/ China
copters, [62]
VTOL Fixed
wings

NOVA-2400
Larger UAVs Hybrid 4 (max) 3.5 Pegasus/ [65] Canada

GE70
UAV Hybrid 7.4 6.15 Walkera Technology China
Co.Ltd. /
[73]

G120 EFI, two stroke

VOLUME XX, 2022 23

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

Multi-copters Hybrid 22.967 39.5 Fly Dragon Drone China

Tech/
[64]

FD23K
Light Two cylinder 37.3 22 Hirth Engines Germany
GmbH/
aviation two
(without [74]
devices stroke(boxer)
weighing up exhaust)
to 120kg

F23-LIGHTWEIGHT
UAV, UAS 2-Cylinder Gas 16.34 10.7 3W International Germany
Engine, two (including GmbH/
stroke ignition) [75]

SP-275 FI TS ROS
UAVs, light Quad[4] Rotor, 149.14 (max) 54 Rotron Power/ UK
111.8(continuous) [76]
aircraft and Rotary Wankel
helicopters

RT1200-P
Fixed wing, 4-stroke four 8.575 (max) 6.3 +/- 0.2 RCV Engines Ltd/ UK
[77]
Helicopter- cylinder rotating
Rotary Wing, valve fuel
Hybrid, injected

DF140LC 4 Cyl
Engine
UAVs (heavy Rotary engine 22.296 9.5 (without Sky Power/ Germany
loads) subcompon [78]
ents )

SP-180 HF SRE
Hybrid
Light and Single cylinder 22.37 12.7 Hirth Engines Germany
GmbH/
ultralight two-stroke [79]
aviation, for engine
UAV
available

F33 AS

24 VOLUME XX, 2022

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232958

TABLE 7. Technical specifications of some commercially-available hybrid multi-rotor UAVs.

Vehicle Model Maximum Maximum Flight Time Empty Maximum Propulsion Generator Batteries
Take-off (h) Weight Payload System Output
Weight (kg) (kg) (Kw)
(MTOW)
(kg)
HYBRiX 2.1 [80] 20//25  4 h (Max. Endurance) 13 5//10 Hybrid Fuel- 3.7 Lipo-6S
 2 h (Full Load) Electric

PERIMETER 8+ 25.5  6 h (No load) NA 10 Hybrid NA Lipo -

[81]  3 h / 5 kg Gasoline- Battery
 2 h / 7.5 kg Electric
 1 h / 10 kg

GAIA 160 Elite 22.5 3.5 h (19.7 kg take-off 13.7 5 Hybrid 2 (max) Lipo-12S
Pro [63] weight) (6 kg fuel) Gasoline-
3 hours with (3 kg fuel) Electric
Airborg™ H8 50  2 h / 4 kg 33 10 Hybrid 10 Lipo-12S
10K [82]  Over 1 h ( with up to 10 Gasoline- (50V,
kg payload) Electric 6000
mAh)

QL 1800 [83] 56.1 2 h (No-load) 33 NA Double 7.4 12S

Cylinder LIHV*
Gasoline (capacity
Engine- ≥1800
Generator WK- mAh
WS-150-001
YANGDA YD6- 33.4 kg 2h / 5 kg NA 6.5 Hybrid 4.2 Lipo-6S
1600L [84] Gasoline- (×2)
Electric Backup
battery
THEA HEX [85] 22  7 h (No load) NA 5 Hybrid 1.8 (continuous) Lipo-6S
 6 h / 1 kg Gasoline- 2 (max) (5000
 2 h / 5 kg Electric mAh )

Foxtech Thor 210 ≤56 2.5 h / 10 kg NA 20 Hybrid 5.96 Lipo-7S

[86] Gasoline- (2x)
Electric (12000
mAh)
CARRIER H6 23  2.5 h / 4 kg 14.5 6 Hybrid 2.38(continuous) Battery
HYBRID [87]  1.5 h / 6 kg Gasoline- Power
Electric
* LIHV = Lithium-ion Polymer High-Voltage; NA= Not Available.

VOLUME XX, 2022 25

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