The nature of the apartheid state in the 1970’s and 1980’s

After the Sharpeville shootings in 1960, the government banned the ANC and PAC.
Government increased state control over the media, gave police power to detain for
indefinite periods without trial and put critics under house arrest.

The opposition-underground, in prison and in exile

● ANC and PAC established armed wings to fight guerilla war to overthrow
government, poqo and umkhonto we sizwe.
● Exiled leaders set up headquarters in zambia (ANC Oliver Tambo) and in lesotho
and tanzania (PAC)
● Hard to infiltrate SA due to the military and camps being isolated and poorly
equipped.
● The PAC majorly weakened by difficulty of maintaining an africanist struggle in
exile.
● Although the ANC had international support, internal opposition in SA had a much
greater impact.

The nature of black consciousness

Black young students began to organise resistance, they adopted set of ideas know
as Black Consciousness. It was attitude of mind, and direct challenge to the
‘non-white’ term. Blacks, indians and coloureds.
1. Raise self respect and confidence to liberate themselves.
2. Promote pride in black culture, history and identity.
3. Stop working with white liberals.
4. To promote unity by mobilisings them to fight against apartheid and division caused
by separate development.

The driving force behind BC was SASO established in 1968 by steve bhiko.

Role of steve bhiko

Active in student politics- NUSAS-dominated by white liberals so he broke away and

formed SASO.
● Should not rely on whites
● Influenced by the ideas of Frantz Fanon.
● Believed that blacks in SA needed to free themselves from physiological
oppression and the state of being inferior.
● If this was achieved, non-racial organisations can operate properly
● Saw BC as a means of creating solidarity and a sense of black pride and not black
racism.

Black consciousness movement

● Broad term for a number of organisations

● Black peoples Convention, South African Students Movement
● Growth of trade unions- Black allied Workers Union
● BPC established Black Communities Project- organised black self help schemes
such as clinics, economic co-operatives and upliftment projects.
● Had enough similarities with ANC and PAC to set up secret links in early 1970’s.
Government reactions

● At first positive
● Believed BC concept fit in well with policy of separate development.
● ANC Thought there would be no political impact and resistance however it was
strongly anti-government and opposed homeland policy.
● Led to government expelling students involved with SASO and harassing BPC and
SASO leaders.
● BC gave rise to self awareness and confidence amongst blacks , clearly evident in
the event of the soweto uprising.

Factors leading to the Soweto Uprising

● Anger about inferior systems- bantu education

● Many joined SASM and BCO-forums for discussion of educational and political
matters
● Thrust newspaper-militant newspaper
● Influence of SASM leaders.

The legacy of black consciousness

● After ban of Bkack Consciousness organisations, AZAPO was formed (azanian

peoples organisation)
● Strong support from uni of the north and turfloop, intellectuals and journalists.
● Failed to make an impact like ANC and PAC .
● Black theology- emphasis on apartheid resistance and influenced some christians
theoligians to be political activists.
● Gave momentum to African led-led community and social welfare organisations e.g
clinics and health projects.
● Set up rural home industries for women and leadership training for young black
activists. (mamphela ramphela and tito mboweni.)
Governement attempts to refom apartheid

Changed strategy by mixing reform with repression. P.W Botha started total
onslaught/total strategy.

● Made people think communists were planning to seize power in SA through

military attacks, protests and criticism= total onslaught.
● Increased military build up.Censorship.The banning of political organisations
and rallies.Detentions without trial. National state of emergency that allowed
police and army to take action against protesters. Limited reform in an attempt to
win support from black middle class.= total strategy

The contradictions of the apartheid regime

The aim of apartheid was to keep black people as manual labourars. The policies of
Bantu education, colour bar, the pass laws and homeland system were apart of this
design however as the economy grew, more jobs were available in the industry and a
high demand for skilled workers. This resulted in pressure from business leaders and
black workers on gov. to reform policies.

The pass system breaks down

● Demand for labour increases, more movement to cities.

● Increase in number of self-built informal settlements.
● State prevention- arrests and forced removals
● Urbanisation- no. of people charged with breaking pass laws increases (540000)
● Prison overload and pass systems began to break down.
● Abolished in 1986.

Labour movement become more powerful

● Demand for labour increased, therefore workers voiced their demand for legally
recognised unions.
● Wiehahn Commission- recommended black trade unions be legal.(1979)
● Union membership increased.
● FOSATU, NUM, COSATU, UWUSA.
● Committed shown through strikes during recession .
● These increased pressure on employees to oppose pass laws system, although
first reluctant, by 1984 employees were applying great pressure.
● Growing power of trade unions= scrapping of laws in 1986.

Dependence of black labour

● Bantustan policy- black people lived in homelands and only allowed temporary
employment in the rest of SA as migrant workers.
● Manufacturing sector required permanent labour and this was evident when the
sector stopped growing due to a lack of a stable workforce.

Black authorities Act

● Local Community Councils- administered townships.

● Limited power given at local levels- hoped to satisfy black political demands.
 ● 1982-councils given more power to administer townships (black local authorities
act)
● Councils could be elected by local residents to collect rents and service payments
however this made them unpopular amongst residents.

The tricameral parliament

● Attempt to win Indian and Coloured people support.

● 1983
● Retain white control
● Separate parliament for different races except blacks.
● Earache controlled own affairs like education and housing.
● All other matters were controlled by the House of Assembly which ensured political
power remained in hands of white.

Internal Resistance

The growing power of the trade unions

● Black unions legalised 1979

● Fought for better wages and working conditions.
● Worked alongside community organisations- boycotts, stay-aways etc.
● Encouraged support of workers- boycotting products of companies with poor
labour practices.
● Prevented ‘scab labour”- temporary workers while others are striking.
● COSATU- adopted Freedom Charter and the non-racial democratic perspective of
UDF
● Many joined UDF.
● Unions also persuaded people to boycott elections for tricameral parliament.
● They called for an end to apartheid, racism and the unbanning of politcal parties,
the release of political prisoners and for a one person one vote Constituent
Assembly.

The response to Botha's reforms

● National party did not expect because the tricameral and black local authorities act
sparked off mass protests countrywide.
● People saw through these reforms- trying to restructure apartheid rather than
dismantle.
● Less than 20% of coloured people and Indians voted.
● The reforms led to mass uprisings= township revolt.
● These protests were triggered by students and a rent boycott.
● Instead of focusing on specific issues like pass laws and various boycotts, they
called for ‘rolling mass action’.= wanted continuos and sustained resistance until
apartheid was dismantled.
● The civics targeted black councillors and took ownership over black town
administration.
The role of civics

● Originated as parent student organisation and women's organisations

● Wide spread of resistance
● Acted as pressure groups to persuade authorities to improve their facilities .
● Targeted black councillors
● Community councils responsible for township administration-financed by rent
payments
● Those who served them were seen as collaborators with the government.
● Joined rent boycotts, school boycotts and consumer boycotts.
● Remaining gruesome deaths to police officers and councillors who refused to
resign.
● When administration began to fail, civics replace it with ‘people power’
● Street area committees and ‘peoples court’ formed to provide alternative systems
for justice and community action.

The united democratic front

● non - racial alliance

● Members included civic, trade unions, community, students, womens, religious,
sports, political and business organisations.
● Supported by ANC in exile and policies based on the freedom charter. ( system
designed to give all South Africans equal rights)
● 3 millions supporters. Leaders were Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Boesak, Sisulu
and Helen Joseph.
● Promoted boycott of tricameral and local council elections, organised rent boycotts,
school boycotts, consumer boycotts, worker stay aways.
● UDF leaders faced treason charges and plotting with banned ANC and SACP to
overthrow the state.
● Key role in intensifying the struggle against apartheid on national scale.
● Unified wide range of organisations and non-racial approach helped unify and
co-ordinate opposition= effective.
● Banned in 1988 due to government fear.

The end conscription campaign and the black sash

The end conscription campaign:

● Formed in 1983 to oppose conscription into the army.
● White men had to do 2 years of service, fight in the angolan war, military camps for
years and be sent to townships to suppress.
● 6 years imprisonment for draft dodgers.(1 750) (thought to have been living in
europe)
● Ecc proposed alternative form of service and supported conscientious objectors
and ran awareness campaigns to get public support
● Troops out of service campaign
● Leaders went on hunger strikes

Black sash:
● Focused more on welfare issues such as housing and child support.
● Became more involved in issues affecting rural communities, through Transvaal
Action Committee and National Land Committee (1985)
● Young generation of women influence by feminism.
● Lydia Kompe created the Rural Women's Movement- encouraged rural black
 women to contest laws that prevented land ownership and inheritance in their own
names.

Protests from students and church leaders

Students played an important role in in liberation struggle:

● COSAS (congress of south african students) organised widespread protests and
school boycotts=detention of students and teachers.
● Schooling was seriously disrupted by ‘Liberation before Education’ slogan support.
● School, teacher, parent, political and community organisations representatives
formed NECC (national education crisis committee).(Education for Liberation)
● Suspended school boycott, urged students and teachers to challenge system of
education from within school and use knowledge and skills to empower themselves
to fight apartheid.
● Support ‘Peoples education’ and made teaching materials that countered the
apartheid theology curriculm.

Church :
● Churches and leaders played an active role in protests.
● SACC (south african council of churches) supported conscientious objection and
issued the Kairos document that called on christians to participate in the struggle
for liberation by supporting civil disobedience strikes, campaigns and boycotts.
● The Dutch Reformed Church openely began to condemn apartheid.

The mass democratic movement

● Banned ANC called 1989 to be ‘Year of Mass Action’.

● February after publicised hunger strike, hundreds of political detainees were
released.
● Mass Democratic Movement, with UDF supporters and COSATU as core
members.
● Launched Defiance Campaign against government which called an end to
segregation in hospitals, public transport and beaches.
● Widespread worker stay aways to protest tricameral elections, success evident
when 3 million people stayed away from work on election day.
● People ignored government banning orders, eviction notices, restrictions and
openly defied segregation laws.
● MDM openly displayed ANC flag and distributed its literature.
● Huge marches in cities but government took little action.
● It was clear that civil protests were effective and government was no longer in
control. By end of 1989, a stage for major change in SA happened.

The external resistance

The international response to apartheid

Did not collapse in spite of internal pressure. International anti-apartheid movements,

sanctions and boycotts, the ANC in exile and the support for resistance struggle by the
frontline states in Africa played a role in ending apartheid.
● Criticised by western governments and the United Nations.
● Sporting and cultural isolation of South Africa and economic sanctions
 ● Sweden and the Netherlands supported the ANC financially.

Anti apartheid movements in Britain and Ireland

Britain
● The AAM(anti apartheid movement) in Britain formed in 1959 by exiles and
supporters, the request of Albert Luthuli to create awareness.
● Initial support from British Labour Party and TU’s and banned orgs like ANC.
● The British government did not support AAM. Margaret Thatcher opposed
sanctions=wanted to protect British investments in SA and the British economy
relied on SA’s rare and valuable minerals and products.
● Feared ANC communist influence.
● 1965- IDAF (international defence and Aid Fund) - raise awareness, collected
funds to help opponents of apartheid by paying legal fees or supporting families.
Also worked with ANC exiles.

Ireland
● Trade unions boycotted SA goods in 1960’s.
● Student protests during Rivonia Trial 1963.
● 1964- IAAM(irish anti apartheid movement)- founder was ANC exile.
● IAAM supported by church leaders, students and trade unionists.

Activities of anti-apartheid movements

● Ban of sales of arms to SA.

● AAM demonstrations outside the SA embassy in London and companies that did
business with SA to try to force disinvestment.
● British companies like Barclays bank sold off holdings.
● Didn't buy products like fruit and wine.
● Cultural boycotts- The British Actors Union, Equity banned British TV
programmes and films to be shown in SA.
● Academic links were discouraged - professors from SA refused admission to
international academic conferences even though many were strong opponents of
Apartheid and research disapproved apartheid myths of SA black history.
● Sports boycott was a vital part in the anti-apartheid movements. SA team barred
and isolated from international competition. Commonwealth countries
developed Gleneagles Agreement in 1977- called members to cut sporting links
with SA.. (not all supported). Massive local protest during Springbok Rugby tour
of New Zealand in 1981 showed risk of disobeyment.

Disinvestments and sanctions

● United Nations made Special Commitee Against Apartheid which imposed an oil
embargo on SA.
● In USA, US congress and American companies applied sanctions- passed the
Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act- banned investments and loans, SA
airways not allowed to land in US airport, ban on importing SA products.
● (USA)Institutions like universities sold of shares in companies with SA connections
● (USA)Large corporations like Coca-Cola and Kodak closed operations in SA.
● (EUROPE UNION) -limited sanctions- banning sale of gold Krugerrands and the
importing of SA coal, iron and steel.

Outside forces tried to undermine the country and interfere in its affairs and they
encouraged the SA economy to become more self-reliant however these sanctions
isolated the apartheid governemnt and played a crucial role in forcing the government to
accept that change was necessary.

The release Mandela campaign.

● A Release Nelson Mandela Committee formed in London- international campaigns,

petitions, marches demanding his release.
● Renewed campaign for his release in 1987 at UN headquarters led by Bill Cosby.
● This made mandelas name a symbol of struggle against apartheid.
● Resulted in Botha release of Mandela offer in 1985 if he agreed to renounce
violence and resistance against SA but he refused and his response fueled UDF.
● No resolution to apartheid could be achieved in Mandela was in jail.

Support for struggle in Africa

● The Organisation of African Unity expelled SA from World Health

Organisation, International Labour Organisation and International Olympic
Movement.
● Frontline states- Botswana, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and
Mozambique opposed apartheid but were economically dependent on it.
● Therefore to combat this, SADCC(south african development coordination
conference) was formed to promote economic development in region and reduce
dependence on SA.
● SA exiles able to set up MK raids into SA to intensify armed struggle and frontline
states paid a heavy price because they became the target of South Africa's policy
of destabilisation.
● SA government support UNITA in Angola and RENAMO in Mozambique because
they were anti-government.
● OAU and UN recognised ANC as official representative of SA people.