CHAPTER 2: TRANSFORMER

Outlines:
• Electromagnetic induction
• Working principle
• Transformer ckt
 Electromagnetic induction
• When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is produced
across then conductor as shown in fig 4 below.
• This principle is known as electromagnetic induction, and the resulting voltage is
an induced voltage.

Fig 4: Induction of emf

 Electromagnetic induction ..
• If a load is connected across the terminals of the moving conductor in magnetic
field, the induced voltage courses a current through the load which is known as
induced current.
• The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of
𝑑𝜙
change of the magnetic field with respect to the coil ( ).
𝑑𝑡
• The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the number of
turns of wire in the coil (N).

𝑑𝜙
• Therefore 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁 ×
𝑑𝑡
• The principle of electromagnetic induction is widely applied in electrical circuits in
the study and operation of transformers, electric motor and generators.
 Basic Theory of The Transformer
• A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of an
A.C. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
• It essentially consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common
laminated magnetic core.
• The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one
connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary).
• Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an
alternating emf. E2 is induced in the secondary.
• This induced emf. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2.
• Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.
• If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.
• On theother hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.
 Principle Operation of The Transformer
• In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through the path of low reluctance as shown in the fig 1 below.
• Thus when an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux (Φ) is set up in
the core.
• This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f E1 and E2 in them according to
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
• The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.

Fig 1: operation principle of transformer

 Classification of the transformer
1. According to Construction
• Basically two types of construction are in common use for the transformers: shell type
and core type.
• In the construction of a shell-type transformer, the two windings are usually wound
typing over the same leg of the magnetic core.
• In a core-type transformer, as shown in the figure below each winding may be evenly
split and wound on both legs of the rectangular core.

Fig2: type of
transformer
 Types of Transformers
2. According to Cooling System
There are two types of cooling systems of the transformer via, dry type transformer
and oil immersed transformer.

Fig 3: colling system

of the transformer
 Ideal Voltage Transformation Ratio
• The ratio of the primary to the secondary induced terminal voltage is called as
voltage transformation ratio.
Therefore:
V1 E1 N1
= = =K
V2 E2 N2
• If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
• If 𝑁2 < 𝑁1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down transformer.
• And there are no losses. Therefore, volt-amperes input to the primary are equal
to the output volt-amperes i.e. Input MVA= output MVA, V1 I1 = V2 I2 :
V1 I2 N1
= = =K
V2 I1 N2
 A Non ideal Transformer
• A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The
practical transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) magnetic
leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.

Fig 4: Winding
resistance
Fig 5: flux leakage
Core loss
 Impedance transformation of the transformer
• From the voltage and current transformation ratio:
V1 I2 N1
= = =K
V2 I1 N2
Therefore :
V1 V2
𝑍1 = and 𝑍2 =
I1 I2
Now, the ratio of primary to secondary impedance becomes:
Z1 V I
= 1 × 2 = 𝐾 2 thus:
Z2 I1 V2
And also
R1 X1
= 𝐾2 and = 𝐾2
R2 X2
 Shifting impedances in a transformer
• The following figure shows a transformer where resistances and reactances are
shown external to the windings before shifting or referring. However, to compute
transformer parameters in easily and simplified manner, the parameter should be
referred to one side of the core of the transformer.

Fig 6: transformer circuit before referring

 Shifting impedances in a transformer …
• After referring the transformer parameters:
A : To the primary referred:
𝐼1 × 𝑋2′ 𝐼2 × 𝑋2
× 100% = × 100%
𝑉1 𝑉2

𝑋2′ = 𝐾 2 × 𝑋2
𝑋𝑒𝑠 = 𝑋1 + 𝐾 2 × 𝑋2
𝑅𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 +𝐾 2 × 𝑅2

𝐼2 × 𝑋1′ 𝐼1 × 𝑋1
To the secondary referred × 100% = × 100%
𝑉2 𝑉1
𝑋1
𝑋1′ = 2
𝐾
𝑋2
𝑋𝑒𝑠 = 𝑋2 +𝐾2
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅2 +𝐾22

𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 2 + 𝑋𝑒𝑠 2

Fig 7: equivalent reactance referred either side
 Shifting impedances in a transformer …
• The general circuit diagram of the transformer after referring the resistance and reactance.

Fig 8: after referred

to the primary

Fig 9: after referred

to the secondary
 Examples
Example 1:
A 63 kVA, 1100/220 V single-phase transformer has R1 = 0.16 ohm, X1 = 0.5 ohm, R2 = 0.0064
ohm and X2 = 0.02 ohm. Find equivalent resistance and reactance:
• referred to primary winding.
• referred to primary winding
• Equivalent impedance
 Exact equivalent circuit of the transformer
• The following figure shows the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer on load. Here R1 is the
primary winding resistance and R2 is the secondary winding resistance. Similarly, X1 is the
leakage reactance of primary winding and X2 is the leakage reactance of the secondary winding.
• Also, even if the secondary side of the transformer is open or no loads are connected, the
primary winding draws some current, called as excitation current form the source. The excitation
current is the sum of core loss current (𝐼𝑐 ) and magnetizing current (𝐼𝑚 ).
Therefore, 𝐼𝜙 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑚

Fig 10:exact
traformer ckt
 Exact equivalent circuit of the transformer …..
• Core loss components of the excitation current responsible for core loss (eddy-current and
hysteresis loss) of the transformer. Therefore, if 𝐸1 is the induced emf at the primary winding and
R c1 is the core loss resistance, the core loss current is given as:
E1
Ic =
R c1
• Similarly, the magnetizing components of the excitation current is responsible for the setup of
mutual flux in the core. Since the current carrying coil forms an inductor and the reactance is
magnetizing reactance Xm1 . Therefore, the magnetizing current is given as:
E1
Im =
jXm1
To make easy the calculation, the exact transformer can referred to primary or secondary side.
1
• Note: when referring to the primary side, the secondary impedance are multiplied by
K
when referring to the secondary the primary impedance are multiplied by K.
 Exact equivalent circuit of the transformer …..
Equivalent circuit referred to primary:
If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we get the equivalent
circuit of the transformer referred to the primary as in the figure below.
jK 2 jK 2

K2 K

Fig 11: exact

transformer referred
to primary
 Exact equivalent circuit of the transformer …..
Equivalent circuit referred to secondary:
• If all the primary quantities are referred to the secondary, we get the equivalent circuit of the
transformer referred to the secondary as in the below.
• Note that when primary quantities are referred to secondary, the primary winding resistance and
reactance, magnetic core resistance and magnetizing reactance are divided by 𝐾 2 . All primary
side current (component of magnetizing current and primary current) are multiplied by K.
K2 K2

K
2 K2 Fig 12: exact
K
K transformer referred
K
to secondary
 Approximate equivalent circuit
• Approximate equivalent circuit referred to the
primary side of the transformer.
K
• Approximate equivalent circuit referred to the
secondary side of the transformer.
K

K K2 K2
K

Fig 13: approximate 𝑅2

R2 transformer referred • 𝑅𝑒2 = 𝑅1 + Fig 14: approximate
• R ep = R1 + 𝐾2
transformer referred
K2 to primary 𝑋2
X2 • 𝑋𝑒1 = 𝑋1 + to primary
• Xep = X1 + 𝐾2
K2
 Determination of transformer parameters
• There are types of tests that are used to determine the resistance and inductance in the
transformer model. These are open circuit test and short circuit test.
1. Open circuit test
• Open circuit is used to determine the shunt components of the transformer such as Rc and Xm
Therefore the conductance of the core-loss resistance is given by:
1
Gc =
RC
• And the susceptance of the magnetizing reactance is given by:
1
Bm =
Xm
• Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and the total excitation
admittance is:
1 1
YE = Gc − jBm = −j
RC Xm
• The magnitude of admittance found from open circuit test voltage and current is given as:
Ioc
YE =
Voc
 Determination of transformer parameters ..
• The angle of admittance can be found from open circuit power factor:
𝑃𝑜𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑐
𝑃𝐹 = cos 𝜃 = where 𝜃 = cos −1
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
Therefore, the admittance is found as:
Ioc
YE = ∠− 𝜃
Voc
Ioc I
Gc = cos(−θ) and Bm = j oc sin(−θ)
Voc Voc
1 1
Thus, R c = and Xm = , this value is directly referred to the low voltage side from open circuit
GC Bm
data.
2. Short circuit test:
In the short circuit test the low voltage terminal of the transformer are short circuited and the high
voltage terminal are connected to a variable voltage source.
 Determination of transformer parameters …
• The magnitude of the series impendence of the transformer referred to the primary side is find as:
Vsc
𝑍𝑠𝑐 =
Isc
The power factor of the current is given by:
𝑃𝑠𝑐 𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑃𝐹 = cos 𝜃 = where 𝜃 = cos −1
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑐
Therefore:
Vsc
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = ∠𝜃
Isc
The equivalent series resistance and reactance of the transformer is give as:
Vsc Vsc
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = cos(θ) and Xeq = j sin θ
Isc Isc
Note: the open circuit test is usually performed on the low voltage side of the transformer and short
circuit test is usually performed on the high voltage side of the transformer.
 Example
• Example 1: the equivalent circuit impedances of A 20KVA, 8000/240V, 60 HZ transformer are to
be determined. The following data have been taken from the test.
____________________________________
open circuit test short circuit test
(low voltage side) (high voltage side)
𝑉𝑜𝑐 =230V 𝑉𝑠𝑐 =47V
𝐼𝑜𝑐 =2.1A 𝐼𝑠𝑐 =2.1A
𝑃𝑜𝑐 =50W 𝑃𝑠𝑐 =50W
________________________________________
Find the impedance of approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side and sketch the
circuit.
Solution: the turn ration of this transformer is: K= 8000/240V=33.33
 Example ..
• The power factor during open circuit test is given as:
The power factor during short circuit
test is:

The series impedance is given by:

• The excitation admittance is given by:

The equivalent resistance and

reactance is:

• Therefore the value of the excitation branch is given by:

and
 Example ….
• The sketch circuit is:

Fig 15: exact

transformer referred
to primary

Do this problem referred to the secondary side and sketch the circuit.
 Examples …
• Example-2: A 15 KVA, 2300/230V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation
components and its series impedance. The following test data have been taken from the
transformer : ____________________________________
open circuit test short circuit test
(low voltage side) (high voltage side)
𝑉𝑜𝑐 =230V 𝑉𝑠𝑐 =47V
𝐼𝑜𝑐 =2.1A 𝐼𝑠𝑐 =2.1A
𝑃𝑜𝑐 =50W 𝑃𝑠𝑐 =50W
________________________________________
(a) Find the approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
(b) Find the approximate equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
(c) draw the approximate diagram and label the number.
 Advantages of Transformer Tests
• Polarity test: This test used to determine the polarities of terminal of the transformer windings.
• Voltage ration test: it is used to determine the ratio of the primary and secondary winding
voltages.
• Open circuit of no load test: this test measures the power, voltage and current at the low voltage
side and these parameters are used to determine excitation resistance and excitation reactance
of the transformer.
• Short circuit test: this test is carried out at high voltage side and it measures power, voltage and
current. These measured values are used to determine:
▪ Copper loss and efficiency of the transformer
▪ equivalent impedance (𝑍𝑒𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑍𝑒𝑠 ) and which is used to determine equivalent resistance
and reactance.
• Back to Back test: This test is also called regenerative test or sumpner’s test and which is used
to determine the temperature rising of the transformer.
 Losses in a Transformer
• The losses which occur in an actual transformer are:
▪ Iron losses or core loss
▪ Copper loss
• Core or iron losses: When AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer an alternating
flux is set up in the core, therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in the magnetic core.
▪ Hysteresis loss: the magnetic material subjected to reversal of magnetic flux and which creates a
reversal of molecular magnets. This effect consume electric power and dissipated in the form of
heat is called hysteresis loss. It is minimized using silicon steel to construct magnetic core.
▪ Eddy current loss: the power which carries the circulating (loop) current in the core and dissipated
in the form of heat is called eddy current loss. It is minimized by laminating of the core of the
transformer.
• Copper losses: Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic
resistance. If I 1, I2 are the primary and secondary currents and R1, R2 are the primary and
secondary resistances, respectively. Therefore the power loss due to this effect is:

Then, total copper losses = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2 = 𝐼12 𝑅𝑒𝑝 =𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑠