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Special Article x

Psychologica I effects of dietary components of tea:

caffeine and L-theanine
Janet Bryan

This reviewsummarizes the literature on the association between two dietary

components of tea, caffeineand L-theanine,and the psychologicaloutcomes of
consumption;it also identifiesareas for future research. The studies reviewed
suggest that caffeinatedtea, when ingested at regular intervals,may maintain
alertness,focusedattention,and acruracyand maymodulatethe moreacute effects
of higher doses of caffeine.Thesefindingsconcur with the neurochemicaleffects
of L-theanineon the brain. L-theanine may interact with caffeine to enhance
performancein terms of attention switchingand the abilityto ignore distraction;
this is likelyto be reflectiveofhigher-levelcognitiveactivityand may be sensitiveto
the detrimentaleffectsof overstimulation.Further researchshould investigatethe
interactiveeffectsof caffeine,L-theanine,and task complexity,utilize a range of
ecologicallyvalidpsychologicaloutcomes,and assess the neuroprotectiveeffects
of L-theanine using epidemiologicalor longer-terminterventionstudies among
individualsat riskof neurodegenerativedisease.
m20081nternational lifeSciences
Institute

INTRODUCTION EFFEC7S OF CAFFEINEIN TEA QN ALERTNESS,

Historically and universally, the consumption of both
black and green 'tea has been associated with relaxation
and refreshment.'~2 Tea is the most widely consumed bev-
erage apart from water, with black tea being consumed
mainly in Europe, North America, and North Africa and
green tea consumed mainly in Asia;Z~'however, the con-
sumption of green tea is increasing in Western countries
as well. Recently, there has been an emerging interest
in the active dietary components of tea and the psycho-
logical effects of tea consumption. According to recent
studies, some dietary components of tea, especially caf-
feine and the amino acid L-theanine, have an impact on
brain activity and have positive effects on psychological
outcomes, including enhanced cognitive performance
and psychological well-being. This review summarizes
findings from the existing literature on the psychological
benefits of caffeine and L-theanine as dietary components
of tea, identifies the limitations of the research to date,
and proposes steps for future research.
PSYCHOLOGICALWELL-BEING,AND
COGNITIVEPERFORMANCE
An averagecup of tea containsaround 40 mg of caffeine,
dependingon the blend of tea and the brewing proce-
dure,°and black tea and coffeeare the main sources of
caffeinein the Western diet. It takes around 30 minutes
for the effectsof caffeineto be detected,with peakplasma
concentrationsof caffeinebeing reachedbetween30 and
120minutes after consumptions Caffeineeasily crosses
the blood-brainbarrierand its effectson the brain include
a generalincreasein neurotransmitteractivityby block-
ing the inhibitoryactionof adenosine,a neuromodulator.
There is a relativelylargebody of literaturereporting
the positiveeffectsof caffeineper se and at dosesequiva-
lent to one to two cups of tea6-8 Caffeineis typically
associated with improved performance of tasks that
require sustainedeffort and attention s-" Other studies
have shown some specificeffectsof caffeineon speed
of response,'s~'6 and on feelingsof well-being,energy,

Affiliation:J Bryan,Schoolof Psychology,Universityof South Australia,Adelaide,5001, South Australia,Australia.

Correspondence:J Bryan,School of Psychology,Universityof South Australia,GPOBox2471, Adelaide,5001, Australia.
E-mail:janet.bryan@unisa.edu.au,
Phone:+61-8-83024385
Keywords:anxiety,cognitiveperformance,L-theanine,mood,relaxation,tea

doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.00011
x
82 Nutrition Reviews°Vol.66(2):81-90

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t
motivation, self-confidence, alertness, and concentra-
tion." However, the direct effects of caffeinated tea are
less well known.
There follows a summary of studies that have com-
pared the effects of tea and coffee containing varying
doses of caffeine (Table 1),many of which represented the
typical intake levels for these beverages. Both immediate
and day-long statistically significant effects have been
i
reported. For the purpose of this review,the studies were
I divided into those that describe psychological well-being,
mood, and alertness, and those that describe changes in
cognitive performance.
Effects on well-being, mood, and alertness
1
There is little evidence from cross-sectional studies for
an association between tea consumption and increased
psychological well-being and mood. Although Hintikl a
et a1.'8 reported daily tea drinkers had a SO%reduced risk
of depression, even after controlling for risk factors for
depression, these results have not been replicated. Shimbo
et al.Z found no link between green tea consumption and
mental health, and Steptoe and VVardle'9similarly found
no relationship between tea and coffee intake and mood.
There are considerable differences in the sample popula-
tions, in these studies which may have influenced the
outcome, but it is also possible that in the stratified sample
of 2011 people in Finland,'8 tea drinking was associated
with other behaviors that reduced the risk of depression.
Reports from experimental studies of mood have
produced more consistency. Findings indicate that 37.5-
150 mg caffeine, which are doses found in 1-4 cups of tea,
produces acute effects, with participants reporting statis-
tically significant increased wakefulness, vigor, energy,
clarity of thought, efficiency, hedonic lane, and decreased
perceptions of sedation. Caffeine is arguably most well
known for this latter effect, and in this context caffeine in
tea and coffee is thought to deliver positive dose-response
relationships with regard to energetic arousal?°'Z'
However, in one study, similar doses of caffeine in water
did not produce the same results, indicating that at least
some of these effects could be placebo or learned effects.
Caffeinated tea has also been found to have longer-
term ,benefits when taken at regular intervals throughout
the course of a day. Tea is significantly associated with
lotiver perceived sedation or fatigue than coffee,22.2'and it
is less disruptive than coffee on sleep quality at night zz
Effects on cognitive performance
Studies of caffeinated tea have tended to focus on simple
rather than complex cognitive outcomes, such as speed of
perception,decfsion making,and response.The advantage
of assessing cognition using these tasks is that they are able
Nutrition Reviews° Vol.66(1):82-90
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to be given quickly on repeated occasionsthroughout
the daywith minimalpracticeeffects.One exampleis the
critical flicker fusion test (CFF), which measures the
thresholdat whichthespeedof a flickeringlightappearsto
flickercompared with appearing to be constant.Those
who perceivea light to be flickeringat a faster rate are
consideredto havea higherspeedof perception.
One of the most interestingand potentiallyimpor-
tant findingsis that very low dosesof caffeine(37.5mg),
such as would be found in a single cup of tea, taken at
regularintervalsthroughout the day,havebeen found to
significantlybenefit speed of perception, as measured
by the CFFZZFurthermore,when the level of caffeinein
tea is increasedsuch that it is equivalentto coffee (i.e.
75 mg and 100mg per serving),caffeinatedtea appearsto
providean advantageover coffeein the rapid increaseand
maintenanceof the CFF threshold?°~ZZ This suggeststhat
regulartea intakeacross the courseof a daymay resultin
more consistentlevelsof simpletaskperformance.
The effectsof caffeinein tea on reactiontime are less
clear.Hindmarchet al?Zfound no chroniceffectsof caf-
feine across the course of a day on reaction time, but
found significant acute effects,`with coffee drinking
resultingin fasterreactiontimesthantea drinking.Motor
reaction time was benefitedby lower doses of caffeine
(75 mg,the equivalentof two cupsof tea),evhereashigher
doses (150mg) resultedin slowerperformance.Overall,
participants consuming tea containing 75mg caffeine
wereableto maintaintheir baselinelevelsof performance
during the course of a day, while the performance of
participantswith no caffeinedeclined.
Whilst simple cognitivetasks appear to be affected
by intakes of caffeinein tea, the performanceof more
complex tasks, such as the high-speed scanning and
retrieval of informationfrom short-term memory,was
shown to be unaffectedfollowingintake of 100mg of
caffeinefrom either tea or coffee.Z° To date, the effectof
intakes of caffeinein tea on a varietyof more complex
cognitivetaskshas not been investigated.
EFFECTS OF L-THEANINE ON BRAIN FUNCTION, BRAIN
ACTIVITY, ANXIETY, AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE
L-theanine is an amino acid found almost exclusively in
tea. It constitutes between 1 and 2% of the dry weight of
tea, which results in , around 25-60 mg per 200 ml
serving of liquid tea Za-zsL-theanine was first identified
in green tea2'and in the mushroom Xeroconttts Gnditts.Zg
Tea is therefore the major source of L-theanine in
the diet. It readily crosses the blood-brain barrier in a
dose-dependent. manner within 30 minutes, reaching
maximal levels 5 hours after ingestion in animals, and it-
is thought to influence the central nervous system
(CNS) through a variety of mechanisms, including
83
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 7able 1 Effects of caffeine in tea and tea consumption
mood and cognitive performance.
Study Participants
Quinlan et al.
(2000)2'
Study 1: 8 male,9
female (21-51 y)
Study 2: 7 male, 8
female (22-52 y)
Hindmarch et al, 10female, 9 male
(i998)2° (mean age 29.2 y),
healthy
Hindmarch et al. 15female, 15 male
(2000)22 aged 19-36 years
(mean age 27.3 y)
Scott et al. 13 mountain climbers:
(2004)23 9 men, 4 women
(age range 18-51 y;
mean age 33.5 y)
Steptoe & 18 men (mean age
Wardle 41.2y)and31
(1999)" women (mean age
40.9 y) from two
occupational groups
(psychiatric nursing
and school teaching).
Hintikka et al. Age- and
(2005)~e gender-stratified
sample of 890 men
(mean age 44.8 y)
and 1121 women
(mean age 44 y), age
range 25-64 years,
livingin Finland
Shimbo et al. 380 Japanese men
(2005)2 (n=180) and women
(n=200) aged 20-60
years from urban and
ruralareas
Abbreviations: CFF,critical flicker fusion; RCT,randomized control trial.
84
Supplied by The
on alertness and sedation
Study design
RCT:crossover design,manipulation of
beverage type (study l only) and
caffeine levels
Study 1: effects of no drink,hot water,
tea (37.5mg), tea (75 mg),coffee
(75 mg), coffee (150 mg) on blood
pressure, heart rate, skinconductance
and temperature, saliva,current
mood.
Study 2: effects of hot water,
decaffeinated tea (5 mg),
decaffeinated tea plus 25, 50,100, and
200 mg caffeineon measures used in
study 1
Five-waycrossover design.Effectsof
black tea (i00 mg),black
decaffeinated tea, coffee(100 mg),
water (100 mg), non-caffeinatedwater
on CFFperformance, choice reaction
time, short-term memory,ratings of
tiredness, drowsiness,and alertness
and state anxiety
RCT:five-waycrossoverdesign. Effectsof
caffeinated blacktea (37.5mg)
caffeinated blacktea (75mg),
caffeinated blackcoffee (75 mg),
caffeinated blackcoffee (150 mg) and
boiled water on CFFperformance,
choice reaction time, subjective
ratings of tiredness, drowsinessand
alertness and sleep quality
Experimental,within-subjectsdesign
including2 x 24-h treatment periods.
Effectsof tea versus no tea
consumption, in the presence of no
other caffeinatedor alcoholic
beverages, on dimensionsof mood
(Profileof Mood States)
Correlational,cross-sectionalnaturalistic
diary study assessing day-by-day
associations between tea, coffee,and
alcohol consumption and dimensions
of mood (Profileof Mood States)
Correlational, cross-sectional study
assessing associations between
frequency of tea and coffee
consumption and self-reported
depression
Correlational, cross-sectional study
assessing
associations
betweengreen
teaconsumptionandmentalhealth
(General
HealthQuestionnaire)
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psychological well-being, and ~'
Outcomes
Study 1: both tea and coffee produced
mood elevation (p < 0.05); beverage
type or caffeine dose had no effect
Study 2: caffeineaffected energetic
arousal (p<0.001); no dose-response
effects
f
Consumption of tea, compared with
water, associated with transient 1
improvements in CFFperformance (all
significanteffects p < 0.001),
prevented the steady decline in
alertness and cognitivecapacity.
Effectsof tea vs. coffee similar,but tea
associated with less variationin CFF
performance
Caffeinatedbeverages maintained
cognitive and psychomotor
performance across the day when
administered repeatedly (P< 0.05).
Day-longtea vs. coffeeconsumption
had similareffects; tea was less likely
to disrupt sleep
Tea consumption associated with
reduced fatigue (p < 0.01) compared
with no tea
Coffee and tea not related to mood.
Alcohol consumption related to high
positive and low anxious mood
among those with low
drinking-to-cope ratings (P < 0.05)
Those reporting daily tea consumption
reported lower levels and prevalence
of depression than those who did not
drink tea (OR 0.45, 95% C10.30-0,70)
No relationship between green tea
consumption and decreased risk of
mental ill-health. Daily caffeine intake
was associated with a higher risk of
ill-health among females (OR 1.26,
95% CI 1.01-i.56)
f
Nutrition Reviews•Vol.66(2):81-90
 effects on neurotransmitters. L-theanine is structurally
i similar to glutamic acid, an excitatory neutrotrans-
mitter.29 Animal studies have found that L-theanine is
associated with the following: an increased release
and concentration of dopamine;'°~" an inhibition of
glutamate reuptake and blockade of glutamate receptors
in the hippocampus;'Z increases in gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA -- a neurotransmitter associated with the
regulation of responses) concentrations;" decreases in
norepinephrine levels, possibly as a result of increased
GABA);" and both increases in serotonin in the
i stratum, hippocampus, and hypothalamus and suppres-
sion of the generalized release of serotonin z9 In addi-
tion, some findings suggest that L-theanine might
t interact with caffeine because L-theanine has been
found to decrease serotonin levels that have been artifi-
cially elevated by caffeine.' Furthermore, L-theanine
I
appears to antagonize the stimulatory effects of caffeine,
I which may contribute to its effects on lowering blood
pressure.'' Overall, these effects on neurotransmitters
i
suggest that L-theanine may have a regulatory role in
iI the CNS such that it may modulate and perhaps "tone
down" CNS responses. These effects on the CNS would
i predict that L-theanine might have a role in the regula-
tion of anxiety due to effects on serotonin and GABA;
the enhancement of cognitive performance due to
increases in monoamines, and the possibility of neu-
roprotective effects due to antagonistic effects on
glutamate.
Neuroprotective effects of L-theanine
The similarity of L-theanine to glutamate has lead to the
suggestion that it may have neuroprotective effects
through the antagonism of this excitatory neurotrans-
mitter.'2~'6 Indeed, in animals, L-theanine has been
found to reduce post-ischemic neural death in the hip-
pocampus,'Z reduce the size of cerebral infarcts;' and
inhibit neural death caused by brief exposure to
glutamate'8 These findings from animal studies suggest
that L-theanine may have neuroprotective effects against
brain injury, such as that resulting from stroke. There '
are no studies that have investigated the neuroprotective
effects of L-theanine in humans and the little work that
has been done has focused on the relationship between
flavanoid consumption and neurodegenerative disease.
There is mixed support for the validity of this
relationship. One cohort study conducted in the Neth-
erlands, in which black tea consumption provided 61%
of flavanoid intake, found no relationship between fla-
vanoid intake and cognitive decline.3' In contrast, a
cohort study conduced in France, in which black tea
contributed only 16% of flavanoid inake, found that
Nutrition Reviews• Vol.66(2):82-90
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total flavanoid intake was negatively related to risk of
dementia ao
Effects of L-theanine on a-brainwave activity
Consistentwith its effectson the CNS,and unlike caf-
feine,there is evidencethat L-theaninecould be associ-
ated with relaxation.There havebeen a smallnumber of
studies using electroencephalography to investigate'the
ability of L-theanine to increase a-braimvave activity
(Table2),which is indicativeof a state of wakefulrelax-
ation. Alpha activity has also been associated with
increasedcreativity,increasedperformanceunder stress,
and improved learning and concentration, as well as
decreasedanxiety3'so if L-theanineimpactsalpha activ-
ity, then it may also be associatedwith these psychol-
ogicaloutcomes.The effectsof L-theanineon brain elec-
trical activity,as evident from the EEG,are consistent
with its associationwith increasedrelaxation.Ito et al4'
examined the effects of 50-200mg L-theanine
on a-wave activityin eight participants,half of whom
scoredhigh and half low on a self-reportedanxietyscale.
In both groups,tested 30 minutes after administration,
alpha activityincreasedsignificantlyin the occipitaland
parietalareas,and bloodpressuredecreased,indicating
relaxation.Theresultswereinterpretedas evidencethat
L-theaninecouldpromotea stateof relaxationwithout
causingdrowsiness. Thesefindingswere supportedby
Song etal4Zwho found that in individualsreporting
high levelsof anxiety,200mg L-theanineincreased
alpha activityin the frontal and occipitalareas 40
minutesafter intakecomparedwithplacebo.Evidence
foran effectof L-theanineconsumption on alphaactiv-
ity at more realisticdietarylevelscomesfrom Owen
etal"' whoreportedsignificantly greaterand increasing
alphaactivityat 45, 60, 75,90, and 105minutesafter
ingestionof 50mg L-theaninecomparedwith placebo.
~'Vhilethesestudiessuggestthat dosesof L-theanineat
levelsfoundin one to twocupsof tea havean influence
on alphabrainactivity,ane limitationtheyhaveis that
thesubjective statesof relaxationand relatedconstructs,
such as anxiety,were not assessed;instead,theywere
inferredfromeffectson the EEG.
Onerecentstudyindicatesthat L-theanine'seffects
onalphaactivitymayindicatea rolein learningandcon-
centration.Gomez-Ramirezetal.a' assessedwhether
250mg L-theanine,comparedwithplacebo,couldregu-
latethebrain'sactivityasit preparesto focusattentionon
a taskto be performedusingonesensorymodalitywhile
ignoringstimulipresentedto another.Theyfoundsig-
nificantlyincreasedalphaactivityin relationto thetask
beingattendedto and a decreasein backgroundalpha
activity,suggestingthat L-theaninemay havespecific
positiveeffectson focusedattention.
85
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 Table ~ Effects of L-theanine on brain activity, anxiety, psychological stress and cognitive performance.
r
Study Participants Study design Outcome
Ito et al. (1998)4' 8 female university Three-way crossover assessing the Reported dose-dependent increase in
students (age range effects of water, 50 mg L-theanine alpha activity in occipital and parietal
18-22 y):4 with high solution, and 200 mg L-theanine brain areas 30 min after consumption
reported anxiety and 4 solution on brainwave activity of L-theanine compared with water.
with low reported
anxiety
Song et al. 20 healthy males (age Placebo-controlled
experiment Ltheanineincreasedalpha activityin the
(2003)"' range 18-30 y) comparing200mgLtheaninewith occipitalarea,comparedwithplacebo,
placeboon alphabrainactivity amongthose withhigherreported
anxiety(P< 0.05)
Owen et al. 35 healthy young Randomized, placebo-controlled L-theanineproducedgreaterand
(2006)43 participants experimentcomparing50 mg increasingalphaactivitycompared
L-theaninewithplaceboon EEGat 45, withplacebo(p< 0.05)
60,75,90, and 105minafteringestion
Gomez-Ramirez 15 participants (mean EEGdata gatheredfrom168scalpsites Attention-related
alpha activitywas
t~
et al. (2007)44 age 27.8 y) whileparticipantsengagedin an greaterand backgroundalpha
intersenoryattention-cuing taskafter reducedfor the L-theaninecondition
ingestingeither250mgLtheanineor comparedwithplacebo(significant
placebo(water) attentionmodulationindex,p < 0.05)
Lu et al. (2004)4s 12 male (age range Double-blind, placebo-controlled, Ltheaninehad a positiveeffecton
18-34 y, mean 24.8y) repeatedmeasuresdesignassessing relaxationunderrelaxedconditions
and 4 female (range effectsof threetreatments,placebo, only(P< 0.05);no other effectswere
28-31 y, mean 29.0y) Ltheanine(200mg),and alprazolam found
universitystudents (1 mg),on self-reported depression,
traitand state anxiety,and relaxation
underconditionsof anticipatory
anxietyor relaxation
Kimura et al. 12 healthy male university Double-blind,placebo-controlled No statisticallysignificantlevels
(2006)46 students (age range within-subjects repeatedmeasures reported; L theanine reported to
20-25 y, mean 21.5 y) designassessingthe effectsof one or reduce self-reportedanxiety and
twodoses of 200mgLtheanine physiologicalindicesof stress under
comparedwithplaceboor no high-stress conditions compared with
i
treatmenton self-reported stressand placebo
anxietyand physiological indicesof
stress(heartrateand s-IgA
concentration)underhigh-stressand
low-stressconditions
Haskell et al. 17 female and 9 male Double-blind,placebo-controlled Caffeineimproved mood, reaction time,
I (2005)49 university students (age crossoverstudyassessingthe effects and accuracy (varioussignificance
range 18-34 y, mean of fourdrinkscontaining0 mg caffeine levels).L theanine had mixed effects
i 21.61 y). plus 0 mg Ltheanine,150mg caffeine, on reaction time but significantly
250mg L-theanine, and 1SOmg potentiated the effects of caffeine on
i caffeineplus 250mgl: theanineon simple reaction time, the accuracy of
responseand memoryreactiontime, rapid information processing,mental
i sentenceverification,working fatigue and tiredness (various
memory,self-reported moodand significancelevels).Thecombination
alertness of L-theanineand caffeine enhanced
speed of rapid information processing t
< 0.001),sentence verification'
(P< 0.05),word recognitionreaction

Parnell et al. 13 female and 14 male RCT:double-blind,crossoverdesign

time (p < 0.001), and alertness
ip < 0.001)
Caffeineimproved alertness after
i
(2006)so healthy volunteers assessing the effectsof 50 mg caffeine 60 min (P < 0.01)and response speed
(mean age 28.3y) with or without 100 mg L-theanineor and accuracy after60 (p < 0.001)and
placebo on memoryperformance, 90 min (p < 0.01).L-theanineand
rapid visual informationprocessing, caffeineimproved speed and accuracy
i
attention switching,and mood on an attention-switching task and
reduced interferencefrom distracting
informationat 60 (P< 0.001)and
g0 min (P < 0.05)
Abbreviations: EEG,electroencephalograph; RCT randomized control trial.

S±
Nutrition Reviews•Vol.66(2):82-90 I
86

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 Effects on anxiety and psychological stress
Studies of the effectsof L-theanine on brain activity
suggestit maybe associatedwith relaxationand the alle-
viationof anxiety.However,only two studiesto date have
investigatedthe effectof L-theanineon subjectiveratings
of anxiety and other measures of psychologicalstress
(Table2). Lu et a1.4' assessed the effects of 200 mg
L-theanine, in comparison with the benzodiazepine
alprazolam,on self-reportedmeasuresof anxiety in 16
healthy volunteers.This study tested the relaxing and
anxiolytic efl"ectsof L-theanine under conditions of
anticipatoryanxiety (anticipationof an electric shock).
They found that tivhileL-theaninesignificantlyreduced
1' anxiety on one sub-scale(tranquil-troubled)of anxiety
under resting conditions, both L-theanine and alpra-
zolamdid not reduceanxietyunder conditionsof antici-
patoryanxiety,evenaftercontrollingfortrait anxiety.The
authors suggestthat the lack of effectof both treatments
under anticipatoryanxiety may have been due to the
intensityof the stressorbeingtoo strong,leadingto inef-
fectiveanxiolyticeffects.
Kimura et a1.46reported that 200mg L-theanine
reducedheart-rateand salivaryimmunoglobinA,indices
of psychologicalstress,during engagementin a stressful
mentalarithmetictask.The graphsprovidedin the paper
suggestan interactionbetween treatment condition and
stress level such that the effect was evident in the
L-theaninegroup but not in the controlgroups (placebo
and no treatment).However,as detailsof statisticaltests
were not provided,it is not clear whether this was an
effectof stress condition regardlessof treatment group.
In addition,self-reportedanxietywas also lower in the
L-theanine condition compared to control conditions.
Although not statisticallysignificant due to the small
sample size (n =12), there were moderate correlations
between self-reportedand physiologicalmeasures.
Effectson cognitiveperformance
t
The findings to date suggest complex associations
between L-theanineintake and cognitiveperformance.
i~..• Animal studies haveshown that chronic administration
., of L-theanine(180mg per day far 3-4 months) is ableto
i decrease the latency and increase the accuracy of rats
performingoperant,passive,and activeavoidancetasks,
as wellas increaselearningand behavior.j'•a8
Findingsin
humans are more complex (Table2). Haskell et a14'
assessedthe effectsof L-theanine(250mg) and caffeine
(150mg), separately and in combination, as well as
placebo,on-a rangeof cognitiveperformanceand mood
measuresassessedatbaseline,30minutes,and 90 minutes
afteringestionin 22participants.Theyfound that caffeine
alone produced the well-replicatedenhancement of
i Nutrition Reviews°Vol.66(1):82-90
Supplied by The British
cognitive performance and mood. Whilst L-theanine
alone resultedin significantlyfasterchoicereactiontime,
it produced slower numerical working memory and
delayedword recallreaction timesand had a detrimental
effecton serialsevensubtractions.Therefore,there were
virtuallyno positiveeffectsof L-theaninealone on cog-
nitiveperformance.However,this study producedsome
evidencethat L-theaninesignificantlyinteractedwithcaf-
feine in that it enhanced the effectsof caffeineon simple
reactiontime,the accuracyof rapid informationprocess-
ing, mental fatigue,,and tirednesswhen given in combi-
nation.Also,the combinationof L-theanineand caffeine
significantlyenhanced the speed of rapid information
processing,sentenceverification,word recognitionreac-
tion time, and alertness when caffeinealone did not.
However,L-theaninealso reducedthe positiveeffectsof
caffeineon spatialmemory and choicereaction time.
The synergisticeffects of L-theanine and caffeine
have also been found at lower doses of each.5°In this
study, the effectsof 100mg L-theanineplus 50mg caf-
feine (such as would be found in two cups of tea) were
compared with the effects of 50 mg caffeinealone and
placeboon tests of cognitionand mood at pre-treatment
as wellas 60 and 90 minutespost-treatment.Both treat-
ments demonstrated a- positive effect at 60 and 90
minutes;however,the significanteffectsof the combina-
tion of L-theanineand caffeineon the speedand accuracy
of attentionswitchingand the abilityto ignoredistracting
informationduring a cognitivelydemandingattention-
switchingtasksupport the suggestedsynergisticeffectsof
these keycomponentsof tea.The authorssuggestthat the
combinationof both caffeineand L-theanineat locodoses
interactto producea better abilityto focusattention,with
improvementof both speedand accuracy.
General summary
The major findings from studies investigating the effects
of caffeine in tea on psychological outcomes is that caf-
feine at lower doses,such as would be found in one to two
cups of tea, is associated with reports of increased alert-
ness and decreased sedation. In addition, lower doses of
caffeine appear to have a positive effect on maintaining
alertness and reducing fatigue across the course of the
day. These acute and chronic effects are also reflected in
the effects of lower doses of caffeine on the performance
of simple cognitive performance tasks. Indeed, caffeinein
tea appears to have an advantage over similar doses in
coffee in maintaining the speed of perception and reac-
tion times across the course of a day. Interestingly, lower
doses of caffeine (75 mg) appear to benefit motor reac-
tion time whereas higher doses (150 mg) hinder it. It
could be the case that lower doses of caffeine, such as
those found in tea, are more beneficial to cognitive
87
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Library -
I
performance,servingto maintaincognitiveperformance
I
over time rather than providingan acute burst of stimu-
lation,which maybe found with higherdoses.
This potential chronic regulationof levelsof alert-
ness and performanceof simple tasks afforded by tea
consumptionis consistentwith the neurochemicaleffects
of L-theanine and the interaction between L-theanine
and caffeine.The effectsof L-theanineon neurotransmit-
ters suggestit has a regulatoryrole in brain function,
modulating excitatory brain responses. Furthermore,
L-theanineappearsto antagonizethe stimulatoryeffects
of caffeineon the brain. This is supported by the few
studiesthat haveinvestigatedthe effectsof L-theanine,in
conjunctionand in comparisonwith caffeine,on cogni-
tive performance.These studies suggestan interactive
effectof these tevodietary.componentsof tea.L-theanine
appears to enhancethe effectsof caffeineon speed and
accuracyof informationprocessing,mental fatigue and
tiredness,and, importantly,on more complextasks such
as sentenceverification,word recognition,the speed and
accuracyof sustainedattention,and the abilityto ignore
distraction.These tasks may be more reflectiveof the
cognitive performance required in stressful, everyday
occupations than the simple speed of perception and
speedof reactiontasksusedin the caffeine-onlyresearch.
There is less support for positiveeffectsof tea and
coffee consumption on psychologicalwell-being and
mood. Otily correlational,cross-sectionalstudies have
been conducted to date.Although one study found an
associationbetweenblackteaconsumptionand a reduced
risk of depression among a large population-based
sample,thesefindingswerenot supportedbya naturalistic
diarystudyof tea andcoffeeconsumption,nor werethose
of a studyconductedin Japanon the associationbetween
green teaconsumptionand mentalhealth.
There is indirectsupportforthe effectsof L-theanine
on relaxation, anxiety, stress, and concentration.
' L-theanine levels of 50-200mg have been shown to
increase alpha brainwaveactivity in occipital,parietal,
and frontalbrain areas30-40 minutesafterconsumption.
Alphabraimvaveactivityis,however,an indirect measure
of relaxation only. Studies that have investigatedthe
effectsof L-theanineon self-reportedanxietyand stress
have found some support for the relationship,as well
as under conditionsof performancestress.Importantly,
L-theanine seems to have a role in focusingattention,
with dualeffectson alphaactivityservingto both increase
' attentionon task-specificinformationand reduceactivity
associatedwith distractingattention.
Finally,animal studieshave shown that L-theanine
mayhavea neuroprotectivecafe,whichis consistentwith,
its apparent antagonisticeffectson the excitatoryneu-
rotransmitter,glutamate.Althoughno studieshavebeen
conducted in humans, there is mixed support from
88
i Supplied by The British
cohort studies in humans for an inverse relationship .~
betweenflavanoidintake and cognitivedecline.
Takentogether,the findingsof studiesexaminingthe
effectsof caffeinein tea and L-theanineon psychological
outcomes suggest that lower doses of caffeine,when
ingested at regular intervals, may maintain alertness,
focusedattention,and accuracyand may modulate the
more acute effectsof higher doses of caffeine,such as
those found in coffee.The findings may suggest that
L-theanineexerts slow and constant effectsand modu-
latesthe spikesin performancethat caffeinebrings about.
Importantly,L-theaninemay also work in combination
with caffeineto enhanceperformanceof more complex
tasks,such asattention switchingand the abilityto ignore
distraction,which may be reflectiveof higher-levelcog- v.
nitiveactivity,such as the executivefunctions,and which
maybe sensitiveto the detrimentaleffectsof overstimu-
lationon cognitiveperformance.
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The cognitiveoutcomesemployedin the researchto date
have,in general,been limited to laboratory-basedsimple
tasks that have lozvecologicalvalidity,such as reaction
time and speed of perception.Everydaycognitivetasks,
such as determiningthe most efficientroute 'around a
supermarket,remembering a shopping list, following
a knitting pattern, planning and synchronizinga meal,
writing a report, and chairing a meeting, are more
complex.These tasksrequire the integrationof a host of
cognitive abilities including memory performance,
workingmemory,executivefunctions,as wellas speedof
informationprocessing,all of whichcan be testedin labo-
ratory settings. Furthermore,complex tasks reflecting
i
real-lifework performancehave their laboratory-based
analoguesthat can be used as outcomesin intervention I
studies.The use of these more ecologicallyvalid tasks ~
i
along with other outcome measures, reflecting such
things as work engagementand "flow"5'would greatly
enhancethe externalvalidityof findings.In addition,the
interactiveeffectsof caffeine,L-theanine,and task com- t.
plexityshould be investigatedto test the hypothesisthat
L-theaninemodulates the potential negativeeffects of
caffeineon performance under high levels of stress or
high-performanceconditions.
There are very few experimental studies on the
effectsof tea or L-theanineconsumptionon mood and
psychological well-being. Effects on relaxation and
anxietyare largelyinferred from studies that assessthe
effectsof L-theanineon electricalbraimvaveactivity.Psy-
chologicalwell-beingand mood are multidimensional
constructs and typically include components such as
depressivesymptomsor negativeaffect,positiveaffect,
anxiety,and perceivedstress.Many studiesassessingthe
Nutrition Reviews®Vol.660):82-90
Library - "The world's knowledge
 effects of tea and L-theanine on mood have used mea- 15. Ruijter1,Lorist MM,Snel J. The influence of different doses
.~
sures that require self-report using visual analogue scales of caffeine on visual task performance. J Psychophysiol
1999;13:37-48.
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dardized assessment instruments that may more validly selective attention to color:An ERPstudy. Psychophysiology
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Finally, the potential neuroprotective effects of 17. Mumford GK, Evans SM, Kaminski B1, Preston KL,
L-theanine could be investigated using epidemiological Sannerud CASK,GriffithsRR.Discriminantstimulus and sub-
and longer-term intervention trials. Epidemiological jective effects of theobromine and caffeine in humans.
Psychopharmacology1994;115:1-8.
studies are expensiveto conduct, but pre-existing data on 18. Hintikka J, Tolmunen T, Honkalampi K, Haatainen K,
nutritional intake and cognitive outcomes could be inves- Koivumaa-HonkanenTanskanen A, Vinamaki H. Dailytea
tigated in order to test this hypothesis. Longer-term inter- drinking is associated with a low level of depressive symp-
vention studies, over the course of 12-24 months among toms in the Finnish population. Eur J Epidemiol 2005;
20:359-363.
people with mild cognitive impairment or risk of cere- 19. Steptoe A,WardleJ. Mood and drinking:a naturalistic diary
brovascular disease could provide further evidence for or study of alcohol, coffee and tea. Psychopharmacology
Y, against the neuroprotective role of L-theanine. 1999;141:315-321.
20. HindmarchI, Quinlan PT,Moore KL,Parkin C. The effects of
black tea and other beverages on aspects of cognition and
Acknowledgments psychomotor performance. Psychopharmacology 1998;
139:230-238.
Funding. This review was funded by Unilever Australasia. 21. QuinlanPT,Lane1,MooreKL,AspenJ, Rycroft1A,O'BrienDC.
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