1.

On Glotodidactics
 What is applied linguistics?
o Applied linguistics – someone with a degree in linguistics who was unable to get a job in a
linguistics department (?)
 TASK
o Read the definitions of applied linguistics (A. Burns, J. Richards, Z Dorney, R Hudson)
o Find the topics/expressions all the definitions have in common
o Based on these topics /expressions „build“ your own definition
o Discussion
o Burns
 Application of language theory irl
 Problems of language in different real-life contexts → solutions
o Richards
 at first – theory of language teachin
 later – various disciplines dealing with practical language issues
 teaching has its own methods (SLA, pedagogical grammar etc.)
 in the past – language teaching = applied linguistics
 nowadays – language teachin = TESOL – teaching and practice of teaching
English to speakers of other languages
 language teaching ≠ applied linguistics
 conclusion: term irrelevant and old
o Dorney
 How language is acquired
o Hudson
 Interdisciplinary
 Solution to language problems
 Real-world language problems
 David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics
o AL -a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic
theories, methods, findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in
other areas of experience
o The most well dveloped branch: teaching and learning foreign languages
o Medical linguistics - treating language disabilities (dislexia, disgraphy)
o Phorensic linguistics – language analysis in legal documents
 Glottodidactics
o Glottad (from Greek) – language, speech, dialect
o Didaskein – to teach
o The study of foreign language learning and teaching
o The study of teaching metods and procedure sin language teaching
 Mihaljević Djigunovič – Interdisciplinarna istraživanja u području obrazovanja na primjeru
glotodidaktike
 Methods
o Meta – by means of
o Hodos – way
o The actual techniques and procedures of the class wordk
o An overall plan of the orderly presentation of language material
o Skills/content/order
o The grammar-translation method
 o The direct method
o Audiolingual method
o TPR
o The silent way
o Community language learning
o Suggestopedia
o Communicative language teaching
 Approach
o Theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source
of practices and principles in language teaching
o A set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning
o Methods developed on the basis of various approaches
o Reform movement = approach
o Direct approach = one of the methods

Teaching language skills

 Language skills
1. speaking
2. writing
3. listening
4. reading
 productive skills
o speaking and writing – language production
 receptive skills
o listening and reading – receiving messages
o meaing is extracted from discourse
 passive/active skills
 integrating skills
o skill-mixing
 process of integrating different skills
 it is usually impossible to complete a task successfully in one skill are without
involving another skills
 Speaking
o The most challenging of the 4 skills
o A process of constructing meaning
o Why, how, and when to communicate?
o Cultural and social context
o Dynamic interrelation between speakers and listeners
o Linguistically correct and pragmatically appropriate utterances
 Approaches to teaching speaking
o Important since the 19th century
o A major shift in thinking since the 19th century
o Speaking – central to direct method and other oral approaches
o The AL method
 Speaking – repeating after a teacher
o Communicative language teaching (70s) – fluency as a goal
o Research: focus on the features of authentic oral interaction
o The clausal nature of spoken English
  Clauses linked together through simple coordination (and, but…) rather than the
use of complex sentence constructions (common in written English)
o The use of incomplete sentences (Saw a movie last night)
o The use of chunks or multi-word units
o The use of fixed utterances or raoutines (Nice to meet you, How have you been)
o Colloquial expressions and idioms
o The use of discourse markers (I mean, you know…)
o The interactive and negotiated nature of oral interaction (turn taking- feedback, topic
management)
o Different genres of spoken English (small talk, conversatin, and transaction)
o Formal vs. casual
 Types of classroom speaking performance
1. Imitative
 Focus on a particular element of language form
 Is drilling a legitimative part of communicative language classroom
2. Responsive
 Short replies to T or S-initiated questions
 These replies are self-sufficient, don’t lead to dialogue
 Substitution drill
 T: This is a yellow dress
 S: This is a yellow dress
 T: This is a red dress.
S: This is a red dress
 T: tyellos
 T: What is the main idea in this essay?
 S: he UN should have more authority
 T: More authority than what
 S: Than it does now
 T: what do you mean
 S: E.G., The UN should have the power
3. Transactional (talk/dialogue)
 Purpose of conveying info
 Transfer of information
 Clear, precise, accurate language
 Extended form of responsive language
 Message-oriented use of language
 Accuracy and coherence
4. Interactional (talk/dialogue)
 Maintenance of social relationships
 Harmonious interaction > info
 Making social interaction comfortable & non-threatening
 Activities:
 Telling stories/jokes
 Describing something
 Giving a short talk
5. Extensive (monologue)
 Students give extended monologues (presentation, talk…)
 Mother has got seven kids. They are goats. She goes to town and says don’t open
the door to anyone. Wolf knocks on window. Kids say you are not our mum.
  She’s foot is white, your foot is black.. Wolf put his foor in bag of flour… Kids
open the door. They are hide… they hide. The wold ears six kids.
 He sits… sit under the … tree. He’s fall asleep… Mother saves kids.

Teaching speaking part 2

 Genres of spoken interaction
o What we understand bi “speaking skills” covers a wide range of different genres of
discourse
o Genre – knowledge of different types o spoken interaction
o The discourse conventions of each kin of interaction
o Small talk, conversation, transactions, discussion
o Each genre has distinct features and characteristics and each poses different issues for
teaching and learning
 Small talk
o Short exchanges that begin with a greeting, move to back-and-forth exchanges on non-
controversial topics
o Ofen conclude with a fixed expression (see you later)
o Formulaic interacions; often do not result in a real conversation
o They serve to create positive atmosphere
o While seemingly a trivial aspect of speaking, small talk plays a very important role in
social interaction
o Skills in small talk
 Fixed expressions and routines used in small talk
 Formal vs casual speech
 Fluency around predictable topics
 Using opening and closing strategies
 Back-channelling – “ok”, “aha” – making sure you’re listening
o Ways of tteaching small talk
 Modelling and creating
 Students study examples f small talk exchanges and create similar
exchanges on he same topic
 Class mingles
 One or two topics on a card
 Greet each other
 Make small talk to each other
 Question sheets
 Give sheet with questions, they answer
 Conversation
o Longer exchanges that may follow on from small talk
o Managing the flow of conversation around topics
o Joint interaction around topics
o Ability to change topics
o Skills
 Initiating a topic
 Selecting appropriate vocabulary to the topic
 Appropriate feedback responses
 Providing comments through back haganneling
 Taking turns at appropriate points
 Asking for clarification and repetition
  Repairing misunderstandins
 Open and close conversations
 Appropriate intonation and sress patterns to express meaning
o Teaching conversation
 Awareness-raising activities
 Examine examples of conversation
 Look for examples of back-channelling, introducitons
 Dialogue completion
 Transctipts – complete them
 Planning taskts
 Give topics
 Make a conversation around it
 Improvisations
 Give dialogue frame
 Improvise a conversation
 Transactions
o Interaction that focuses on getting something done, not social interaction
o Referred to as functions
o Requests, orders, offers, suggestions etc.
o A tramsactopm ,ay cpmsost pf a seqiemce of differemt functions – scripts
 Ordering food in a restaurant
 Ordering a taxi
 Buying a book
o Goal is to carry out a task
 Communicationg information is the central focus, and makin oneself understood
 Unlike small talk or conversation, where social interaction is often as important as
what the participants actually say
 Language – predictable, celar, formal
o Skills
 Isti kurac ka za sve drugo
o Task 1 – teaching function: finding an apartment
 Roleplay activity
1. What are the phases of the task?
a) “game plan” – what do I do?
b) Explain rules
c) Designate students to group a or b
d) Switch groups
e) Ask the students for their decisions
2. Why is teaching functional language important?
- to learn how to actually use a language in praxis
3. Which materials and aids does the teacher use and why?
- task papers, flash cards,
4. What was the students reaction? Was the activity successful?
- Yes it was
o Teaching
 Awareness-raising
 Learning expressions and routines
 Modelling
 Planning
 Practice
 Discussion
o Discussion focusinfgon exchanging ideas
o Teaching
 Choosing topics
 Chosen by students or teachers
 Forming groups
 Preparing for discussions
 Giving guidelines
 Timeframe
 Main points
 Roles of participants
 Evaluating discussions
 Quality of discussion
 Amount
 Grammar
 Etc.
o Task 2 – teaching speaking to groups (video)
 Warm-up activity
 Giving instructions
 Controlled oral practice
 “seeing” the language
 Functional intelligibility
o Spoken English in which accent is not distracting to the listener
o Eradication of an accent should not be our goal
 Functional communicability
 Increased self-confidence
 Speech monitoring

Listening
 Key terms
o Listening comprehension
o Processes involved in listening
 How important is listening in FL learning and tteaching?
o 40s to 60s
 Listening neglected
 “passive” skill
 Listener as tape recorder – audiolingual method
 Listening as primary skill, but the practice was very restricted
 In every-day life
 45% - listening
 30% speaking
 Reading 16%
 9% writing
 In reality listening is used the most in everyday life
o 70s
 Recognized as core component od 2nd language acquisition
 We internalize linguistic information through listening
 Speaking is NOT communication
 Speaking + listening comprehension = communication
  Teaching the comprehension of spoken speech – of primary importance!
 TPR
 Natural approach
o How do we listen? One-way or two way?
 One-way (non-interactive) – not interacting with the speaker to facilitate
comprehension (movie, lecture)
 Two-way (face-to-face interaction) – able to interact with the speaker
o Listen carefully!
 Which problems did you have while listening?

 Which information would have been helpful?
o Interactive model of listening comprehension
 Clark and Clark
 Listening is an interactive processes (8 processes)
1. Processing raw speech and holds an image of it in short term
memory
2. The hearer determines the type of speech event
a discussion
3. Determining the objective of the speaker
speakers wants to share their ideas
4. The hearer recalls background info
What do I know about?
5. Literal meaning to the utterance
6. Assigning an intended meaning to the utterance
7. The hearer determines whether info should be stored in short term
or long term
short tern
8. Hearer deletes the form in which the message was received
o What makes listening difficult?
 Speed
 Most common observation by L2 learners: fluent speakers (NSs) seem to
speak very fast
 The ability to follow natural speech in a second language is a skill that
takes a long time to master
 The exposure to English for L2 learners?
 To what extent do they reflect natural speech
 Unplanned nature of spoken discourse
 Two-way spoken discourse is usually unpredictable and reflect the
processes of construction
 Hesitation, reduced form, filler, false, starts and repeats
 Jack C. Richards on listening comprehension
o 1. What are the two strands of listening comprehension?
 Bottom up processing
 work through language
 understanding language, and analyze it, then
coming to the meaning
 Top down processing
 start from meaning, then work towards language
 bypass some bottom processing by using
background knowledge
 o 2. What is a schema?
 The body of knowledge about a topic
 Used to process language
 Filling in information gaps in communication
o 3. What is the implication of this theory of language teaching?
 Bottom-up processing
o Wunifthifirstthingsimgunnadownigetometoniteischeckmyemailm
esagis
o Input is the basis for understanding language
o We use our knowledge of language and our ability to process
acoustic signals to make sense of the sounds
o We segment speech into identifiable sounds and impose a
structure on these in terms of words, phrases…
o Tasks for students:
 List of content words and aske them to make sentences
 A list of content words and ask them to listen toa text and
number the words as the occur in the text
 Words deleted – fill in the gaps
 Time reference on a chart
 Sentences with a grammatical feature and students tick
the intended meaning
 Set of sentences with a particular grammatical feature
 Top-down processing
o Use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of
the message
o Inside the head information
o Schematic knowledge
 Formal schemata – knowledge we have of the structure of
some speech events (Once upon a time…)
 Content schemata – general world knowledge
o Higher level processes (top-down)
o Lower level processes (bottom-up)
 Both processes simultaneously
 Teaching listening
o Teaching listening: Gist and Detail
 Listening for gist?
 To get general idea - skimming
 What is listening for detail?
 To get details - scanning
 Where is the listening text from? What do you think
about the text

 How many times did students listen to the text?
 3
 Did the students get specific tasks before listening?
 Just listen to the text
 Listen again and put the activities in correct order
 Why did the teacher walk around the classroom
 Checking answers
  What are some other activities that are mentioned in the
video
 Is there anything the teacher could have done differently?
 Pre-Listening stage
o Contextualize the text
 While-listening activity
o Help them focus on the text
o Listening for gist – focus on main idea
o Listening for specific information – scanning; students should
focus on details
 Post-listening
o Integration with other skills
o Listening + reading/writing
o Homework, discussion, chart completion,commenting…
 Accents

Teaching reading
 Task 1: The White Mountains
o Read the text paying attention to the underlined words
o Guess their meaning – what helped you understand them?
 Stram – tower
 Marret - upholder
 Jurrip - castle
 Barlim - barman
 Taddle - waste
 Barl - farm
 Fastam - fixation
 Wol - strap
 Prad -
 Dimp
o Syntactic knowledge
 A barlim, a wol – nouns
 Can taddle – verb
o Morphological knowledge
 Barl – barlim (barl + im =barlim, farm – farmer etc.)
o Linguistic (systematic) knowledge
 Good lreaders decode quickly and accurately the maning
o Sociocultural
o General world knowledge
o Genre knowledge
o Schematic knowledge
 Reading: knowledge areas/skills
o Vještina čitanja na stranom jeziku: teorijska ishodišta
o Automatic recognition skills
 Unconscious: recognizing the text for what it is
o Vocabulary and structural knowledge
 Understanding of language structure
 Large recognition vocabulary
o Formal discourse structure knowledge
  Understanding how texts are organized and how information is put together
o Content/world background knowledge
 Prior knowledge of text related info
 A shared understanding of cultural information
o Synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies
 The ability to read and compare info from multiple sources
 The ability to think critically about what you read
o Metacognitive knowledge
 Defining reading
o Complex ability to extract, or build, meaning from a text – too simple
o Usually divided into multiple abilities
 Key skills
 Recognizing words
 Large recognition vocabulary
 Strategic processes
 Background knowledge
 Interpreting and evaluating texts
 Proceessing texts fluently over extended period of time
o How does fluent reading work?
 Lower level processing and higher level processing
 Lower
 Word recognition
 Lexico-syntactic processing
 Semantic processing
 Beginner reader?
o Need to establish a strong link between ortographic forms and
sounds of language
o L1 research – training in phonological awareness and letter-sound
correspondences
o What is phonological awareness?
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=K0G6teawxls&t=222s&ab_channel=Understood)
 Awareness that the words which we speak can be taken
apart
 Strongly linked to early reading and spelling success
through its association with phonics
 Teaching literacy
o Recognizing phonological patterns such
as rhyme an alliteration
o Awareness of syllables and phonemes
within words
o Hearing multiple phonemes within words
o Phonemic awareness is a critical subset of phonological
awareness
o Phonemic awareness includes the following skills
 Onset-rime identification, initial and final sound
segmenting, blending, segmenting, and manipulating
sounds
 o The automatization of letter-sound relations is the foundation
of all alphabetic reading and supports syllabic reading
 Higher
 Forming main idea meanings
 Thematic info
 Using background knowledge and inferencing
 L1 and L2 reading differences
o Smaller L2 linguistic knowledge
o Less L2 experience
o Involves two language systems
o Different background knowledge between L1 and L2
o Foreign social and cultural assumptions for L2
 General principles for teaching reading
 Interesting and accessible reading resources
 Some degree of student choice in selecting reading sources
 Lessons – pre- during, and post reading
o These activities should be varied from one major reading to the
next
 Opportunities for students to experience comprehension success while
reading
 Word recognition skills
o Important for reading
o Happens in less than 100 ms
o Accuracy + speed of meaning
o Visual decoding of letters
o Semantic resources
o Mental lexicon
o Reading skills developed before school – parents singing with
you
 Reading fluency
o the ability to read accurately, smoothly with expression
o automatic recognition of words
o RF provides a bridge between word recognition and reading
comprehension
o Can focus on the meaning of the text
 Working with text: general framework
o Pre-reading activities
 Access background info
 Video: Using Visual Images to Pre-teach Vocabulary
 What is the teacher’s advice on the use of visual
images?
o Don’t write – pictures are more
stimulating
o Just use a computer – alternatively print
them out
o Activate students prior knowledge
 How does the teacher elicit unknown
vocabulary?
 o Asking questions about the pictures
 Comment on the amount of the linguistic input,
teacher feedback and student’s reaction to the
activity
o During-reading activities
o Post-reading activities
 Styles of reading
o Oral reading
 At the beginning and intermediate levels: serves as an
evaluate check on bottom-up processing skills
 Pronunciation check
 Extra student participation – if you want to highlight a
certain passage
 Not authentic activity
o Intensive reading
 Focusing on linguistic or semantic details
 Surface structures
o Extensive reading
 Larger texts outside of the classroom
 Longer text
o Skimming
 Reading for gist
 Getting a global impression
 Top-down
o Scanning
 Reading for detail

Predavanje: Writing
 How is writing like swimming?
o Somebody has to teach you
o Once you learn it you never forget it
 Why is writing a difficult skill for learners?
o Has to be learned unlike speech
o We do it rarely
o Absent audience
o Linguistic difficulties
 Conventions of genre
 Grammar/vocabulary
 Organizing and sequencing ideas
 Differences between written and spoken discourse
o permanence
 written is fixed and stable, time, speed, and level depend on an individual
 spoken discourse moves on in real time
o explicit
 written text is explicit
 spoken discourse – some info can be assumed, context and situation
o density
 content is much more condensed in writing
o detachment
  written detached in time and space
 speaking – interaction and feedback
o organization
 written – organized and carefully formulated: grammar and vocabulary
 spoken – improbisation, stream of consviousness kind of language
o standard
 written – standard variety of language
 speech – dialect
o a learnt skill
 writing – taught and learned deliberately
 speaking – acquired
 main objective of teaching writing
o students to be able to produce the same texts as an educated person
o ESL/EFL – context, writing, like other language, according to level
o Mechanical aspects of writing
o Focus on accuracy and content of the message
o Communicative perspective
 Early writing taskts: coping with the mechanics
o Basic mechanics
 Letter/word recognition
 Letter discrimination
 Word recognition
 Rules of spelling
 Punctuation and capitalization
 Students tend to look for one to one letter sound correspondence
 Not in English
 How do we teach mechanics
o Enhance letter recognition
o Reactive sound-spelling correspondence
o Move from letters to sentences
 More advanced writing
o Focus on accuracy and content of the message
o Lists (“things to do” – “things completed”)
o Notes and messages
o Letters to friends
 Jack C. Richards, Writing in a second language
o what is the audiolingual approach to writing?
 Focused on control of sentence patterns and grammar through oral practice and
drill
 Basis for writing
 Dicto-comp
 Reading a paragraph and repeating details
o What is the paragraph-pattern approach? (topic sentences, thesis sentence)
 Focus on organizational patterns (narration, description…)
 Developing a paragraph on modes and patterns
 Logic of paragraphs
 Writing sentences for paragraphs
 Topic sentence - the topic sentence helps organize the paragraph by summarizing
the information in the paragraph.
  Thesis sentence – tells the reader how to inrerpret the information
o What s the process-oriented view of writing?
 Emphasis on the writer and writing strategies
 Not on end result – but process
 Writing as a creative process
 Planning, drafting, revising, editing
 Criticism:
 more suited for advanced learners
 more advanced texts are needed
o What are the features of the discourse-genre approach
 How language Is used for particular purposed
 How is it used in particular contexts (school, job….)
 Genres have certain features
 Factors:
 Cultural conventions
 Audience
 Formal or informal
 …
 Creating texts that are context appropriate
 Depends on cultures
 Awareness of contexts of texts
 Škola za život – grade 8 – writing a mini-saga
o what are the outcomes?
 Writing a mini-saga on the word travelling
o What is an outcome? Why are outcomes important for L2 learning?
 Things students can do after a lesson, not what they learned
o What are the stages?
 Posing a general question about stories
 Introducing the elements of a story
 Reading an example
 Analyzing it
 Pin-pointing different
o What’s a mini-saga?
 Very short story
 All the elements, but few words
o What are the elements of the process view of writing the lesson

 Product view of writing
o Focus on final product of writing (essay, report etc.)
o Supposed to
 Meet standards of rhetorical style
 Grammatically correct
 Conventionally organized
o Emulating model compositions
o Measuring student compositions against real ones
 Process view of writing
o Focus on process to a finished result
o Help understand composing process
o Learn about strategies such as prewriting, drafting, and rewriting
 o Give student time to write or rewrite
o Focus on revision
o Find the topic
o Giving feedback and encourage it
o Individual conferences between teacher and student
o Taking advantage of nature of written code
 Two step process
 Figure out the meaning
 Putting it into words
o Writing is a process of “cooking a message”
 Components of a writing course
o Content
 Depends on the type of writing students are learning
 Not always chosen by the teacher
o System
 Grammar
 What areas of grammar will be useful to the
 Linked to simple paragraph-writing
 Sentence-combining – pairs of sentence
 Expanding
 Combining
 Extending
 Copleting
 Paralleling
 Rewriting
o Process
 Rehearsing
 Drafting
 Ideas to words
 Time focused
 Elaboration
 Reduction
 Jumbled paragraph
 Revising
 Peer feedback, group correction, rewriting exercise, teacher feedback,
checklist
o Genre and text
 Modelling – analyze model with students
 Joint construction
 Independent construction

Teaching vocabulary in the EFL context

 Introduction
o Mastering vocabulary – proficiency in language use
o Vocabulary learning: central to language acquisition
o L1 – L2 vocabulary learning difference – the rate of vocabulary growth
o L1 learning context – the amount of regular input is immense
o Incidental vocabulary learning
o L2 learning context smaller amount of regular input
 o Opportunities for learning limited and few words are acquired incidentally
o Teachers – key role in L2 vocabulary learning
o Quality and quantity of L2 vocabulary learned
 How many words do learners need to know?
o Nation (2006) – vocabulary learning goals: native speaker’s vocabulary size
o 20 000 word families or 32 000 vocabulary items
o Ambitious/unrealistic goal for any L2 learning programme
o More realistic way of determining vocabulary goals – identifying how much vocabulary
is needed to perform an activity
o Relationship between lexical coverage and reading comprehension
 Lexical coverage percentage of known words in a text
o Hu and Nation – replaced the low frequency items with nonsense words
o Measures – a multiple choice test and a cued recall test
 80% text coverage – no comprehension
 90 tex coverage – some comprehension
 100% text coverage – good comprehension
 98% text coverage – required for most L2 learners to achieve good
comprehension of a text
 1 unknown word in every 50 words
 The escaped madman – 100%
 The culvazed selgian – 80%
o 9000 word families – to read novels
o 3000 word families – to read graded readers
o 6000 . 7000 word families – to understand unscripted spoken English
o Knowledge of 2000 to 300 word families needed for adequate listening
comprehension
o These vocabulary sizes – realistic
 Jack C. Richards On Vocabulary
o Numbers?
 80 k – 100 k in a dictionary
 3 – 4 k for everyday use – goal in classroom
 8 to 10 k for college reading
 Most students are quiet under that number
o Strategies?
 Language reading journal
 Identifying key words at the end of a lesson
 Bringing words out of class to class
 Repeated usage
o The importance of vocabulary?
 Mui importante – building block of language development
 Which words do learners need to know?
o how do we decide which words to teach?
o Word Frequency
 Measured by counting how often a word or word form occurs in a large sample of
spoken or written language (BNC)
 British National Corpus
 Structure words – part of grammar
 3 nouns in 100 top words
 Words vary extremely in how often they are used
  Frequency is only one factor in choice of words
 The ease with which he meaning can be demonstrated
 Appropriateness
o How do learners learn new words
 What does word knowledge include
 Man = čovjek
o Forms of the word
 Pronunciation
 Spelling
 Specific rules – n + ing (overmanning)
o Grammatical cathegories
 A man – noun
 To man – verb
o Possible and impossible structures
 He manned the barricades
 It manned the barricades
o Word building – manlike, unmanly
o Lexical properties
 Collocations
 Man to man, my good man
 Man in the street
 Appropriateness
 My man
o Meaning
 General meanings (semantic features)
 Male, adult, human being, concrete, animate…
 Specific meanings
 A piece in chest
o Acquiring a word - # a norm + a translated meaning
o Vocabulary is everywhere
o Honology and orthography
o Morphology and grammar
o Sysems of meaning
 Grade 1, elementary school, My Toys
o Outcome of lesson
 Learning toys
 Spatial prepositions
 Possessive pronouns
o Dynamic lesson
o Use of L1 and codeswitching
 Codeswitching alternating between two languages
during his speech with another bilingual person
 Discourse exchange which forms a single unitary
interactional whole
 Teachers should use hildren’s L1 to chekck concepts
 Intrasentential – in the middle of he sentence with no
interruptions
 Intersentential
 After the sentence
  Language is shifted after the end of the sentence
 Functions of code switching
 Changing language according to topic
 Affective – to build relationship with the student
 Repetitive – the teacher code-switches in order to clarify
meaning
 Types of meaning
o Referential/denotative
 word has reference to an object, action ore event in the
physical world
 Expressions stand for things/objects in reality
 Sometimes words have more meanings
 Laguages reflect the world in different ways an use
different cathegories to describe it
 Aunt/uncle
 Ujak/ujna, stric/strina, tetak/tetka
o Connotative meaning
 The association or set of associations that a word usually
brings to mind
 Relates to attituedes and emotions of language user in
choosing a word
 Ambitious – positive/negative
 Home – place where one lives/place of security,
comfort, and family
 Mix of cultural, political, social and historical sources
 Extensive exposure to authentic reading and listening
materials
 Meaning relations among words
o Syntagmatic – between words as they occur in sequence
 A long road a ripe banana a savage dog
 Can’t say: a tall road a mature banana a barbaric dog
 My car was badly damaged in the accident
 Can’t say: My car was badly injured in the accident
o Paradigmatic – learning the meaning of a word involves
knowing how that meaning is defined in relation to other similar
or opposite words
 synonymy
 one linguistic item can be exchanged for another
without changing the meaning of the sentence or
utterance
 He answered the question courteously.
 He answered the question politely.
 He was depressed.
 He was sad/miserable/unhappy.
 Hyponymy
 One word includes others within a hierarchy
 Superordinate (hyperonym) and subordinate
(hyponym) words
 Keyboard, mouse, monitor – computer
  Rose, daffodil, lily – flower
 Antonymy
 Opposites
 Complementarity
o One word is a negation of the other word
o Male-female, night-day, true-false
 Converseness
o One term implies the other
o Export-import, parent-child, doctor-
patient
 Gradable antonymy
o Black-grey-white
o Video: Teaching Vocabulary with
gradable opposites
 Why reduce teacher talk-time?
 To prompt them to think, not
concentrate on you talking
 How to elicit unknown words?
 Extremes first
 Compare to others, but not say
the words directly (what’s colder
than cool?)
 What to do if students don’t
know the word?
 Just says it
 How to check understanding of
vocabulary?
 Use it in a sentence
 What is your opinion on this
teaching technique?
 How do teachers teach new words?
o Current issues
 Explicit vs. implicit learning?
 70s 80s communicative approach focused on incidental learning
 Nowadays implicit is only one technique
 Explicit – activities focus on vocabulary
 Building a large recognition ocabulary
o Receptive vocabulary
 Connected to reading a nd listening
o Productive
 Able to use in writing and speaking
 Promoting a deep level of processing
o Role of memory
o Short term memory
 Small storage capacity
o Long term memory
o Difficulty in remembering new words
o Learning a new word is not instantaneous
o Goal: establish new words in long-term memory
 o Transfer of information from st to lt
o The more they use the word, the greater the probability that the
word will be transferred into LT
o Efficient learning of vocabulary – incremental process
 Step by step
 Over a long period of time
 Encounters should be meaningful
o Processes
 Noticing
 Conscious focus on vocabulary as a learning goal
 Paying attention to the aspects of words that
might facilitate understanding
 Strategies
 While listening or reading, a learner notices a
new word and thinks about it
 Highlight the word
 Negotiate the meaning of the word with other
learners
 Definition, synonym, L1
 Spaced repetition
 Meeting a word at a later time
 A single encounter with a word is unlikely to
lead to learning
 Spaced, meaningful repetition over time
 Flashcards: Leitner system
o Video: How to study flashcards using
the Leitner system?
 Students should be taught a productive vocabulary of 2-
3000 words
 Words no learnt in isolation
 Vocabulary presentation technique
 Concise definition
 Detailed description of appearance, qualities
 Examples (hyponyms)
 Illustration
 Context (story, sentence)
 Translation, collocations
 Games
 Implicit learning
o Learning while doing another activity
o Beyond a certain level, most low frequency words will be learned
incidentally while reading or listening
o Vocabulary learning strategies
 Not been explicitly taught the words we know
 2000 3000 words is minimum tresholds that enables
incidental learning to take place
 Finding ways to encounter the L2 outside the
classroom
 Nation and Webb: Most important VLS
  Extensive reading: books which are at the
appropriate level for them
 Book food approach: consistently over a period
of time
 Beginning students: graded readers
 Intermediate students: narrow reading
o Reading on the same topic
o Topic specific vocabulary
 Advanced students: wide reading
o Authentic texts
o Wider range of topics
 Extensive viewing
 Watching L2 television and online videos
 Widely available
 Research results
o L2 learners are motivated to learn
through watching TV
 Finding ways to use the L2 outside the classroom
 Learning word parts: affixes and stems
 Guessing from context
 Determine the part of speech of the
unknownword
 Analyse the immediate context to try to
determine the meaning of the unknown word
 Guess the meaning
 Check guess against the information that was
found the first four steps
 Using dictionaries effectively
 Most widely used resource for deliberate
vocabulary learning
 Students often gave difficulties in using
dictionaries effectively and require training
 Integrating vocabulary teaching into the lesson
 Teach high-frequency and high-utility words
 Deal with words systematically
o Pre-teach –
o Replace the unknown word in the text
before giving the text to the learner

Teaching grammar
 Why teach grammar?
o 2 views
 “There is no doubt that a knowledge – implicit or explicit – of grammatical
rules is essential for the mastery of a language”
 “The effects of grammar teaching appear to be peripheral and fragile.”
o Grammar debate
o For and against teaching grammar
 The case for grammar
o Sentence-machine argument
  Part of the process of language learning is item-learning
 Memorization of individual items
 There comes a point where new need to learn some patterns and rules to
enable us to generate new sentences
 A knowledge of regularities in language provides the learner with the means
to generate original sentences
 Grammar – a sentence-making machine
o The fine-tuning argument
 The purpose of grammar is to allow for greater subtlety of meaning that a
merely lexical system can cater for
 Teaching of grammar serves as a corrective
o Fossilization argument
 Learners often reach a kind of plateau beyond which it is difficult to progress
 Their linguistic competence fossilizes
 Learners who receive no instruction seem to be at risk of fossilizing sooner
than those who receive instruction
o Advance organizer argument
 Weak interface hypothesis
 Grammar instruction might have a delayed effect
 R. Schmidt, Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: A
case study of an adult learner of Portuguese (1986)
 Studied Portuguese in Brazil
 Left classes to travel
 While speaking noticed grammatical structures in talk with natives
 Noticing: a prerequisite for acquisition
 Grammar teaching – insufficient for fluency – a preparation for noticing
 Grammar as a kind of advance organizer for later acquisition
o Discrete-item argument
 Grammar consists of an apparently finite set of rules
 Reduces the enormity of the learning task
 A discrete item – any unit of the grammar system that is sufficiently narrowly
defined to form the focus of the lesson or an exercise
o Rule-of-law argument
 Since grammar is a system of learnable rules, it lends itself to a view of
learning and teaching known as transmission
 Education as a transfer of a body of knowledge
 Very simplistic view of education
o The learner expectations argument
 Many language learners come to the language classes with fairly fixd
expectations as to what they will do there
 Previous classroom or out-of-classroom
 Case against grammar
o Knowledge-how argument
 Language is a skill – experiential learning
 Learnt in praxis – not by sitting down
o The communication argument
 More to it than grammar
 Do you drink?
 Present simple
 Offer
  Communicative approach – communicative language teaching
 Grammatical knowledge is merely one component of communicative
competence
 Communicative competenece – usage of grammar and covaculary of the
language to achieve the communivatie goal and knowing how to do this in a
socially appropriate way
o Acquisition argument
 Learning/acquisition
 Acquisition occurs when the learner is exposed to the right input in stress-free
environment
 Learning – formal instruction; of limited use
 Learning – monitoring the acquisition of language
o The natural order argument
 There is a natural order of acquisition of grammatical items
 Universal grammar
 Similarities in developmental order in L1 and L2 acquisition
 A textbook grammar is not nor can ever be a mental grammar
 What is the status of grammar now?
o 2 types of approaches to language teaching: distinctive pattern in the history of
methods
o Focus on analyzing the language and focus on using the language
o GM – DM
o ALM – CA

Task-based and content-based approaches, CLIL, CA- speaking and writing Accurately is

 Teachers who focus student’s attention on linguistic form during communicative interactions
are more effective than those who do so in decontextualized grammar lessons.
 Focus-on-form
o Draw student’s attention to linguistic form while they are primarily focused on
meaning
 Balance between fgramar and commnicatio nencouraged
 First step is to come to a broader understanding of rammar
 Grammar=form
 Te teaching of gramaar = the teaching of explicit linguistic rules
 Jack C. Richards – Grammar as a communicative resource
o „we have to go beyond looking at how grammar is used to shape sentences and focus
on how it can be linked to real contexts for the use of language, for the real
communication“
 What is grammar?
o Grammar is not
 A discrete set of meaningless decontextualized or static structures
 Prescriptive rules about linguistic form
o What is grammar
 3D grammar framework
 Form/structure – how is it formed
 Meaning/semantics – what does it mean
 Use/pragmatics – when and why is it used
 Grammar structures have morphosyntactic form; hey are also used to express
meaning (semantics) in context-appropriate use (pragmatics)
 Three dimensions are wedges of a single pie chart
  Not present all dimensions at once
 The scope and multidimensionality of the structure
 Learning challenges
 What does CEFR say?
o Grammatical competence – knowledge of, and ability to use, the grammatical
resources of a language
o Grammatical competence – the ability to understand and express meaning by
producing and recognizing well-formed phrases and sentences in accordance with the
principles of language (as opposed to memorizing and reproducing them as fixed
formulae)
 Presenting grammar
o Degrees of explicitness
1. Deductive approach
- Reasoning, analyzing, and comparing
- Presentation of an example
- Explanation
- Students practice with given prompts
- Disadvantages
 Grammar is taught in an isolated way
 Little attention to meaning
 Practice is mechanical
- Advantages
 Very successful with selected and motivated students
 Explaining complex grammar
 Time-saving
 accuracy
2. Inductive approach
- Induces the learners to realise grammar rules without any
forms of explicit explanation
- The rules will become evident through practice
- Possible tasks
 Timelines
 Games
 Oral exercises: repetition, substitution, translation
exercises
 Multiple choice exercises
- Teaching grammar in context
 Do children learn EFL grammar differently from adults?
o CNES: Croatian National Educational Standard (2006)
o Kurikulum nastavnog predmeta Engleski Jezik (2019)
o Grades 1 5 8
o Conclusions
o What does HNOS say about the grammar learning process?
 Grade 1:
 Various activities
 Dynamic class structure, tasks 5 min
 Visual learning
 Games
 Group tasks
 I+1
  Code Switching to explain tasks
 Reproduction mechanical
 Grade 5:
 Explicit lessons
 Implicit grammar knowledge
 Games
 Problem and research
 More simple grammatical structures taught implicitly
 Contrastive analysis if needed
 I+1
 Code switching if needed
 Dynamic activities in class, duration 15 min
 Pupil centered
 Grade 8
 Contrastive analysis
 Certain structures taught explicitly metagramatically
 Multimedial
 Codeswitching if needed
 Repetition
 Asking questions
o Theories about how young children learn are not ifferent from theories about how
teenagers and adults learn language and grammar
o There are secial considerations regarding how children learn anything
o Children absorb new information
o Best by playing and practically
o Children interpret meaning without necessarily understanding the individual words
 Unable to grammatically analize
o Children learn hrough their sense
o An ECLECIC approach to teaching YLs has been suggested
o Processes:
 Noticing
 Structuring
 Proceduralization
 Automatic use
o Where is the difference?
 Learning process (Hedge, 2000
1. Noticing
 Students must notice items of language in order to interpret the
relationship between form and meaning.
 Language teacher has to be noticeable
 Items become part of intake
2. Reasoning and hypothesizing
 For adults
 Analyzing language
 See patterns in language, create hypotheses about the rules and
gradually revise them
3. Structuring
 New rules have to be integrated within their interlanguage
  Evidence: errors
 Errors are systematic
4. Automatizing
 Form without thinking
 Basic principles for teaching grammar
o There is a convincing case for a role for grammar
o Teaching grammar includes teaching form, meaning and use
o Basic rules for grammar teaching – the criteria for evaluating the examples
o E – factor
 Efficiency
 Teacher as efficient as possible
 How efficient is it?
 Economy, ease, and efficacy
 When presenting grammar, the sound rule of thumb is the shorter, the beter
 A little prior teahing seems to be more effective than a lot
 Economical in term of planning and resources
 Ease – painstaking preparation is not always possible
 Generally speaking, the easier the activity is going to be setu up, the
better it is
 Efficacy: will the activity work
 If teachers cant’ directly cause learning, they can at least provide optimal
conditions for it
 Attention, understanding, memory and motivation
 The efficacy of a grammar activity can partly be measured by the degree of
attention
 Motivation: materials relevant,
o A – factor
 Appropriacy
 No class of students is the same
 Not everything is hoing to work for another group
 Task 1: A sample lesson
 Aim of step 1?
- Establish basic terminology
 Aim of step 2?
- Minimal grammar pairs
- Contrast between two forms
- Think about the difference, don’t verbalise it
 Step 3: explain grammar point: the T uses the board to provide a
visual reinforcement
 Step 4 : designed to test the learner’s grasp of the rule
 Step 5: the students have a chance o personalize the language point
 E-factor
- Efficiency depends on the rule being explained and on the
teacher monitoring the learner’s degree of comprehension
- Economic – rules Is simple
- Very easy and no preparation
 A factor
- Appropriate for teens and adults
- Analytical and reflective approach to language teaching
- Not appropriate for young learners.
  Task 2: Teaching grammar in context
1. What advice is given about grammar teaching in the introductory part of
the video?
2. Which grammatical structure is in the focus of the lesson?
- Past simple
3. Does the teacher provide any explicit explanation regarding the structure?
- no
4. Which activities does he use to contextualize grammar?
- Important dates/years
- Pair-work
5. Does the teacher provide feedback? If yes, how?
- T correct the mistakes himself
- T prompts the students to correct the mistakes (asks
questions)
- T repeats the students utterances
6. In your opinion, was this lesson (or part of the lesson) successful? Why?
7. A and E criteria?

A brief history of language teaching

 Sss
1. Wen were the foundations of contemporary approaches to language teaching
developed?
2. What was the result of the process?
3. What are were the events which resulted in the development of the new methods
 Background
o What prompted the rise of modern foreign languages?
 500 ears ago latin was the world’s most studied foreign or second language
 In the 16th century, French, Italian, an English gained in importance as a result
of political chanes in Eurple
 Decline of Latin
 Status of Latin diminished from that of a living language to that of a
“occasional”
 Lain: the classical and the most ideal fform of language
 Latin was said to develop intellectual abilities
 Latin was said to develop intellectual abiliites
 The study of latin grammar: an end in itself?
 Rote learning of grammar rules, study o declensions and conjugations,
 “modern” languages: appeared in the curriculum in the 19th century
 Ideas about the role of language study: reflected the status of Latin
 Modern Languages were taught using the sam procedures hat were used for
teaching latin
 Grammar rules, vocabulary lists, sentences for translation
o Speaking the foreign language?
 Not a goal
 Oral practice: limited to students reading alod the sentences they have
translated
 Sentences: illustration of the grammatical system
 By the 19te century – this approach study language
 It became known as the grammar translation method
 TASK 1: TGM
  Read the description of the lesson taught according to te principles of
the GTM
 Write down the observations
 Try to identify the principles of the GTM
1. An important goal is for students to be able to translate each
language into the other
ability to translate=successful language learning
2. Teacher and students talk in their native language
the ability to communicate in the target language is not a
goal
L1 used to explain concepts in L2
3. Students write down the answers to reading comprehension
questions
teacher decides whether the answer is correct or not
Reading and writing are te primary skills
little attention is given to speaking and listening, and
almost none to pronunciation
The teacher s the authority in the classroom
4. Students learn about cognates (similar meaning, spelling, and
pronunciation)
learning is facilitated through attention to similarities
between the target language and the native language
5. Student are given a grammar rule for the use of a direc object
with two-word verbs. They apply the rule to the examples
they are given
it is important to learn about the form
Grammar it taught deductively
6. Students memorize vocabulary/past tense/present tense/ past
participle forms
language learning provides good mental exercise:
Wherever possible, grammatica paradigms should be
committed to memory
 The grammar translation method
o Know everything about something rather thn the thing itself
o The classical method
o In the US: The Prussian method
o Aims of FL study:
 Learn a language to read literature
 Benefit from the mental discipline and intellectuall development reuslitng
from FL study
o Detailed analysis of grammar rules; followed by translating
o Language learning: memorizing rules and facts
o Most important skills: reading and writing
o Sentence: basic unit of teaching and practice
o Vocabulary selection: based on the reading texts used
o Word lists, dictionary study, memorization
o Accuracy – emphasized
o Grammar is taught deductively
o First language = medium of instruction
o This method dominated FL teaching from the 1840s to 1940s
 GT techniques: Would you use them today?
o Translation of a part of the text
o Reading comprehension questions
o Antonyms/synonyms
o Deductive grammar teaching
o Fill-in-the-blanks
o Memorization
o Composition
 Language teaching innovation in the 19th century
o Seminar 10: A brief history of language teaching
Francois Gouin: the natural (“Series”) Method
 How did he try to learn German?
 By locking himself away from the room and learning different
vocabulary items by heart
 Used grammar translation rule
 What happened when he returned to France?
 His nephew learned German through the early-childhood acquisition
 Developed a series method
 What was wrong with Goun’s method of studying German?
o The natural “series” method
 The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages: 1880
 Gouin developed an approach based on chlidren’s use of language
 Children know the sercret of language acquisition
 Children use language as atool to describe life
 Using language to accomplish events consisting of a sequence of actions
 Sequentiality – was the primary feature of experience and that all ecent could
be described as a series of smaller component events
 The dynamic relationship between language and cognition
 Used situations and themes
 Teaching items in context
 Teaching language directly (without translation)
 Conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations)
 The most important art of the sentence the verb
 50 series each divided into exercise
 Oral approach
 900 hours are needed to learn a language
 The reform movement
o The discipline of linguistics was revitalized
o Phonetics was established – the IPA (International Phonetic Association) in 1886
o International phonetic alphabet
o Principles for a new approach to teaching FLs:
 The spoken language is primary (oral-based approaches)
 The findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and teacher training
 Learners should hear the language first before seeing it written
 Rules of grammar should be taught after using the grammar points in context
– grammar should be taught inductively
 Translation should be avoided
 Can use native language to check comprehension
o Beginning of AL
 Natural language learning principles
o Parallel to the ideas of the RM was an interest in developing principles for language
teaching of naturalistic principles of language learning (L1 acquisition)
o Conveying meaning through demonstration and action
o Monolingual approach to teaching – avoid code switching
o Systematic attention to pronunciation
o Vocabulary teaching: using known word, mime, demonstration and pictures
o Lead to the development of The Direct Method
 The Direct Method
o Task 2
 Read the description of the lesson taught according to the principles of the
DM
 Write down observations
 Try to identify the principles of DM
1. Reading should be taugh from the beginning. The reading skill will be
developed through practice with speaking. Language is primarily
speech
2. Objects should be used to help students to understand language
3. First language should not be used in the language classroom
4. Communication
5. Pronunciation should be worked on from the beginning
6. self-correction facilitates language learning
7. lessons should encourage students to speak
8. grammar teaching should be inductive
9. writing from the beginning
10. syllabus is based on situations and topics, not linguistic structures
 the “natural” language learning principles
 most widely known of the natural methods
 Berlitz Method in the USA: Maximilian Berlitz
 Commercial language schools
 DM – first language teaching method that caught the attention of language
teachers and language teaching specialists
 The beginning of the “methods” era
 Debate on how FL should be taught
 Problems
 Difficult to implement in public school education
 Lacked a rigorous basis in AL theory
 Teachers – native speakers
 Strict adherence to DM was often counterproductive
 DM techniques:
 Reading aloud
 Questions and answers exercise
 Self-correction
 Conversation practice
 Fill-in-the blanks exercise
 Dictation
 Paragraph writing
Audiolingual method
 Origin
o WWII
o Entry of US in WW2
 Fluency in FLs was necessary
 Government asked American universities to develop FL programs for military
personel
 A(rmy) S(specialized) T(raining) P(rogram) in 1942
o “Army method”
o Objective – conversational proficiency
o Leonard Bloomfield: American structuralism
 Language in 1933
 Language is composed of linguistic blocks
 Outline guide for the Practical study of Foreign Languages in 1942
 Textbook for army method
o Influenced the organization of ASTP courses
o Increased need for LL: required a practical and scientifically sound method
o Outline guide: provided a canonical blueprint for such a method
o Task 1: Bloomfield’s language
 Language learning: habit formation
 Core of FL: everyday situations and object
 Outline guide:
 Start from the beginning!
 Languages are different!
 You cannot be natural in a foreign language, you must mimic!
 Language learning is learning, learning and overlearning
 How?
 The objective of the army programs was conversational proficiency
 Linguists ha already developed training programs to master Aerican
Indian languages
 “informant” method
 The informant + the linguist
 Informant: source of phrases, words and sentences for imitation
 Linguist – supervised the learning experience
 Linguist di not necessarily know the foreign language
 Trained in eliciting the basic structure of the language
 The student and the linguist took part in guided conversation with
the informant
 Gradually they learned how to speak and to understand much of its
basic grammar
 Program – lasted about two years
 After the war
 Ideas and techniques behind the ASTP
 Linguists and applied linguists: increasingly involved in EFL teaching
 Foreign students entered US to studying universities: they required
training in English
 First instates specializing in the training of EFL teachers
 Emergence of American approach to ESL – Audiolingual method
 Task: Video Demonstration
o Inductive teaching – he never taught them explicit rules
o How does he teach the dialogue?
 Orally
 Roleplay (2 times)
o Why does he repeat the sentence every time before the students?
 Main principle of the AL method
o How does the teacher correct the mistakes?
o Where does he use the backward buildup method?
 Learning the bigger sentence by repeating smaller parts of it, starting
from the end, and working toward the beginning
o Role of the teacher in the roleplay?
 Background
 Corrects them
o Gestures?
 Helps students to memorize the words and phrases
 Combining physical with lingual activities
 Students liked it
o What did the students learn?
 Fixed expression
 To ask questions
 Overlearning
 Straight from Bloomfield
 Army method
 Learning till it’s second nature
o Role of students?
 Repeat everything
o Freedom of students?
 Student didn’t say “Of course I would” but “yes I would” and the teacher
corrected him
o Why does the teacher wait until the end to correct the students?
 So they wouldn’t concentrate on the written form but speech
 Speaking is most important
 Approach: theory of language
o Combination of
 Structural linguistics – focusing on grammar aspect
 Ora approach
 Contrastive analysis
 Behaviourist psychology
o Structural linguistics – system of sructually related elements for the encoding of
meaning
 Elements in a language were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-
governed (structured) way.
 Language is a list of rules which have to be taught
 Language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of
description
 contrastive analysis
o problems of learning a foreign language attributed to the
conflict of a different structural system
 o problems of interference can be predicted and addressed
through teaching material
 linguistic levels were though of as systems within systems as being
pyramidally structured
 phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics…
 learning a language – mastering the elements and learning the rules
 the primary medium is speech
 speech has priority
 behavioural psychology
 antimentalist
 humans are organisms capable of wide repertoire of behaviours
 stimulus – respone – reinforcement
 reinforcement is vital
o it increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again
– habit
 Types of activities
o Dialogues and drills
 Dialogues provides contexts to the grammar structure
 Repetition and memorization
 Learning principles
o Foreign learning is a mechanical habit formation
o Spoken form presented before the written form – based on army method
o Analogy rather than analysis
o Learning of words in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation
 Men do the housework in the united states
 Task: The decline of Audiolingualism
o Practical results
 Students weren’t able to use language
 Theoretical attack
 Changes in linguistic theory in the 1960s
 Competence and performance crucial
o Competence -language potential
o Performance – how it comes out
 Noam Chomsky
 Rejected both structuralism and behaviourism
 Fundamental properties of language: derive from innate aspects of
mind
 language is not imitated behavior
 language is created anew
 lack of alternative to ALM
o …led to a period of adaptation
 The alternative to audiolingualism
 Boring and unsatisfying
 Disapointing
 Paradigm shift in 70s and 80s
 Mainstream language teaching
 Communicative approach to language teaching
 Alternative approaches: developed outside of mainstream language
teaching
 o Silent way
o Total Physical Response
o CLL
 Underdeveloped in research theory in AL
 Around particular thoeires of learners and learning
(sometimes a single educator)

Community learning
 Whole person learning
o Taking into account not only intellect, but also emotions, will etc.
o Adults feel threatened by a new learning situation
o Teacher understands the struggle students face when trying to learn a new language
 Counselling-learning approach
 Why does the teacher give careful instructions at the beginning of the lesson?
o To not include anxiety if explained later on
o Explains in L1
o Their first lesson ever
 Why are students invited to talk about the experience?
o Sharing feelings
o Creating a community and friendly atmosphere
 The use of L1?
o Translation
 Background
o Charles A. Curran
o Counseling-Learning
 Application of psycholofical counseling techniques to learning
 Counseling
 One person giving advice,
 Teacher – counselor
 Students – clients
 View of language – interactional
 Interactions between learners
 Interactions between learners and knowers
 Class – a community of learners
 Interaction between learners and knowers:
 Dependent
o Students are dependent on the teacher
o Teacher translates student’s sentences
o Feelings of security and belonging
 Self-assertive
o Ss gradually learn the phrases
o Atmosphere: warm and accepting
 Resentful and indignant
o Ss speak independently and may need to assert their identity
o Ss reject unasked-for advice
 Tolerant
o Ss use FL freely
o T provides idioms and more complex hrammar items
 o Ss are secure enough to take criticism
 Independent
o Improving style and knowledge of linguistic appropriateness
o Ss know everything
 Based on child development psychology
 Theory of learning
 Learning is persons
 Convalidation
o Essential to the learning process
o Key element of CLL classroom procedures
o Understanding and positive evaluation of others pesrons
worth develop between the teacher and the earner
 Learning is achieved collaboratively

Communicative language teaching

 After the ALM?
o The ALM wasn’t finished – some elements remain
o 70’s/80s – paradigm shifts
 Alternative methos:
1. Total physical response
2. Silent Way
3. Counseling-learning
4. suggestopedia…
 mainstream methos – relied on contemporary theories of language and la
 What is communicative language teaching?
o Set of priniples about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language
o Aim
 Communicative competence the goal of language teaching
 CLT lacks closely prescribed classroom techniques
 CLT flexivility
 TASK: Jack Richards on CC
1. Communicative competence
o CC vs LC
 LC – ability to create sentences
 CC – ability to use language in communications,
what language is appropriate for a context
2. Examples
o “Can you pass me a glass of water?”
o “Give me a glass of water.”
o “What is wanted by me is a glass of water!”
3. The mastery of language
o Mastering a language that is useful for the situation we are in.
o Practice important
o Teaching different genres
4. Fluency and accuracy
 Theory of language
o Functional theory
 Halliday
 Language cannot be separated from social funcionns or what humans do
with language
 Linguistic elements cannot be taught separately from social functions
 Pragmatic, sociolinguistic, grammatical…
 7 basic functions
1. Instrumental – using language to get things
2. Regulatory – using language to control the behaviour of others
3. Interactional – interaction with others
4. Personal – expressing emotions
5. Heuristic – using language to learn and discover
6. Imaginative – create ideas
7. Representational – to describe something
 Definition: Learning L2 – acquiring the linguistic means ro perform
these seven basic kinds of functions
o Goal: communicative competencies (Hymes, 1972)
o Chomsky’s theory of competence:
 Focus of linguistic theory – characterize the abstract abilities to produce
grammatically correct sentences
 Hymes
1. Such way is s sterile
 Communicative competence
o Canale and Swain
 Pedagogically motivated model
 Knowledge + skill
 Knowledge – knowledge about all of language
 Skill – using language
1. Grammatical c
- Mastery of language code
- Vocabulary, word formation, spelling, syntax
- Knowledge of how to create language
2. Sociolinguistic
- Sociocultural rules
 Usage of language in a cultural context
 Have to be appropriate
 Contextual factors: status, purpose, norms
- Rules of discourse
3. Discourse
- Mastery of combining gram forms and meanings to achieve a
unified spoken or written text in different genres
- Cohesion
 Deals with how utteracnes are linked structurally and
facilitates interpretation of a text
 Determined by lexically and grammatically overt
intersentential relationships
 Cohesion devices: pronouns, synonyms, ellipsis,
conjunctions, parallel structures
- Coherence
 Relationships among the different meanings of a text
4. Strategic
- Mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication
- Paraphrasing
 - Dealing with breakdowns in communication
 Guiding principles for cummincative approach (homework)
 Communicative language teaching
o Authentic language should be introduced
o Being able to figure out the speaker intentions is part of being communicatively
competent
o Target language is a vehicle for classroom communication
o One function can have many different linguistic forms
o Practice discourse and supra-sentential level (cohesion and coherence)
o Game have certain features in common wit real communicative events (purpose,
immediate feedback, negotitating meaning, small group)
o Students are given opportunities to express their ideas and opinions
o Teacher should establish situations likely to promote communication (information
gap, choice, feedback)
o Social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the
utterances
o Teacher=facilitator and advisor
o Grammar and vocabulary should follow the function, situtational context, and he roles
of the interlocutors
 Communicative practice
o Learning language hrough communication
o Learning is an outcome of engaging in meaningful ommunication
o Information gap
 Learners have to communicate in order to get the info they do not posses
o Jgsaw activittes
 Class divided into groups and every group has information to complete an
activity
o Task-completion activity
 Puzzles, games, map-reading…
o Information-gathering activities
 Collecting information
o Opinion-sharing
o Information-transfer activities
o Role-plays
 Video
o “Communicative abilities”
 Writing a letter: Running dictation
 Proverb – cultural element
 Information gap, choice, feedback
 Computer activity
 Simulation
 Traveling to Scotland, moving to Berlin
 Meeting on Skype
 Croatian a French girl meet in class
o Teacher and learner role
 Teacher
 Organizer
 Preparation heavy
 Learner
  Active
 Charactristics of the teaching/learning process?
o Almost everything done with communicative intent
 Activities: games, role-play, problem-solving
o Information gap
 One persona in an exchange knows something the other does not
 display questions
 illustrative question for making people think
 checking student’s knowledge
 most questions are display questions in the classroom
 does not result in communication
o choice
 speaker has a choice of what she will say and how to say
 compare: tightly controlled exercises
o Purposeful
 Speaker evaluates whether his/her purpose has been achieved based on the
info from the listener
o Authentic materials
o Small groups
 Classroom activities
o Goals: fluency, accuracy, appropriacy
o Fluency
 Natural language use
 Fluency occurs when a speaker engages in interaction and comprehensible
despite obstacles
 Conclusions
o Balance fluency and accuracy
o Accuracy before or after fluency
o Based on performance in fluency, assign accuracy task
o SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES
 Back and forth between accuracy and fluency
 Canale/Swain
o Guiding principles
1. CC composed minimally of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic
competence and strategic competence
2. CA based on and responds o learner’s communication need. Speciefied
with respect to aforementioned competences
3. SL learner take part in meaningful communicative interaction with
highly competent speakers of the language – respond to genuine
communicative needs in realistic second language situations
4. Early stages of L2 learning optimal use must be made of aspects of cc
that the learner has developed through acquisition and use of the native
language.
 Make use of what you know
5. Primary objective: provide information, practice and experience needed
to meet their communicative needs in the second language
 Curriculum wide-approach – L2 in different subjects
o What happened next?
 New wave enthusisasm
  Transformation of resources available to teach English
 Focus shifted to learners
 Disadvantages
 too western and center-based
 too general – center based
 idealized context
 the context in which teacher works are very situation specific
 no general teaching method can match everyday realities teachers
have to deal with
 CLT become the global solution to language teaching by the 1970s and 1980s
 approaches suitable for learners with particular learning needs
 special purpose approaches and methods
 ESP – English for specific purposes
 CBI/CLIL
- Content based instruction
- Content and language integrated learning
- Main difference is geography
- Content or information provides the main organizing
principle for a course
- Language taught through content
- Ine Europe the substantial increase in CLIL base programmes
of different kinds is part of a policy to promote bilingualism
- The stated objective: 1 + 2 policy
 What can a teacher do
o Matching teaching to the method
 Teachers are generally defiient in their understanding of teacheing
 Teacher and learner roles, activites – prescribed and not opent to negotiation
 No learner centeredness and no teacher creativity
o Adapting method to teaching context
 More flexible
 Methods and approaches resource
 Supporting rather than a controlling role
 A core set of principles and procedures that can be modified
o Developing personal approach or method
 Teachers can be engaged in the process of developing their own teachin
methods and approaches
 Post-method philosophy
 Principal eclecticism
 Teachers are encouraged to develop their own teaching philosophy,
teaching style and instructional strategies
 Personal practical knowledge
 Moral, affective and aesthetic way of knowing life’s practical situations
 Teachers develop a set of personal values and beliefs
 CONCLUSION OF COURSE
 Learn how and when to use methods
 Understand issues and controversies of the history of language teaching
 Be aware of rich set of activity resources available to imaginative teacher