 Water supply and drainage

- in general, ponds should be able to fill in 7 days or less, though

specific requirements must be considered.
- ponds should be able to completely drain in 2 days or less; anti-seep
collar provided in pipe drains to prevent seepage around the drain
pipe; collar should be about 3 times the diameter of the pipe.
- monk sluices (sluice gates) are the structures generally used for
supplying water to, and draining water from, fish ponds, especially in
coastal areas.
- by means of stop-log closures and fish screens or racks, the operator
has option whether the upper or lower layer from the pond will be
released.
- Irrespective of the material to be used to construct the gates (eg.,
wood, reinforced concrete, ferro-cement), the following requirements
should be met:
- have adequate capacity for the required amount of water to be taken
in or drained out;
- constructed in a position that water can be totally discharged;
- have sufficient grooves for placement of filter screens, slabs and
harvest nets;
- be firmly placed at the pond bottom and properly linked with the
dikes to prevent seepage and possible collapse.

3. Pens and cages - open systems, where interaction between the fish culture unit and
the immediate environment can take place with few restrictions, and they are
often sited in publicly-owned multipurpose water bodies.
3.1 Both cage and pen culture are types of enclosure culture, and involve holding
organisms captive within an enclosed space while maintaining a free exchange
of water. The two methods, however, are distinct from one another. A cage is
totally enclosed on all, or all but the top, sides by mesh or netting, whereas in
pen culture the bottom of the enclosure is formed by the lake or sea bottom.
3.2 Classification system for cages - Figure 9
3.3 Cage systemcomponents – Figure 10
4. Tanks and recirculating systems
5. Aeration
5.1 Oxygen budget in ponds – Figure 11
5.2 Common types of aerators
 Paddle-wheel aerator
 Aspirating aerator
 Vertical pump aerators
 Diffused or bubble aeration using regenerative/centrifugal blowers or air
pumps (diaphragm, vane, rotary lobe, piston)
5.3 Basic approach in aerator selection
 Determine the oxygen demand of the system
 Based on the particular system needs and economics, select type of
aerator.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
  Determine the standard aeration efficiency (SAE) of the aerator, according
to manufacturer specifications.
 Correct manufacturer data for operating temperature and DO gradient.
 Select a standard or available aerator size and required number to provide
uniform aeration over the entire volume to be aerated.
 Distribute the aerators roughly with equal volumes to be aerated.
5.4 Efficiency versus Type
 An aerator's standard aeration efficiency (SAE) is an important
consideration when comparing one aerator with another.
 The SAE can be calculated by measuring the aerator’s oxygen transfer and
the amount of energy used per hour, under standard conditions.
 SAE is based on oxygen transfer rate at 20°C, 1 atm, in clean, pure water
with zero initial DO (SOTR).
 SAE = SOTR / Power
 SAE needs to be corrected for actual temperature, saturation and actual
DO in aquaculture water, and ratio of actual OTR to SOTR
 An SAE of 2.1, for example, means that 2.1 pounds of oxygen per
horsepower per hour, are transferred to the water under standard
conditions (metric = g/kW-hr).
 The higher the SAE, the higher the oxygen transfer, the higher the
efficiency.
 However, you cannot use the SAE as your only tool in the selection of an
aeration system. SAE numbers are a fair comparison only when
comparing aeration equipment of the same exact type.
 Before looking at the SAE numbers, choose the right type of aerator or
oxygenator for the application.
 For example, a vertical pump aerator (SAE of 2.9) may be a good choice
where the volume of water is small and the stocking density is high, such
as in a culture tank or small pond.
 A vertical pump aerator would be a poor choice for a large or deep pond.
Without much movement of water away from the aerator, it will tend to
pump the same water over and over again, adding no oxygen where it is
needed.
 A surface aerator may be excellent in emergencies because it quickly
raises the oxygen level in a small area. If trained, the fish will move to that
location. Again, it will not be a good choice for full-time aeration because
it will not disperse oxygen throughout the pond.
 A diffused air system (SAE = 1.0 to 4.0) may be the best choice for
multiple tanks and ponds because the energy source (blower) can be
centralized and just the right amount of energy (compressed air) can be
easily directed where it is needed. What appears to be lower SAE is more
than offset by comparative application efficiency.
 Water-moving aeration devices like aspirating aerators and paddle-wheel
aerators (SAE = 2.5 to 4.0) are excellent choices for medium and large
ponds where movement of oxygenated water away from the aerator is
most important.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
V. Water Quality Requirements

1. Water is the environment of all aquatic life. Thus, to a great extent, water quality
determines the success or failure of an aquaculture operation.
2. Properties Important in Aquaculture Water Quality Management
2.1 Physical Parameters
 Temperature Range (daily and seasonal variability)
 Salinity Range (tidal and seasonal variability)
 Particulates (solids) - composition (organic and inorganic), size,
concentration
 Turbidity and Color
 Light - artificial or natural, total annual incident energy, intensity of
radiant energy, quality of light, photoperiod (daily cycles)
2.2 Chemical Parameters
 pH and Alkalinity
 Gases - total gas pressure, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide
 Nutrients - nitrogen compounds, phosphorus compounds, trace metals and
speciation
 Organic Compounds – biodegradable, non-biodegradable
 Toxic Compounds - heavy metals, biocides
2.3 Biological Parameters - bacteria (type and concentrations), virus, fungi, others
2.4 Acceptable range of water quality parameters for aquaculture applications
Parameter Acceptable range
pH 6.0 - 8.5
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 100 - 400 ppm or mg/L
Total hardness 100 - 400
Carbon dioxide 0 - 15
Iron – ferrous (Fe )
2+
Less than 0.1 ppm
Unionized Ammonia (NH3) Less than 0.02 ppm
Nitrate-N (NO3-N) 0 - 3.0 ppm (but not as critical)
Nitrite-N (NO2-N) 0.1 ppm

VI. Flow-Through and Recirculating Systems

1. Fish tanks
1.1 Should be non-toxic and durable.
1.2 Materials – fiberglass, concrete, plastic, acrylic, glass, others; may be with
impervious liner, for example if made of wood.
1.3 Various shapes – circular, oval, square, rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal;
vertical or sloping sides, hemispherical; flat or sloping bottom; drains of
various design and location (in tank bottom or lower tank wall).
1.4 Advantages of circular tanks
 provide a uniform environment

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
  tank hydraulics distribute feed and fish
 produce optimum velocity - rotational to concentrate and flush solids (self-
cleaning); swimming motion of fish (velocities in a doughnut-shaped
region around the tank center are reduced (fish prefer 0.5-2.0 x body
length/sec)
1.5 Raceways – long and narrow rectangular tanks (or ponds); common
length:width ratio of 10:1; depths 0f 0.75 – 1.25 m; aids in water flow; easier
management - (simplifies crowding, harvesting, grading, keeping separate
groups); has water quality gradient along length.
 Serial raceways – maximize water use; high water velocity for flushing
wastes
 Parallel raceways - tanks can be built side by side to share common walls,
reduce floor space, and reduce construction cost
 Combination serial and parallel
 Management considerations - low dissolved oxygen (may aerate
individual raceways); buildup of nitrogenous wastes; accumulation of
settleable solids; discharge of effluents (need treatment, for example by
treating all discharges in a settling pond with 1-2 day retention; passing
effluent through a microscreen, ; dual drainage system; provide settling
area in raceway)
2. Impact of fish - Waste excretion rates vary with fish size or weight but remain
fairly constant per kg feed, producing approximately:
 30 g Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN)
 300 - 500 g dry Fecal Solids
 8gP
 340 g CO2, and requiring
 250 g O2
3. Flow-through systems – single-pass systems in tanks/raceways and ponds where
water is continuously supplied and discharged, or makes one pass through the
system.
3.1 Stocking densities can be high but if no aeration is provided, the influent
water must supply the oxygen requirements of the fish and prevent the buildup
of toxic metabolites.
3.2 Water quality may be subject to water quality fluctuations in the source.
3.3 The carrying capacity of 1.0 liter/min (1.0 Lpm) of good quality water is
approximately 1.0 kg of fish (i.e., a continuous 50 gpm (189 Lpm) good water
supply can support approximately 190 kg fish).
4. Recirculating systems - designed to approximate the fundamental aspects of
natural systems in order to support aquatic life.
4.1 Recirculating systems may involve tank, pond, and other culture systems
where water is reconditioned and reused.
4.2 Among the critical processes are gas exchange (aeration and degasification),
solids removal, and biological filtration or biofiltration.
4.3 Other treatment processes include denitrification (nitrate removal, which also
augments alkalinity), ozonation (to remove or reduce color, organics, nitrite,
and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); also disinfects and sterilizes),
ultraviolet (UV) sterilization (for disease/pathogen control; to eliminate

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
 bacteria, viruses, algae, and fungi), and foam fractionation (to remove
dissolved organics and surfactants).
4.4 Heaters and/or chillers may be provided for temperature control.
4.5 While the processes and equipment are provided for specific purposes, they
are complementary, and a complex interrelationship exists in recirculating
systems.
4.6 There are many alternative technologies that have been shown to work
effectively for each process and operation. The choice of a particular
technology depends on many factors including the species being reared, site
infrastructure, personnel knowledge and expertise, cost considerations and
others.
4.7 Prospective users of recirculating aquaculture production systems need to
know about the required water treatment processes, the components
available for each process, and the technology behind each component.
4.8 At present, recirculating systems are often limited to the culture of high-
value species unless outweighed by concerns other than economics, good
examples of which are research systems, wild stock replenishment systems,
ornamental systems and aquarium systems. In fish hatcheries, recirculating
systems are useful for safe holding, nurturing, and management of
broodstock, egg hatching, and for larval/fry rearing.
4.9 Maintaining good water quality is of primary importance. System design,
components, and sizing criteria vary widely, and are mainly provided to
comply with specific production needs.
4.10 Recirculating systems for fish production are generally intended to be
intensive. The paramount objective is to design reliable and cost-effective
systems.
4.11 Solids Removal
 Solid wastes in recirculating aquaculture systems are characterized by a
broad size spectrum, high organic content, and low density.
 The two fractions are dissolved solids and suspended solids, which may be
settleable or non-settleable.
 Removal is a solid-liquid separation process, and may involve gravity
separation (settling in tanks with or without settling media like plates,
tubes, etc.), swirl separation, filtration (screen, granular media, porous
media), and flotation (foam fractionation, protein skimming, froth
flotation, and air stripping are other terms used) for fine organics and other
solids.
4.12 Biological Filtration or Biofiltration
 Biofiltration connotes the use of living organisms to treat the water. In
pond systems and integrated systems, biofiltration also includes the
utilization of aquatic plants and animals other than the culture species.
The objective is to have an ecological system of species occupying
different niches, enhancing areal utilization and production, while
providing for water quality control. Hence, wastewater is reduced, and
environmental impact is mitigated.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
  In recirculating tank systems, it refers primarily to nitrification, which is
the conversion toxic ammonia and intermediate form nitrite to relatively
harmless nitrate.
 Common equipment include submerged filters, trickling filters, sand
filters and other granular media filters (fixed bed, expandable, moving bed
or fluidized),
 Any biofilter needs to be acclimated to become functional. Generally,
acclimation takes about 30 days or more when allowed to proceed
naturally through the introduction of culture animals. The animals should
be added in gradually increasing numbers (or the feeding load should be
increased gradually) until the filter is ready.

Selected References

Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme. 1984. Inland Aquacullture

Engineering. Rome, UNDP, FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e00.htm
Avault, J.W. 1996. Fundamentals of Aquaculture : A Step-by-Step Guide to Commercial
Aquaculture. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, AVA Publishing Company.
Beveridge, M.C. 1984. Cage and pen fish farming. Carrying capacity models and
environmental impact. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 255.
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AD021E/AD021E00.HTM
Beveridge, M. C. 1996. Cage Aquaculture. 2nd ed. Fishing New Books Ltd., Oxford,
U.K., 346 pp.
BFAR. 2007. Philippine Fisheries Profile 2007. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City.
CIGR – The International Commission of Agricultural Engineering (Ed.). 1999. CIGR
Handbook of Agricultural Engineering: Animal Production and Aquacultural
Engineering. St. Joseph, Michigan, ASAE.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 2009. Cultured Species Fact Sheet.
http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/search/en.
Huguenin, J. 1997. The design, operations and economics of cage culture systems.
Aquacultural Engineering 16:167-203.
Huguenin, J. E. and J. Colt. 1989. Design and Operating Guide for Aquaculture Seawater
Systems. New York, Elsevier.
Lopez, N.A. 2006. Sustainable development and trends in Philippine aquaculture.
Country paper presented at the FFTC-RCA International Workshop on Innovative
Technologies for Eco-friendly Fish Farm Management and Production of Safe
Aquaculture Foods held in Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, 04-08 December 2006.

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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-20

Top Width
or Crown
Freeboard

Height

I II III Depth
Existing Ground
Level
Core
Trench

Figure 8. Levee pond cross-section.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-21

Figure 9a. Classification of fish cages according to Beveridge (1996).

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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-22

Figure 9b. Classification of fish cages according to Huguenin (1997).

Figure 10. Principal components of a fish cage.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-23

Production from
Natural diffusion photosynthetic activities
by wind action
(0.03-5.0 g/m2-hr)
Aerators

Consumption by
the pond bottom Consumption Consumption by
(1-3 g/m2-d) by fish water organisms

Figure 11. Oxygen budget in ponds.

Aquaculture/Aquacultural Engineering