HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY

PMF IAS

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 Human Geography – Table of Contents

1. Major Tribes of India .................................................................................................................................... 1

Scheduled Tribes (STs)....................................................................................................................................... 1
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) .................................................................................................. 3
Tribes of the Himalayan Region ........................................................................................................................ 6
Tribes of North-East Region .............................................................................................................................. 8
Tribes of Central India Region ......................................................................................................................... 13
Tribes of Eastern India Region ........................................................................................................................ 16
Tribes of Western India Region ....................................................................................................................... 17
Tribes of Southern India Region ...................................................................................................................... 19
Tribes of the Island Region ............................................................................................................................. 23

2. Population .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Basics ............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Factors influencing the distribution of population ........................................................................................... 28
Trends In Population Growth .......................................................................................................................... 29
Population Composition ................................................................................................................................. 34
Demographic Dividend ................................................................................................................................... 39

3. Census and Demographic Components ....................................................................................................... 41

India Census 2011 Data .................................................................................................................................. 41
National Family Health Survey (NFHS) ............................................................................................................ 55

4. Migration ................................................................................................................................................... 62
Basics ............................................................................................................................................................. 62
Streams of Migration ..................................................................................................................................... 65
Migration in India .......................................................................................................................................... 68
Consequences of Migration ............................................................................................................................ 72
Policy Recommendations to address the issue of Migrants ............................................................................. 73

5. Human Settlements .................................................................................................................................... 76

Types and Patterns of Settlements .................................................................................................................. 76
Rural Settlements ........................................................................................................................................... 77
Urban Settlements.......................................................................................................................................... 82

6. International Trade ..................................................................................................................................... 92

Evolution of International Trade ..................................................................................................................... 92
Basis of International Trade............................................................................................................................ 92
Important Aspects of International Trade ....................................................................................................... 94
Case for Free Trade ......................................................................................................................................... 95
Gateways of International Trade .................................................................................................................... 97
India’s International Trade ............................................................................................................................. 99
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7. Major Ports of India.................................................................................................................................. 103

 Some Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 103
Facts ............................................................................................................................................................ 103
Ports of The East Coast ................................................................................................................................. 104
Ports of The West Coast ................................................................................................................................ 107
Indian Ports as Gateways of Trade ............................................................................................................... 110
Issues and Challenges with Indian Ports ....................................................................................................... 113
Government Initiatives ................................................................................................................................. 113

8. Transport and Communication.................................................................................................................. 118

Land Transport ............................................................................................................................................. 118
Water Transport ........................................................................................................................................... 123
Communications .......................................................................................................................................... 129

9. Transport and Communication in India ..................................................................................................... 131

Road Transport in India ................................................................................................................................ 131
Rail Transport in India .................................................................................................................................. 140
Water Transport ........................................................................................................................................... 143
Air Transportation ........................................................................................................................................ 148
Oil and Gas Pipelines .................................................................................................................................... 149
Communication Networks ............................................................................................................................ 152

10. Planning & Sustainable Development In The Indian Context .................................................................. 155
Target Area Planning.................................................................................................................................... 155

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 1. Major Tribes of India

Scheduled Tribes (STs)

• Tribal communities are identified by some specific signs such as primitive traits, distinctive culture,
geographical isolation, shyness to contact with the community at large, and backwardness.
• In India, according to the 2011 census:
 Scheduled Tribes constitute 8.6% (10.45 crore) of the total population. They live in 15% of the
country's geographical area.
 Madhya Pradesh has the highest tribal population.
 Bhil is the largest tribe in India (38%), followed by Gonds.

History of Scheduled Tribes (STs)

1
• Tribe is a colonial concept introduced in the 19th century by colonial authorities and ethnographers to
describe all communities of India. In the latter half of the 19th century, the idea of tribe was narrowed
down to the primitive groups as distinct from castes.
• The nomenclature of the Scheduled Tribe fully emerged under the Government of India Act of 1935
and the Constitution of India.
• Article 366 (25) of the Indian Constitution provides that the "Scheduled Tribes" are tribes or groups
within tribes identified under Article 342 as Scheduled Tribes.

List of Scheduled Tribes (Article 342 of the Indian Constitution)

• In consultation with the Governor of States, the President can identify certain tribes or groups within
tribes as Scheduled Tribes for a State or UT.
 Using the powers under Article 342, the President notified the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes)
Order, 1950.
• Once the President makes the list, the Parliament can make laws to modify the list.

Constitutional Safeguards for STs

Educational and Cultural Safeguards
1. Article 15(4): Special provisions were made for the educational advancement of STs.
2. Article 29: Protection of Interests of Minorities (which includes STs). Under Article 29:
 Any section of the citizens having a distinct language, script, or culture of its own has the right
to conserve the same.
 Citizens cannot be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or
receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, or language.
3. Article 46: The State shall promote the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of
the people, especially Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
4. Article 350A: Facilities for instruction in Mother Tongue.
 Every state and local authority should make every effort to provide adequate facilities for instruction
in the mother tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minor-
ity groups. The President may issue such directives to any state as he deems necessary or appro-
priate to ensure that such facilities are provided.

Economic Safeguards
• Article 275: Grants in-Aid to specified States (STs and Scheduled Areas) covered under the Fifth and
Sixth Schedules of the Constitution.
 It provides specific grants for promoting the welfare of the scheduled tribes in a state or for raising
the level of administration of the scheduled areas in a state.
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Political Safeguards
1. Article 164(1): Originally provided for Tribal Affairs Ministers in Bihar, MP and Orissa. The 94th
Amendment Act of the Indian Constitution amended this provision to release Bihar and brought Jhar-
khand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha within the scope of this provision.
2. Articles 330 and 332: Under Articles 330 and 332, seats are reserved for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha
and State Legislative Assembly, respectively.

Agency for monitoring safeguards

• Article 338A: There shall be a Commission for the Scheduled Tribes to be known as the National Com-
mission for the Scheduled Tribes.

Commission

• Under Article 339(1), the President may appoint a Commission to report on the administration of the
Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the State.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

• PVTG (PTG) is a sub-classification of Scheduled Tribes considered more vulnerable among the tribal
groups.
• Most of these groups have not attained significant educational or economic progress and have low
health indices.
• The Government of India follows the following criteria for the identification of PVTGs:
1. Pre-agricultural level of technology
2. Low level of literacy
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3. Economic backwardness
 4. A declining or stagnant population
• The central government has recognized 75 tribal communities in 18 States and 1 Union Territory (An-
daman and Nicobar Islands) as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups.
• Odisha has 13 PVTGs (highest), followed by 12 in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and nine in Bihar.

75 PVTGs
State / UT Name PVTGs Name
Andhra Pradesh 1. Bodo Gadaba 2. Bondo Poroja 3. Chenchu 4. Dongria Khond 5. Gutob Gadaba
and Telangana 6. Khond Poroja 7. Kolam 8. Kondareddis 9. Konda Savaras 10. Kutia Khond 11.
Parengi Poroja 12. Thoti
Bihar and Jhar- 13. Asurs 14. Birhor 15. Birjia 16. Hill Kharia 17. Konvas 18. Mal Paharia 19. Parhai-
khand yas 20. Sauda Paharia 21. Savar
Gujarat 22. Kathodi 23. Kohvalia 24. Padhar 25. Siddi 26. Kolgha
Karnataka 27. Jenu Kuruba 28. Koraga
Kerala 29. Cholanaikayan 30. Kadar 31. Kattunayakan 32. Kurumbas 33. Koraga
Madhya Pradesh 34. Abujh Marias 35. Baigas 36. Bharias 37. Hill Korbas 38. Kamars 39. Saharias
and Chhattisgarh 40. Birhor
Maharashtra 41. Katkaria (Kathodia) 42. Kolam 43. Maria Gond
Manipur 44. Marram Nagas
Odisha 45. Birhor 46. Bondo 47. Didayi 48. Dongria-Khond 49. Juangs 50. Kharias 51.
Kutia Kondh 52. Lanjia Sauras 53. Lodhas 54. Mankidias 55. Paudi Bhuyans 56.
Soura 57. Chuktia Bhunjia
Rajasthan 58. Seharias
Tamil Nadu 59. Kattu Nayakans 60. Kotas 61. Kurumbas 62. Irulas 63. Paniyans 64. Todas
Tripura 65. Reangs
UP and Uttarak- 66. Buxas 67. Rajis
hand
West Bengal 68. Birhor 69. Lodhas 70. Totos
A&N Islands 71. Great Andamanese 72. Jarawas 73. Onges 74. Sentinelese 75. Shompens

Recent Addition
• In February 2024, the Parliament passed the bill to add seven (PVTGs) — four in Odisha and three in
Andhra Pradesh as synonyms, sub-tribes, or phonetic variations of existing tribes.
• While these seven communities were already counted among the 75 PVTGs of the country when the
designation was created, their individual community names (which qualify as either synonyms, sub-
4

tribes, or phonetic variations of existing tribes) were not mentioned specifically.

Odisha
• In Odisha, the PVTG communities added are:
 Pauri Bhuyan and Paudi Bhuyan as synonyms of the Bhuyan tribe
 Chuktia Bhunjia as synonym of Bhunjia tribe
 Bondo as a sub-tribe of the Bondo Poraja tribe
 Mankidia as a synonym for the Mankirdia tribe

Andhra Pradesh
• In Andhra Pradesh, the PVTG communities included are
 Bondo Porja and Khond Porja as synonyms of Porja tribe
 Konda Savaras as a synonym for Savaras tribe

History of PVTGs
• In 1973, the Dhebar Commission (Tribal Panchsheel Committee) created Primitive Tribal Groups
(PTGs) as a separate category, which are less developed among the tribal groups.
• Based on the committee’s report, the Indian Government created PTGs in 1975 and declared 52 groups
as PTGs. In 1993, 23 groups were added to the category, making it 75.
• In 2006, the Union Government renamed the PTGs as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

Habitat Rights
• Habitat rights recognition grants communities the right to their traditional territory, socio-cultural prac-
tices, livelihoods, ecological and traditional knowledge, and the protection of their natural and cultural
heritage.
• Habitat rights are given to PVTGs under The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, or the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
• According to FRA, “Habitat comprises the customary habitat and such other habitats in reserved forests
and protected forests of primitive tribal groups and pre-agricultural communities and other forest dwell-
ing Scheduled Tribes.”

How the Government Fixes a Habitat

• The procedure is based on guidelines from the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) in 2014.
• The tribal leaders are consulted about the extent of their culture, traditions, and occupation. The gov-
ernment corroborates it, and then a habitat is declared.
• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) provides technical assistance to the admin-
istration to implement the habitat rights law.
• Four state-level departments, i.e., Forest, Revenue, Tribal, and Panchayati Raj, coordinate with the
5

UNDP team to ascertain habitats.

PVTGs with Habitat Rights
• Only three PVTGs have habitat rights.
1. Bharia Tribe (Madhya Pradesh): 1st PVTG to get habitat right.
2. Kamar Tribe (Chhattisgarh)
3. Baiga Tribe (Chhattisgarh)

Benefits of Habitat Rights to PVTGs

 Protects traditional habitats from developmental activities: Habitat rights don't grant ownership
like private property but require consent and consultation of gram sabha for development activities.
This provision helps protect traditional habitats from harmful activities like mining.
 Forest Rights have legal protection under the Forest Conservation Act, the Land Acquisition Law
of 2013, and the SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.
 The grant of habitat rights under the Forest Rights Act provides additional legal protection.
 Protects livelihoods
 Preserves cultural identity
 Promotes sustainable development
 Conserves biodiversity

Tribes of the Himalayan Region

Hattis
• Hattis reside in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the basin of the Giri and Tons Rivers (both
tributaries of the Yamuna River; Tons River marks the border between the HP and Uttarakhand).
• They got their name from their traditional occupation of selling home-grown crops, vegetables, meat,
and wool at small-town markets known as ‘haats’.
• The two Hatti clans are Trans-Giri (HP) and Jaunsar Bawar (Uttarakhand).
• The Hattis are governed by a traditional council called ‘Khumbli’ (like the ‘Khaps’ of Haryana).
• Hatti men traditionally don distinctive white headgear on ceremonial occasions.
• A rigid caste system is followed, and inter-caste marriages are traditionally discouraged.
• Polyandry (a form of polygamy where a woman has more than one husband at the same time) is a
common practice among the Hatti community.

ST status to Hatti Community

• The Hatti community in Himachal Pradesh organised a protest to press their demand for implementing
a law giving the Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to the community.
• The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order (Second Amendment) Act, 2023, granted ST status to
6

the Hattis of the Trans-Giri region of HP’s Sirmaur district.

• But the order was stayed by the High Court of Himachal Pradesh.

Gujjars (Gurjar)
• Gujjars are a nomadic pastoral tribe of India (J&K and HP), Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
• They are religiously diverse, with the majority being Muslim.
• They are fighting for ST status in other North Indian states.

Bakarwals
• Bakarwals is a Muslim nomadic pastoral tribe that is less integrated into mainstream society.
• They, along with Gaddis and Gujjars, have been major tribal communities of J&K and Ladakh.

Dardic Tribes
• Dardic tribes, i.e., Brokpa, Drokpa, and Shin, speak the Dardic languages of the Indo-Aryan Group.
• Drokpa tribe is found in the Drass region of Kargil (Ladakh).
• The Shin tribe is found in the Gurez Valley of J&K.
• Brokpa (Dard Aryans), a tribal community of Ladakh, asserted descent from Alexander's lost army,
claiming to be the last pure-blood Aryans.
• The Brokpa region, renowned as the Aryan Valley, attracts pregnancy tourism for accessing its pur-
ported pure genetic pool.

Changpa
• Changpas, a Tibetan nomadic tribe in Ladakh, primarily raise pashmina goats and yaks.
• Due to their Buddhist beliefs, they do not kill animals. They only use carcasses from natural deaths.
• Climate change has badly affected its livestock, endangering the generations of co-existence.

[UPSC 2014] With reference to 'Changpa' community of India, consider the following
statements:
1. They live mainly in the State of Uttarakhand
2. They rear the Pashmina goats that yield a fine wool.
3. They are kept in the category of Scheduled Tribes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation

The Changpa people were granted the status of Scheduled Tribe in 1989.
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•
 Answer: b) 2 and 3 only

Tharu Tribes
• The Tharu community belongs to the Terai lowlands, of the Shivaliks or lower Himalayas.
• Most of them are forest dwellers, and some practice agriculture.
• The word tharu is believed to be derived from sthavir, meaning followers of Theravada Buddhism.
• The Tharus live in both India and Nepal.
• In the Indian terai, they live mostly in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
• They speak various dialects of Tharu, a language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup.
• Tharus worship Lord Shiva as Mahadev, and call their supreme being “Narayan”.
• Tharu women have stronger property rights.
• Recently, the Uttar Pradesh government planned to take the unique culture of its ethnic Tharu tribe
across the world.

Other Tribes of the Himalayan Region

Tribe State Significance
Tharus Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar Terai regions of India and Nepal
Lahaulas HP Tibetan descent
Khas Uttarakhand, Sikkim, WB A Gorkha tribe (Gorkhas speaks Nepali)
Bhutia Uttarakhand, HP, J&K, Sikkim Tibetan heritage
Pangwalas HP Pangi Valley
Gaddi HP and J&K Semi-pastoral Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic tribe
Balti J&K Muslim tribe of Tibetan origin
Gara/Garra Ladakh Mongoloid tribe of blacksmiths
Mon Ladakh Mongoloid tribe of musicians
Beda Ladakh Perform art and music
Raji Uttarakhand PVTG
Jaunsari Uttarakhand Polyandry
Others: Lamba (HP), Sippi (J&K), Purigpa (Ladakh), Buksa/Bukhasiya (Uttarakhand and UP), Bhot/Bodh
(HP) and Bot/Boto (Ladakh)

Tribes of North-East Region

Nyishi/Dafla
• Nyishi is the largest tribe of Arunachal Pradesh.
They primarily inhabit the Dafla hills, which border Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
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•
• Their language, Nyishi, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family.
• Polygyny (more than one wife) is a prevalent practice among them.

Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival

• Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival (PPHF) is celebrated in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The festival aims to recognize the efforts of the Nyishi community turned conservationists and high-
lights the critical need to preserve hornbills.
• It focuses on wildlife conservation, particularly hornbills, with four species (Oriental pied hornbill,
wreathed hornbill (vulnerable), rufous-necked hornbill (vulnerable), and great hornbill (near threatened))
in the Pakke Tiger Reserve.
• This year's theme of the festival is "Let Our Hornbills Remain” (“Domutoh Domutoh, Paga hum Domu-
toh” in Nyshi language).

Apatani
• Apatani inhabit the Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh.
• Their wet rice cultivation system is extensive, even without farm animals or machines.
• Apatani Valley has been proposed for inclusion as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its “extremely
high productivity” and “unique” way of preserving the ecology.

Mishmi
• The Mishmi tribe is found in Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet.
• Idu Mishmi are protesting the notification of Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary as Tiger Reserve (TR).
• Idu Mishmis, traditional hunters, practice 'iyu-ena', a belief system with strict taboos and myths, like the
complete prohibition on killing tigers. Tigers are considered elder brothers by them.
• The Idu Mishmi language is considered endangered by UNESCO.

Singpho
• Singphos inhabit Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
• They are considered the original tea drinkers in India from indigenous tea plants. Robert Bruce dis-
covered this fact, which led to the start of the tea industry in Assam.

Bugun (Khowa) Tribe

• It is one of India’s smallest tribe communities with a population of around 2000.
• The Buguns belongs to the Mongoloid Race. They reside in western Arunachal Pradesh along the
border with Bhutan.
• The Tenga Valley serves as their primary habitat, while some also inhabit the subtropical forests in the
Himalayan foothills of the West Kameng district.
• Diying Kho is the main festival of the Buguns.
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Bugun Community Reserve
• Arunachal Pradesh, at the Republic Day parade, showcased its Singchung Bugun Village Community
Reserve (SBVCR).
• Singchung Bugun Village Community Reserve is a 17-square-kilometre biodiversity hotspot, around 40
km from the famous Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The reserve was created in 2017 to protect biodiversity in the region. It is home to many rare and en-
dangered species, such as the Bugun Liocichla (CR) and the red panda.

Bugun Liocichla (Liocichla bugunorum)

• It is a songbird that is named after the Bugun community.

• It is a critically endangered species, with only 14 to 20 individuals believed to exist in the world.
• The bird was first described in 2006 after being discovered in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary.
• A five-day Bugun Liocichla Utsav was organised in 2021 at Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary in AP.

Kuki
• Kukis inhabit the NE states of Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, and Nagaland.
• They are also found in Bangladesh and Myanmar.
• The recent ethnic clashes in Manipur resulted from the Kuki-Meitei conflict.
 Kuki-Meitei has a long history of conflict, but the recent clashes erupted due to the following:
1. Meitei demands for Scheduled Tribe (ST) status
2. Kukis seeking a separate administration for the Manipur hills

Khasi
• Khasi mainly inhabit Meghalaya; they are the state's largest community.
• They are also found in Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura.
• They are a matriarchal society where inheritance passes from the mother to the youngest daughter.

Tangkhul Nagas
• Tangkhul Nagas live in the Indo–Myanmar border area of Manipur.
• This Tibeto-Burmese ethnic group’s Longpi Pottery is made without a pottery wheel.
• This black and grey pottery is made with hands and moulds.

Monpa
• Monpa is a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group of Arunachal Pradesh.
• They are known for masks, handmade paper, thanka (a painting on cloth), etc.
• Handmade paper is made from a shrub called Dapne Botanical Papercia, locally called Shugu-Sheng.
10

Konyak
• Konyaks, the largest of the Naga ethnic groups, are found in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.
• They were the last to give up head-hunting (severing heads of enemies after attacking rival tribes).

Chakma
• Chakma inhabits Tripura, Mizoram, Assam, Meghalaya, and WB.
• Chakma is the largest ethnic group in the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh.
• They are predominantly Buddhists.
• Many Chakma refugees settled in India from erstwhile East Pakistan.

Hajong
• Hajong inhabits Meghalaya, Assam, and Mizoram.
• Hajong is a major ethnic group in the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh.
• They are predominantly Hindus.
• Many Hajong refugees settled in India from erstwhile East Pakistan.

Chakma and Hajong Refugee Issue

• During the 1960s, Chakmas and Hajongs from the Chittagong Hills of erstwhile Bangladesh have mi-
grated to India due to:
 Submergence of their land by the Kaptai dam on the Karnaphuli River.
 Alledged religious persecution.
• In 2015, the Supreme Court ordered the Centre to confer citizenship to Chakma refugees from
erstwhile East Pakistan in the 1960s.

Bru/Reang
• Bru is a community indigenous tribe living mostly in Tripura (PVTG), Mizoram, and Assam.
• They were targeted by groups who do not consider them indigenous in Mizoram. Being ethnically dis-
tinct from the majority Mizos, the Brus are often referred to as “Vai” in the state, meaning outsiders.
• While many Brus of Assam and Tripura are Hindu, the Brus of Mizoram are Christians.

Protests against Bru Resettlement in Tripura

• In 1997, 37,000 people of the Bru (Reang) tribe fled to Tripura from Mizoram, due to ethnic clashes.
Since then, 5,000 have returned to Mizoram while 32,000 remain in camps in Tripura.
• An agreement was signed by the Centre and the two state governments and Bru representatives to allow
the remaining 32,000 to permanently settle in Tripura. This led to protests from Bengali and Mizo groups
in Tripura.

What is the Re-Settlement plan?

11
• Union Government, Mizoram, Tripura, and Burs signed a quadripartite agreement in 2020. Under the
pact, the Union Government will sponsor the rehabilitation of Brus in Tripura.
• The state has planned 12 resettlement spots across six districts with 300 families each. Under the agree-
ment, the Centre has announced a special development project with funding of Rs 600 crore.

Bodo
• Bodo are the largest plain tribe of Northeast India. They are found in Assam and Meghalaya.
• The tribe is one of the largest among the Indo-Mongoloid origin of Tibeto-Burmese languages.
• They are the largest Boro language-speaking tribe in North Eastern India.
• According to the 2011 census, Bodo is the largest ethnic group in North East India.
• Bodos are the single largest community among the notified Scheduled Tribes in Assam. Part of the
larger umbrella of Bodo-Kachari, the Bodos constitute about 5-6% of Assam’s population.

Bodo Accord
• Bodos saw the 1985 Assam Accord as essentially focusing on the interests of the Assamese-speaking
people. In 1987, the All Bodo Students Union (ABSU) revived the Bodo statehood demand.
• The armed group Bodo Security Force arose in 1986. It subsequently renamed itself the National
Democratic Front of Boroland (NDFB), and later split into factions.
• Government of India, the Assam government, and Bodo groups signed an agreement in 2020 (Bodo
Accord) for peace and development.
• The 2020 agreement says the Government of Assam “will notify Bodo language in Devanagari script
as the associate official language in the state”. Under the agreement, all NDFB factions should disband
their armed organisations.

Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)

• It is an autonomous body under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. There have been two Bodo
Accords earlier, and the second one led to the formation of BTC.
• The area under BTC, formed under the 2003 Accord, is called the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR).
BTR comprises Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa, and Udalguri districts, accounting for 11% of Assam’s area
and 10% of its population. 12
Other Tribes of North-East Region
Tribe Name State Significance
Kuki Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Kuki-Meitei conflict
Assam, Tripura, and Nagaland
Garos Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Naga- Matriarchal (inheritance passes from
land, and WB the mother to the youngest daughter)
Jaintia/Syntengs/Pnars Meghalaya, Assam, and Mizoram Matriarchal (inheritance passes from
the mother to the youngest daughter)
Lepcha Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Sikkim, and Darjeeling
Adi/Abor Arunachal Pradesh A new species of Cascade frog is
named after the Adi tribe
Tai Khampti Arunachal Pradesh Follow Buddhism
Angami Nagaland and Manipur Galho (made from rice, vegetables,
and various meats)
Karbi/Mikir Assam, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Nagaland
Kachari Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Meghalaya
Chakma Tripura, Mizoram, Assam, Megha- Buddhists; Many came as refugees
laya, and WB from erstwhile East Pakistan
Hmar Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Trip- Mongoloid ethnic group
ura, and Meghalaya
Rabha Assam, WB, and Meghalaya Tibeto-Burman ethnic group
Maram Naga Manipur Tibeto-Burman tribe, which is a PVTG
Lushai (Mizo) Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Megha- A Kuki-chin tribe
laya, and Manipur
Deori Assam Sino-Tibetan family
Mishing/Miri Assam and Arunachal Pradesh Brahmaputra's banks
Tiwa/Lalung Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, and Manipur
Others: Aimol (Manipur), Aka/Hruso (Arunachal Pradesh), Ao (Nagaland), Chaimal (Tripura), Chiru (Mani-
pur), Lakher (Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Assam), Mech (Assam and WB), Mizel (Tripura), Monsang Naga
(Manipur), Namte (Tripura), Paite (Manipur and Mizoram), Pawi/Lai (Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Assam),
Purums (Manipur), Sumi/Sema (Nagaland and Assam) and Thadou (Manipur).

Tribes of Central India Region

Khond
13

• Khonds are the largest tribal group of Odisha.

• They are also found in Bihar, Jharkhand, WB, Odisha, Chattisgarh, MP, and Maharashtra.
• They speak Kui of the Dravidian language family.
• Dongria Khond, a PVTG of the Niyamgiri Hill, fought against the bauxite mining.
• The Supreme Court in 2013 upholded the rights of gram sabhas at Niyamgiri, Rayagada, and Kalahandi
(Odisha) against the conversion of forest land for proposed bauxite mining.

Gond
• Gonds are found in MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karna-
taka, Telangana, UP, WB, and Odisha.
• They are divided into four tribes: Raj Gonds, Madia Gonds, Dhurve Gonds, and Khatulwar Gonds.
• Their language, Gondi, belongs to the Dravidian family.
• Each Gond village has a ghotul (youth dormitory) for teaching life skills and culture.
• Their staple foods include two kinds of millet — kodo and kutki.
• Their Sulur flute, distinct from traditional flutes, creates melodies with a simple one-handed twirl. The
surface of the flute is crafted with fish emblems, geometric lines, and triangles.

Santhal
• Santhals inhabit Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, and WB.
• They speak Santali, a Munda language of the Austro-Asiatic family.
• Historically, they cleared forests, practised agriculture, and excelled in hunting and sericulture.
• The Santhal governance system, Manjhi-Paragana, resembles local self-governance.
• Santhals worship Marang Buru or Bonga as the supreme deity. Bonga is a court of spirits responsible
for different aspects of the world.
• Santhal villages feature a sacred grove on the settlement's edge, believed to be the home of spirits.
• President Draupadi Murmu belongs to the Santhal community.

Bhil
• Bhils inhabit Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
They derive their name from the word 'billu', which means bow.
• According to the 2011 census, they are the largest tribe in India (38% of India’s ST population).
• Archery skills and deep local knowledge made them experts in guerrilla warfare.
• Bhils are known for the Mangarh massacre (1913), which occurred in the Mangarh hills of Rajasthan.
The British Indian Army opened fire on a gathering of Bhil tribals led by social reformer Govind Guru,
who were protesting against bonded labour. The event is also called Adivasi Jallianwala.
• In 2022, Mangarh Dham was given National Monument status.

Oraon/Kurukh/Dhangar
14
• Oraons inhabit Chhotanagpur area of Jharkhand, WB, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
• They speak Kurukh, which belongs to the Dravidian language family.
• The word Oraon means to roam.
• During British rule, Oraons migrated to tea gardens of Assam, WB, and Bangladesh and to countries
like Fiji, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Mauritius, where they were known as Hill Coolies.

Bison Horn Maria

• Bison Horn Maria, a sub-tribe of the Gond, lives in Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and MP. They derived
their name from a distinctive headgear from the extinct wild bison worn during weddings.
• Each village has a ghotul (youth dormitory) for teaching life skills and culture.
• They inhabit dense forests, practising shifting cultivation and relying on forest produce.

Munda
• Munda, a tribe from the Chotanagpur plateau, inhabits Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, MP, Odisha, Trip-
ura, and WB. They speak various Munda languages of the Austro-Asiatic language family.
• They are known for their love of dance and music, with special dances like Nupur involving anklets.
• Their most important festival is the Magha or Ba, a thanksgiving festival celebrated in spring.
• Originally wanderers and hunters, they now practice cultivation.
• Buried ancestors are revered as guardian spirits, symbolised by sasandiri, the burial stone.

Baiga
• Baiga, meaning sorcerers, live in Chhattisgarh (PVTG), Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, WB, MP, and UP.
Formerly semi-nomadic, they now rely on minor forest produce for livelihood.
• They are skilled in honey collection and folk medicine.
• Baiga's practices include building a new house after a family member's death.
• Tattooing is integral, with specific tattoos for various ages and body parts.
• In 2023, Baiga became the second PVTG to get habitat rights in Chhattisgarh.

Kamar
• Kamar inhabit central India, primarily in Chhattisgarh (PVTG) and MP.
• Their main livelihood is crafting bamboo items, traded for essentials at weekly markets.
• Larger villages are near foothills or deep in forests, while smaller settlements line roadsides.
• Kamar is the first PVTG to get habitat rights in Chhattisgarh.

Birhor
• Birhor, a PVTG, lives in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, WB, Odisha, Bihar, MP, and Maharashtra.
This semi-nomadic tribe’s language belongs to Munda of the Austro-Asiatic group.
15

•
• They live in small settlements called tanda at the forest edge.
• Barter is a continuing practice among them.
• The Birhor religion is a blend of animism, animatism, naturalism, and belief in spirits.

Kol
• Kol tribe of Chotanagpur plateau lives in MP, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa, and UP.
• The Kol Revolt (1831) against the British was led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat, and Madara Mahato.

Other Tribes of Central India Region

Tribe State(s) Significance
Abhuj Maria Chhattisgarh Sub-tribe of the Gond
Birhor Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, WB, Odisha, Bihar, MP PVTG
Pahari Korwa Chhattisgarh Branch of Kolarian tribe
Dhanwars MP, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand
Nagasia MP, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra
Biar MP and Chhattisgarh
Agaria MP and Chhattisgarh Iron smelters
Bhattra Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and MP
Mawasi MP and Chhattisgarh
Dhulia MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh
Pardhan MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh
Bhunjia MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Orisha A PVTG in Odisha
Bhaina MP, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra

Tribes of Eastern India Region

Mankidia
• Mankidia, a PVTG, is a nomadic tribal group who live in Odisha.
• Their name derived from Odia's word ‘Mankada’ (monkey) due to their ability to catch monkeys.
• They are fighting for their forest rights in Simlipal Tiger Reserve.

Bonda Tribes
• It’s a tribal community residing in the hill ranges of Malkangiri district in Odisha.
• Bondas, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG), live in settlements comprising small hutments
in the hills of the Khairaput block.
• Bondas have almost no connection to the outside world.
• The Bondas and Didiayis are found in the Malkangiri district of the state, which shares its border with
16

Andhra Pradesh on the east and south and Chhattisgarh on the west.
• Bonda and Didiayi tribes were in the news due to their members tested positive for the novel corona-
virus.

Other Tribes of Eastern India Region

Tribe Name State Significance
Juang Odisha Austro-Asiatic ethnic group
Kharia Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha Austroasiatic ethnic group
Bhumij WB, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam Bhumij  one who is born from the soil
Savar Bihar, Jharkhand, WB, and Orisha PVTG
Asur Jharkhand Austro-Asiatic ethnic tribe, which is PVTG
Parhaiya Bihar and Jharkhand PVTG
Chero Bihar, Jharkhand, and UP
Birjia Jharkhand and Bihar PVTG

Tribes of Western India Region

Kokna
• Kokna is a tribe in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
• They were original inhabitants of the Konkan region. The present-day Konkani language has evolved
from their ancient dialects.
• They are skilled in making masks, bamboo and wooden crafts, and brass and copper motifs.
• They are opposing the deforestation of Arey Colony (Maharashtra) for Mumbai Metro.

Koli
• The Koli tribe, whose traditional occupation is fishing, is found in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• They have constructed man-made ponds within the confines of the Mithi River amidst Dharavi Slum
(Asia’s largest slum) to protect their traditional livelihood.

Meena
• The Meena tribe is primarily found in Rajasthan and MP.
• Originally, they were nomadic tribes who practised animal breeding.
• They are known for the metal Ambabari craft.

Agariya
• Agariya is a nomadic denotified tribe of Gujarat who are traditional salt farmers.
• Agariya comes from the Gujarati word “Agar”, meaning “salt farm”. They live in their native place during
monsoon and migrate to the Rann of Kutch salt farms for the remaining months.
17
• Coastal salt is known as "sea salt" or "karkacch salt", while in the Little Rann of Kutch, Agariyas produce
crystal salt called "vadagaru" or "poda".
• Agariyas are protesting the forest departments’ restriction to entry in the Rann of Kutch.
 Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary is in the Little Rann of Kutch.

De-notified Tribes (DNT)

• DNT refers to communities formerly notified under the British Raj's Criminal Tribes Acts (1871-1947).
These Acts were repealed by GoI in 1952, and these communities were "De-Notified".

[UPSC 1996] In the Indian context the term 'De-notified tribes' refers to :
a) tribes which are aboriginals
b) nomadic tribes
c) tribes practising shifting cultivation
d) tribes which were earlier classified as criminal tribes

Answer: d) tribes which were earlier classified as criminal tribe

Naikda/Nayaka
• Naikda is a forest tribe of the Panchamahal Hills of Gujarat.
• Parmeshwar Joriya and Roop Singh Nayak led the Naikda Revolt (1868) against the British.

Saharia
• Saharia, a PVTG, is found in MP and Rajasthan.
• Elder sons live separately post-marriage, while younger sons take on responsibilities for parents and
unmarried siblings.
• Every adult member of the Saharia community is part of a council headed by a Patel. Patel's appointment
is based on heredity criteria.
• They are particularly skilled in making catechu from khair trees.

Lambani/Sugali/Banjara
• Banjara (gypsies) is a nomadic tribe that originally belonged to Rajasthan.
• The Banjara/Lambani community is a scheduled tribe in Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, and Gujarat.
• In HP, Rajasthan, Karnataka, and Kerala, they are categorised as de-notified tribes. In other states,
they are recognised as Other Backward Classes.
• Lambani embroidery, known as ‘khilan’ and ‘toon’, is a symphony of colours, patterns, and symbols that
tell stories of ancient legends and celebrations.
18
 [UPSC 1999] Which one of the following pairs of states and tribes is not correctly matched?
a) Assam : Miri
b) Nagaland : Konyak
c) Arunachal : Apatani
d) Madhya Pradesh : Lambada

Explanation

• The Lambada tribe, also known as Banjara, is a nomadic community traditionally found in Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.

Answer: d) Madhya Pradesh : Lambada

Other Tribes of Western India Region

Tribe Name State Significance
Bharwad/Gadaria Gujarat Herds livestock
Damor/Damaria Gujarat, Rajasthan, and MP Traditional agriculturists
Katkari/Kathodi Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat PVTG in Maharashtra
Old occupation of making Katha
(Catechu)
Dhodia Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, MP
Koli Dhor Maharashtra, Dadar and Nagar Haveli, Raja- Cattle hide tanning
sthan, Karnataka, and Gujarat Live in settlements called wadi
(square or rectangular huts)
Warli Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Goa, Dadra and Warli art reflects their nature-
Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu worshipping belief system
Patelia Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, and Karnataka
Bamcha Gujarat and Maharashtra
Barda Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka
Paradhi Gujarat, Maharashtra, and MP Denotified tribe
Charan/Gadhvi Gujarat and Rajasthan
Gamit Gujarat
Rathawa Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka

Tribes of Southern India Region

Siddi
19

• Siddi is primarily found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Gujarat (PVTG).

• They trace their ancestry to the Bantu speakers from sub-Saharan Africa.
• They have been brought to South Asia by the Portuguese as enslaved people.
• Most of the siddis in India follow Islam.

Todas
• Toda, a pastoral tribe of the Nilgiri Hills of southern India, is a PVTG (TN).
• The Toda language is Dravidian, and the Toda religion centres on the all-important buffalo.
• Toda embroidery (locally called pukhor) with distinctive red and black thread work in geometric designs
on white cotton fabric has a Geographical Indication (GI) Tag.

Irula/Iruliga
• Irulas that live in TN (a PVTG), Kerala, and Karnataka are a Dravidian tribe.
• They have expert knowledge of snakes and snake venom.
• Irula Snake Catchers' Industrial Cooperative Society is a major producer of anti-snake venom.
• In 2023, two Irula snake catchers were awarded Padma Shri for social work.
• Recently, Irula received title deeds for the land on the edges of the Bannerghatta National Park.

Paniya/Paniyan/Paniyar
• Paniya, a Dravidian tribe, is found in Kerala, Karnataka, and TN (a PVTG).
• The term Paniya means ‘someone who does work’ or ‘labourer’. Historically, they were slaves who
worked in the agricultural field of the janmis or landlords.
• The Paniya tribe of Nilgiri Hills Biosphere is crafting elephant statues from lantana under a project
by the Real Elephant Collective (TREC), an NGO, to address the lantana issue in an eco-sensitive manner.

Kotas
• Kota is an indigenous, Dravidian-speaking tribe of Karnataka, Kerala, and TN.
• Aiyanoor Ammanoor is a biennial festival where Kotas collect mud for pottery making.

Hakki Pikki
• Hakki Pikki is a semi-nomadic tribe in Karnataka, traditionally of bird catchers and hunters.
• They are believed to have originated from Gujarat and Rajasthan and have migrated to Karnataka via
Andhra Pradesh.
• They are called different names, like Mel-Shikari in northern Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• The eldest son in a family is not supposed to cut his hair for easy identification.
• The tribe prefers cross-cousin marriages, and monogamy is the norm.
• The society is matriarchal, where the groom gives a dowry to the bride’s family.
In recent years, Hakki Pikki tribe members have been travelling to Africa to sell their Ayurvedic products,
20

•
which are in huge demand there. In 2023, Hakki Pikkis got caught in the Sudan conflict.
Koya Tribe
• Koya tribe is found in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
• Traditionally, Koyas were soldiers of the palegars (feudal lords) and practised podu cultivation.
• Today, Koyas are mainly settled cultivators and artisans.

Koya Tribe Help Conserve Indian Bison

• The Koyas of Papikonda Hills switched from Bison horns to palm leaves for their traditional flute,
Permakore, as a conservation measure for the Indian Bison of Eastern Ghats.

Two New Tribes have been added to the ST list in Andhra Pradesh
• The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024, recently passed by Parliament, in-
cludes two tribal groups from Andhra Pradesh and their respective sub-groups in the Scheduled Tribes
(STs) list. The two tribal groups are Porja and Savaras, with several sub-groups under each category.

Porja Tribe
• The Porja tribe resides in the agency areas of Visakhapatnam and Parvathipuram Manyam districts in
Andhra Pradesh, as well as hilly regions of Odisha.
• They engage in shifting cultivation (Podu) on hill slopes and speak the Parji dialect, a form of the
Odia language.
• Endogamous sub-groups such as Bondo Porja, Khond Porja, and Parangi Porja exist, each with a
distinct language, food habits, and customs.
• The Porjas are among the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups in Andhra Pradesh, with an estimated
population of around 18,700 individuals belonging to 4,300 families.

Savaras Tribe
• The Savaras, also known as Sora in Odisha, inhabit the border forest areas of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram,
and Visakhapatnam districts.
• Similar to Porjas, Savaras have distinct cultural practices and deep-rooted religious beliefs, speaking the
Munda dialect.

Other Tribes of Southern India Region

Tribe Name State Significance
Kurumbas Kerala and TN PVTG
Kadars Kerala and TN PVTG in Kerala
Chenchus Andhra Pradesh Nallamala forests
Kolam Andhra Pradesh, MP, Chhattisgarh, and Ma- A PVTG in Andhra Pradesh and Maha-
21

harashtra rashtra
Thoti Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra A PVTG in Andhra Pradesh and Tel-
angana
Kammara Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, TN, and Lak- Blacksmiths and carpenters
shadweep
Savara Andhra Pradesh and Telangana PVTG
Gadaba Andhra Pradesh and Telangana PVTG
Kattunayakan Andhra Pradesh, TN, Karnataka, and Kerala
Koraga Karnataka and Kerala PVTG
Adiyan Andhra Pradesh, TN, Karnataka, and Kerala
Others: Arandan (Kerala), Badagas (TN), Bagata (Andhra Pradesh and Odisha), Eranvallan (Kerala), Jatapus
(Andhra Pradesh), Kurumbas (Kerala and TN), Malai Arayan (Kerala and Tami Nadu), Manna Dhora (An-
dhra Pradesh), Nakkala (Andhra Pradesh), Rona (Andhra Pradesh), Sugali (Andhra Pradesh and Tel-
angana), Uralis (Kerala), Yerava/Ravula (Karnataka and Kerala), Yerukala/Erukala/Erukula (Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana), etc.

[UPSC 2013] Consider the following pairs

Tribe State
1. Limboo (Limbu) Sikkim
2. Karbi Himachal Pradesh
3. Dongaria Kondh Odisha
4. Bonda Tamil Nadu

Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Explanation

The pair ‘Limboo (Limbu) — Sikkim’ is correct

• Limboo (or Limbu) is a recognised Scheduled Tribe primarily residing in Sikkim, Darjeeling hills of
West Bengal, and parts of Bhutan and Nepal.

The pair ‘Karbi — Himachal Pradesh’ is incorrect

• Karbi is a major tribe predominantly found in Assam, with some populations also residing in Megha-
laya, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland.
22

The pair ‘Dongaria Kondh — Odisha’ is correct

 • Dongaria Kondh is a Scheduled Tribe indigenous to the Niyamgiri hills in Odisha.

The pair ‘Bonda — Tamil Nadu’ is incorrect

• Bonda is a Scheduled Tribe primarily found in the Malkangiri district of Odisha.

Answer: a) 1 and 3 only

[UPSC 2005] Which one of the following statements is not correct?
a) There is no definition of the Scheduled Tribe in the constitutions of India
b) North-East India accounts for a little over half of the country's tribal population.
c) The people known as Todas live in the Nilgiri area.
d) Lotha is a language spoken in Nagaland

Explanation

• The criteria for specifying a community as a Scheduled Tribe are not explicitly defined in the Con-
stitution.
• However, Article 342 considers historical factors such as backwardness, primitiveness, geographical
isolation, shyness, and social, educational, and economic backwardness as distinguishing traits.
• These criteria are rooted in the historical background of tribal communities and are based on defi-
nitions adopted in the 1931 Census.
• The states of Maharashtra and Odisha host the largest number of tribes in India.
• Approximately 82% of tribes reside in western and central states, with only 11% found in southern
states. Among the major tribes in India are the Gonds, Bhils, Santals, Oraons, and Minas.

Answer: b) North-East India accounts for a little over half of the country's tribal population

Tribes of the Island Region

Sentinelese
• Along with the Great Andamanese, the Jarawas, the Onge, the Shompen, and the Nicobarese, the
Sentinelese are one of the six native people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Sentinelese, a PVTG, inhabits North Sentinel Island of A&N Island. They are probably the world’s
only Paleolithic people surviving today without contact with any other group or community.
• Unlike the other tribes, the Sentinelese have consistently been hostile to outsiders and have killed
people who approached or landed on the island.
• In 1956, the Government of India declared North Sentinel Island a tribal reserve and prohibited travel
within 3 nautical miles (5.6 kilometres) of it.
• Recently, the Anthropological Survey of India warns the threat to Sentinelese from commercial activity.
23

Other Tribes of the Island Region

Tribe Name State Significance
Onges Little Andaman, A&N Islands PVTG; Negrito racial stock
Andamanese Strait Island, A&N Islands PVTG; Once nomadic, now adopted agriculture
Jarawas Andaman Islands, A&N Islands PVTG; Nomadic tribe
Shompens Great Nicobar Island, A&N Islands PVTG; Like Nicobarese, they are Mongoloid

[UPSC 2009] In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found?
a) Nilgiri Hills
b) Nicobar Islands
c) Spiti Valley
d) Lakshadweep Islands

Explanation

• The Shompen tribe are the indigenous inhabitants of the Great Nicobar Island.
• They are one of the most isolated tribal groups in India.
• They have historically maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, relying on hunting, gathering, and
some forms of agriculture for their sustenance.

Answer: b) Nicobar Islands

[UPSC 2004] In which one of the following Union Territories do people of the Onge tribe
live?
a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
b) Dadra and Nagar Haveli
c) Daman and Diu
d) Lakshadweep

Explanation

• The Onges, considered one of India's most primitive tribes, reside on Little Andaman Island.
• They are a hunting and gathering community. The A&N Administration has resettled them at Du-
gong Creek and South Bay on the same island.

Answer: a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands

[UPSC 1997] The tribal population in Andaman and Nicobar Islands belongs to the:
a) Australoid race
b) Caucasoid race
c) Mongoloid race
d) Negroid race
24
Explanation

• The Negrito group is characterised by dark skin colour (tending to look blue), round head, broad
nose, and frizzy hair.
• These features are found among the Kadar (Kerala), the Onge (Little Andaman), the Jarwa (Anda-
man Islands), etc.

Answer: d) Negroid Race

[UPSC 2000] Which one of the following pairs of primitive tribes and places of their inhab-
itation is NOT correctly matched?
a) Buksa : Pauri-Garhwa
b) Kol : Jabalpur
c) Munda : Chhota Nagpur
d) Korba : Kodagu

Explanation

• The pair ‘Buksa : Pauri-Garhwa’ is correct: The Buksa tribe is primarily found in the Pauri-Garhwal
region of Uttarakhand.
• The pair ‘Kol : Jabalpur’ is correct: The Kol tribe is predominantly found in the Jabalpur and sur-
rounding districts of Madhya Pradesh.
• The pair ‘Munda : Chhota Nagpur’ is correct: The Munda tribe is one of the largest indigenous
communities in India, primarily inhabiting the Chota Nagpur Plateau region, spanning parts of Jhar-
khand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal.
• The pair ‘Korba : Kodagu’ is incorrect: The Korba tribe are spread across the states of Chhattisgarh
and Jharkhand.

Answer: d) Korba : Kodagu

[UPSC 1998] Among the Indian States shown labelled 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the rough outline
map given, the correct sequence in descending order of per cent of scheduled tribe popu-
lation to their total population is :
25
 a) 1, 3, 2, 4
b) 3, 1, 2, 4
c) 3, 1, 4, 2
d) 1, 3, 4, 2

Explanation

• The states mentioned on the map are: 1. Arunachal Pradesh, 2. Manipur, 3. Mizoram, and 4. Odisha.
• According to the Census 2011, the population of tribes in these states are:
State Total Population (in lakhs) ST Population (in lakhs) % of STs / State’s Population
Arunachal Pradesh 13.84 9.52 68.8%
Manipur 28.56 11.67 40.9%
Mizoram 10.97 10.36 94.4%
Odisha 419.74 95.91 22.8%

Answer: a) 1, 3, 2, 4

------------ End of Chapter ------------

26
 2. Population

Basics

Population growth

• Population growth or population change refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a ter-
ritory during a specific period of time. This change may be positive or negative.

Natural Increase of Population

• Natural Increase = Births – Deaths

Actual Growth of Population

• Births – Deaths + Net Migration (In Migration – Out Migration)

Positive Growth of Population

• This happens when the birth rate is more than the death rate between two points in time or when people
from other countries migrate permanently to a region.

Negative Growth of Population

• If the population decreases between two points in time, it is known as negative population growth. It
occurs when the birth rate falls below the death rate or people migrate to other countries.

Density of population

• It is the ratio between the number of people to the size of the land. It is usually measured in persons
per sq. km.

Population Distribution

• It is the spatial pattern or arrangement of population across a given area (e.g., urban, rural, clustered,
dispersed).
• Broadly, 90 percent of the world's population lives in about 10 percent of its land area.
• The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 percent of the world’s population. Of
these 10 countries, 6 are located in Asia.
• More than half of the projected increase in global population up to 2050 will be concentrated in just
eight countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the
Philippines, and the United Republic of Tanzania.

Population Composition

• The characteristics of a population, such as age structure, gender ratio, and ethnic or religious compo-
27

sition.
Population Policies

• Governmental policies aimed at influencing population growth, distribution, or composition (e.g., family
planning programs, migration policies).

Demography

• Demography is the scientific study of human populations, focusing on their size, structure, distribu-
tion, and the processes that influence these characteristics.
• It encompasses various aspects, including fertility, mortality, migration, age, gender, and other de-
mographic characteristics.

Components of Population Change

• There are three components of population change – births, deaths, and migration.
• The crude birth rate (CBR) is expressed as the number of live births in a year per thousand of the
population.
• Crude Death Rate (CDR) is expressed in terms of number of deaths in a particular year per thousand
of population in a particular region.

Factors influencing the distribution of population

Geographical Factors
Availability of water
• People prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily available.
• It is because of this that river valleys are among the most densely populated areas of the world.

Landforms
• People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such areas are favourable for the
production of crops and the building of roads and industries.
• The mountainous and hilly areas hinder the development of transport networks and, hence, initially do
not favour agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas tend to be less populated.
• The Ganga plains are among the most densely populated areas of the world, while the mountain zones
in the Himalayas are scarcely populated.

Climate
• Extreme climates such as very hot or cold deserts are uncomfortable for human habitation.
• Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation, attract more people.
• Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low populations.
• Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods in history due to their pleasant climate.
28

Soils
• Areas with fertile loamy soils have more people living on them, as these can support intensive agricul-
ture. For example, the Ganga Plains and Coastal Delta areas in India.

Economic Factors
Minerals
• Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate employment. So,
skilled and semi-skilled workers move to these areas, which makes them densely populated. Katanga
Zambia copper belt in Africa is one such good example.

Urbanisation
• Good civic amenities and better employment opportunities draw people to the cities. It leads to
rural-to-urban migration, and cities grow in size.

Industrialisation
• Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people. The Kobe-Osaka region
of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of several industries.

Social and Cultural Factors

• Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance. In the same way,
people tend to move away from places where there is social and political unrest.

Trends In Population Growth

• The world population exploded in the eighteenth century after the Industrial Revolution.
• The world population reached 8 billion on November 15, 2022.

29
 Period Population Time in which Population Doubles
10,000 B.C. 5 million
1650 A.D. 500 million 1,500 years
1804 A.D. 1,000 million 154 years
1927 A.D. 2,000 million 123 years
1974 A.D. 4,000 million 47 years
2025 A.D. 8,000 million projected figure 51 years

Present State of World Population

Region Population (2022) Area (Km2) Density (P/Km2) World Share
(in million)
Asia 4,017 31,033,131 146 59%
Africa 1,152 29,648,481 43 17.2%

Europe 748 22,134,900 34 9.7%

Latin America 658 20,139,378 32 8.5%

Northern America 368 18,651,660 20 4.8%
Oceania 45 8,486,460 5 0.6%
• In 2022, the two most populous regions were both in Asia: Eastern and South-Eastern Asia with 2.3
billion people (29 percent of the global population) and Central and Southern Asia with 2.1 billion (26
percent). China and India, with more than 1.4 billion each, accounted for most of the population in
these two regions.

Top 20 Most Populous Countries in The World

• The decadal population growth rate (2001-2011) in India is 1.64 percent as per the 2011 census.
# Country Population (2023) Density (P/Km²) World Share
1 India 1,428,627,663 481 17.76 %
2 China 1,425,671,352 152 17.72 %
3 United States 339,996,563 37 4.23 %
4 Indonesia 277,534,122 153 3.45 %
5 Pakistan 240,485,658 312 2.99 %
6 Nigeria 223,804,632 246 2.78 %
7 Brazil 216,422,446 26 2.69 %
8 Bangladesh 172,954,319 1,329 2.15 %
9 Russia 144,444,359 9 1.80 %
30

10 Mexico 128,455,567 66 1.60 %

 11 Ethiopia 126,527,060 127 1.57 %
12 Japan 123,294,513 338 1.53 %
13 Philippines 117,337,368 394 1.46 %
14 Egypt 112,716,598 113 1.40 %
15 DR Congo 102,262,808 45 1.27 %
16 Vietnam 98,858,950 319 1.23 %
17 Iran 89,172,767 55 1.11 %
18 Turkey 85,816,199 112 1.07 %
19 Germany 83,294,633 239 1.04 %
20 Thailand 71,801,279 141 0.89 %

Demographic Transition

• Demographic transition theory can be used to predict the future population of any area. The theory tells
us that the population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and
31

low deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate so-
ciety. These changes occur in stages, which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.
 1. The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to compen-
sate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. Population growth is slow, and most
people are engaged in agriculture.
2. Fertility remains high at the beginning of the second stage, but it declines with time. Improvements
in sanitation and health conditions lead to a decline in mortality. Because of this gap, the net
addition to the population is high.
3. In the last stage, both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is either stable
or grows slowly.

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following specific stages of demographic transition associated
with economic development:
1. Low birthrate with low death rate.
2. High birthrate with high death rate.
3. High birthrate with low death rate.

Select the correct order of the above stages using the codes given below:

a) 1, 2, 3
b) 2, 1, 3
c) 2, 3, 1
d) 3, 2, 1

Explanation

• Demographic Transition  1) High Birthrate with High Death Rate (Pre-industrial societies)  2)
High Birthrate with Low Death Rate (Developing countries)  3) Low Birthrate with Low Death Rate
(Developed countries).

Answer: c) 2, 3, 1

Trends in Population Growth 2022

Region Population Reasons
Growth Rate
Sub-Saharan High growth Factors such as high fertility rates, declining mortality rates, and
Africa rate a relatively young population contribute to the high population
growth in this region.
Northern Af- Moderate This region experiences moderate population growth due to a com-
rica and West- growth rate bination of factors, including declining fertility rates and improving
ern Asia healthcare, leading to lower mortality rates.
32
Central and Moderate Similar to Northern Africa and Western Asia, Central and Southern
Southern Asia growth rate Asia also experiences moderate population growth driven by
changes in fertility and mortality rates.
Eastern and Low growth rate This region has a lower population growth rate compared to other
South-Eastern regions due to factors such as declining fertility rates, urbanisa-
Asia tion, and an aging population.
Latin America Low to Moder- The population growth in this region varies but generally falls
and the Carib- ate growth rate within the low to moderate range due to improvements in
bean healthcare, education, and family planning.
Europe and Low to Nega- This region experiences low to negative population growth rates
Northern tive growth due to factors such as low fertility rates, an aging population,
America rate and in some cases, outmigration.

[UPSC 2008] Which two countries follow China and India in the decreasing order of their
population?
a) Brazil and USA
b) USA and Indonesia
c) Canada and Malaysia
d) Russia and Nigeria

Explanation

• The top ten most populous countries in the world are India, China, USA, Indonesia, Pakistan, Nige-
ria, Brazil, Bangladesh, Russia and Mexico.

Answer: b) USA and Indonesia

[UPSC 2003] Which among the following countries has the largest population?
a) Indonesia
b) Japan
c) Pakistan
d) Sudan

Answer: a) Indonesia
[UPSC 2002] Consider the following countries:
1. Brazil
2. Indonesia
3. Japan
33

4. Russia
 What is the descending order of the size of the following countries population-wise?

a) 1, 2, 4, 3
b) 2, 3, 1, 4
c) 2, 1, 4, 3
d) 1, 2, 3, 4

Answer: c) 2, 1, 4, 3

Population Composition

Sex composition
• The ratio between the number of women and men in the population is called the Sex Ratio. The sex
ratio is important information about the status of women in a country.
• In regions where gender discrimination is rampant, the sex ratio is bound to be unfavourable to
women. Such areas are those where the practice of female foeticide, female infanticide, and domestic
violence against women are prevalent.
• On average, the world population reflects a sex ratio of 102 males per 100 females.
• The highest sex ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia, where there are 85 males per 100
females. In contrast, in Qatar, there are 311 males per 100 females.
• The sex ratio is favourable for females in 139 countries and unfavourable for them in the remain-
ing 72 countries listed by the United Nations.
• The world pattern of sex ratio does not exhibit variations in the developed regions of the world.
• In general, Asia has a low sex ratio. China, India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan have a
lower sex ratio.
• In the greater part of Europe (including Russia) the males are in the minority. A deficit of males in
the populations of many European countries is attributed to the better status of women and an ex-
cessively male-dominated out-migration to different parts of the world in the past.

[UPSC 1997] According to the latest census figures sex ratio in India is:
a) declining
b) stable
c) increasing
d) fluctuating

Answer: c) increasing

Age Structure
34
• Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups. This is an important indicator
of population composition since a large size of population in the age group of 15-59 indicates a large
working population.
• A greater proportion of the population over 60 represents an aging population that requires more
expenditure on healthcare facilities. Similarly, a high proportion of young people would mean that the
region has a high birth rate and a youthful population.

Age-Sex Pyramid
• The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and males in different age
groups. A population pyramid is used to show the age-sex structure of the population.
• The shape of the population pyramid reflects the characteristics of the population. The left side shows
the percentage of males, while the right side shows the percentage of women in each age group.

35
Expanding Populations
• The age-sex pyramid of Nigeria, Bangladesh, Mexico, etc. are triangular pyramids with a wide base,
typical of less developed countries. These have larger populations in lower age groups due to high
birth rates.

Constant Population
• Australia’s age-sex pyramid is bell-shaped and tapered towards the top.
• This shows birth and death rates are almost equal, leading to a near-constant population.

36
Declining Populations
• Japan’s pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth and death rates.
• The population growth in developed countries is usually zero or negative.

Aging Population
• Population aging is the process by which the share of the older population becomes proportionally
larger. This is a new phenomenon of the twentieth century.
• In most of the developed countries of the world, the population in higher age groups has increased
due to increased life expectancy. With a reduction in birth rates, the proportion of children in the pop-
ulation has declined.
• The share of the global population aged 65 years or above is projected to rise from 10 percent in 2022
to 16 percent in 2050.
• According to the Census 2011, 8.6% of India's population, or approximately 104 million people, were
aged 60 years or above.
• The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) predicts that by 2050, over 20% of India's population will
be over 60 years old.
37
 [UPSC 2008] What is the approximate percentage of persons above 65 years of age in
India’s current population?
a) 14-15%
b) 11-12%
c) 8-9%
d) 5-6%

Answer: c) 8-9%

Rural-Urban composition
• The rural and urban differences in sex ratio in Canada and West European countries like Finland are just
the opposite of those in African and Asian countries like Zimbabwe and Nepal, respectively.
• In Western countries, males outnumber females in rural areas, and females outnumber the males
in urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistan, and India, the case has been reversed.
• The excess of females in urban areas of the U.S.A., Canada, and Europe is the result of the influx of
females from rural areas who want to take advantage of the vast job opportunities. Farming in these
developed countries is also highly mechanised and remains largely a male occupation.
• By contrast, the sex ratio in Asian urban areas remains male-dominated due to the predominance of
male migration. Also, in countries like India, female participation in farming activity in rural areas
is fairly high.
• Shortage of housing, high cost of living, paucity of job opportunities, and lack of security in cities
discourage women from migrating from rural to urban areas.

[UPSC 2008] Amongst the following States, which one has the highest percentage of rural
population to its total population (on the basis of the Census, 2001)?
a) Himachal Pradesh
38

b) Bihar
 c) Orissa
d) Uttar Pradesh

Explanation

• According to the 2001 census, the percentage of rural population to total population is
 Himachal Pradesh – 90.2%
 Bihar – 89.5%
 Odisha – 85%
 Uttar Pradesh – 79.2%

Answer: a) Himachal Pradesh

Occupational Structure
• The proportion of the working population (age group – 15 to 59) engaged in various sectors is a good
indicator of the economic development levels of a nation.
• Only a developed economy with industries and infrastructure can accommodate more workers in the
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors.
• If the economy is still in the primitive stages, the proportion of people engaged in primary activities,
which involve the extraction of natural resources, would be high.

Demographic Dividend

• Demographic dividend refers to the economic growth potential that can arise from shifts in a popula-
tion's age structure, with a larger share of working-age individuals compared to dependent popula-
tions (children and the elderly).
• The shift in a country's population age structure typically involves:
 Decline in fertility rates: Fewer children are born, leading to a smaller dependent population (chil-
dren under 15).
 Increase in working-age population: As fertility rates decline, the proportion of people in the
working age range (15-64) increases relative to dependents.

India's Demographic Dividend

• India has a unique 'demographic dividend' — Over 62% of the population is in the working-age
group (15-59 years), and more than 54% are below 25 years of age.
• According to NITI Aayog, India's demographic dividend will last for the next three decades (until 2055),
providing a significant opportunity for economic growth. This period is emphasised as the 'Window of
Opportunity'.
39
• The Economic Survey 2018-19 highlighted that India's demographic dividend can be fully realised by
ensuring better health and education for the young population, promoting skill development, and
creating adequate employment opportunities.
• The report also cautioned that failing to leverage this demographic dividend could lead to a 'demo-
graphic nightmare' with rising unemployment and socio-economic challenges.

Other Countries Experiencing Demographic Dividend

• As of 2021, several countries are experiencing a demographic dividend, with over 65% of their popu-
lation in the working-age group (15-64 years):
 United Arab Emirates (85.7%)
 Qatar (85.6%)
 Kuwait (73.4%)
 Bahrain (71.1%)
 Saudi Arabia (69.8%)
 Oman (68.7%)

------------ End of Chapter ------------

40
 3. Census and Demographic Components

India Census 2011 Data

• Population Census is held every 10 years in India. The first population Census was conducted in 1872,
but the first complete Census was conducted only in 1881.

India: State-wise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2011

State/UT India/State/UT Total Population % Share Density Decadal (2001-11)
growth rate
India 1210193422 100 382 17.64
01 Jammu and Kashmir 12,548,926 1.04 124 23.71
02 Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 0.57 123 12.81
03 Punjab 27,704,236 2.29 550 13.73
04 Chandigarh # 1,054,686 0.09 9,252 17.10
05 Uttarakhand 10,116,752 0.84 189 19.17
06 Haryana 25,353,081 2.09 573 19.90
07 NCT of Delhi # 16,753,235 1.38 11,297 20.96
08 Rajasthan 68,621,012 5.67 201 21.44
09 Uttar Pradesh 199,581,477 16.49 828 20.09
10 Bihar 103,804,637 8.58 1,102 25.07
11 Sikkim 607,688 0.05 86 12.36
12 Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 0.11 17 25.92
13 Nagaland 1,980,602 0.16 119 -0.47
14 Manipur 2,721,756 0.22 122 18.65
15 Mizoram 1,091,014 0.09 52 22.78
16 Tripura 3,671,032 0.30 350 14.75
17 Meghalaya 2,964,007 0.24 132 27.82
18 Assam 31,169,272 2.58 397 16.93
19 West Bengal 91,347,736 7.55 1,029 13.93
20 Jharkhand 32,966,238 2.72 414 22.34
21 Orissa 41,947,358 3.47 269 13.97
22 Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 2.11 189 22.59
23 Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 6.00 236 20.30
41

24 Gujarat 60,383,628 4.99 308 19.17

 25 Daman and Diu # 242,911 0.02 2,169 53.54
26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 342,853 0.03 698 55.50
#
27 Maharashtra 112,372,972 9.29 365 15.99
28 Andhra Pradesh 84,665,533 7.00 308 11.10
29 Karnataka 61,130,704 5.05 319 15.67
30 Goa 1,457,723 0.12 394 8.17
31 Lakshadweep # 64,429 0.01 2,013 6.23
32 Kerala 33,387,677 2.76 859 4.86
33 Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 5.96 555 15.60
34 Puducherry # 1,244,464 0.10 2598 27.72
35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands # 379,944 0.03 46 6.68
Most Populous Least Populous
State Population % State Population %
1. Uttar Pradesh 19,95,81,477 16.49 1. Lakshadweep 64429 0.01
2. Maharashtra 11,23,72,972 9.29 2. Daman and Diu 242911 0.02
3. Bihar 10,38,04,637 8.58 3. Dadra Nagar Haveli 342853 0.03
4. West Bengal 9,13,47,736 7.55 4. Sikkim 607688 0.05
5. Andhra Pradesh 8,46,65,533 7 5. Chandigarh 1054686 0.09
Highest Population Density Lowest Population Density
State Density State Density
NCT of Delhi 11297 Arunachal Pradesh 17
Chandigarh 9252 Andaman and Nicobar Is. 46
Puducherry 2598 Mizoram 52
Daman and Diu 2169 Sikkim 86
Lakshadweep 2013 Nagaland 119
Bihar 1102 Manipur 122
West Bengal 1029 Himachal Pradesh 123
Kerala 859 Jammu and Kashmir 124
Uttar Pradesh 828 Meghalaya 132
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 698 Uttarakhand 189

Density of Population
• There has been a steady increase of more than 200 persons per sq. km over the last 50 years as the
42

density of the population increased from 117 persons/ sq. km in 1951 to 382 persons/sq. km in 2011.
• Spatial variation of population densities in the country ranges from as low as 17 persons per sq. km in
Arunachal Pradesh to 11,297 persons in the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
• Among the northern Indian States, Bihar (1102), West Bengal (1029), and Uttar Pradesh (828) have
higher densities.
• Kerala (859) and Tamil Nadu (555) have higher densities among the peninsular Indian states.
• States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, and Odisha have moderate densities.
• The hill states of the Himalayan region and the North-eastern states of India (excluding Assam) have
relatively low population densities, while the UTs (excluding Andaman and Nicobar Islands) have very
high population densities.
 Physiological density = total population / net cultivated area
 Agricultural density = total agricultural population / net cultivable area

[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more
than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population
of India has doubled.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: a) 1 only
[UPSC 2008] Among the following, which one has the minimum population on the basis
of data of Census of India, 2001?
a) Chandigarh
b) Mizoram
c) Pondicherry
d) Sikkim

Answer: d) Sikkim
[UPSC 2008] Which of the following are among the million-plus cities in India on the basis
of data of the Census, 2001?
1. Ludhiana
2. Kochi
43

3. Surat
 4. Nagpur

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2, 3 and 4 only
c) 1 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

44
45
[UPSC 2009] Which one among the following South Asian countries has the highest pop-
ulation density?
a) India
b) Nepal
c) Pakistan
d) Sri Lanka

Explanation

• India: 464 people per sq. km (2022 estimate, World Bank)

• Pakistan: 287 people per sq. km (2022 estimate, Pakistan Bureau of Statistics)
• Nepal: 203 people per sq. km (2021 estimate, Central Bureau of Statistics Nepal)
• Sri Lanka: 347 people per sq. km (2021 estimate, Department of Census and Statistics Sri Lanka)

Answer: a) India
[UPSC 2007] Which one among the following States of India has the lowest density of
population?
a) Himachal Pradesh
b) Meghalaya
c) Arunachal Pradesh
d) Sikkim

Answer: c) Arunachal Pradesh

[UPSC 2003] Which amongst the following States has the highest population density as
per Census-2001?
a) Kerala
b) Madhya Pradesh
c) Uttar Pradesh
d) West Bengal

Answer: d) West Bengal

[UPSC 1996] As per the 1991 Census, which one of the following states has a lower popu-
lation density than the other three?
a) Sikkim
b) Nagaland
c) Meghalaya
d) Manipur
46

Answer: a) Sikkim
Growth of Population
• The annual growth rate of India’s population is 1.64 per cent (2011).

Population Doubling Time

• Population doubling time is the time it takes for a population to double itself at its current annual
growth rate.
• The population growth rate in India over the last century has been caused by the annual birth rate, death
rate, and migration rate, and thereby shows different trends. There are four distinct phases of growth
47

identified within this period.

Phase I
• The period from 1901 to 1921 is referred to as a stagnant or stationary phase since during this period,
the population growth rate was very low, even negative, during 1911 to 1921. Both the birth rate and
death rate were high, keeping the rate of increase low.
• Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large, and inefficient distribution system of food
and other basic necessities were largely responsible for high birth and death rates in this period.

Phase II
• The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. An overall improve-
ment in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate. At the same
time, better transport and communication systems improve distribution systems.
• The crude birth rate remained high in this period, leading to a higher growth rate than in the previous
phase. This is impressive considering the Great Economic Depression, the 1920s, and World War II.

Phase III
• The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India, which was
caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of the population in the country. The
average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent.
• Developmental activities led to the improvement of living conditions of people at large. Consequently,
there was a high natural increase and higher growth rate. Besides, increased international migration,
bringing in people from Tibet, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, contributed to the high growth rate.

Phase IV
• Post 1981, the growth rate, though it remained high, has started slowing down gradually. A down-
ward trend in the crude birth rate is held responsible for such population growth. This was, in turn,
affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage and improved quality of life, particularly the edu-
cation of females in the country.

[UPSC 2002] India's population growth during the 20th century can be classified into four
distinct phases. Match List-I (Period) with List-II (Phase) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists
List-I (Period) List-II (Phase)
A. 1901-1921 1. Steady growth
B. 1921 -1951 2. Rapid high growth
C. 1951-1981 3. Stagnant growth
D. 1981 -2001 4. High growth with definite signs of slowdown
48

Codes:
 a) A-3; B-1; C-4; D-2
b) A-1; B-3; C-2; D-4
c) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4
d) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2

Answer: c) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4

Regional Variation in Population Growth

• States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry, and Goa show a low
rate of growth, not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade. Kerala registered the lowest growth rate
(9.4) in the country.
• Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim,
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand have relatively high growth rates (20-25 per
cent).
• The percentage decadal growth rates of the six most populous States, namely Uttar Pradesh, Maha-
rashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, fell between 2001 and 2011.
• Tamil Nadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry (7.1 percentage points) have registered some
increase during 2001-2011 over the previous decade.
• An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents. At present, the
share of adolescents, i.e., those between the ages of 10 and 19, is about 20.9 per cent (2011), of which
male adolescents constitute 52.7 per cent and female adolescents constitute 47.3 per cent.
• The National Youth Policy (NYP–2014) launched in February 2014 proposes a holistic ‘vision’ “To em-
power the youth of the country to achieve their full potential, and through them enable India to find its
rightful place in the community of nations”. The NYP–2014 has defined ‘youth’ as persons in the age
group of 15-29 years.
• The Government of India also formulated the National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepre-
neurship in 2015 to provide an umbrella framework for all skilling activities being carried out within the
country.

India: Decadal Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 -2011
Decades Crude Birth Rate Crude Death Rate Per Rate of Natural Increase (Per
Per 1000 1000 1000)
1901 - 1911 49.2 42.6 6.6
1911 - 1921 48.1 47.2 0.9
1921 - 1931 46.4 36.2 10.2
1931 - 1941 45.9 37.2 8.7
49

1941 - 1951 39.9 27.4 12.5

1951 - 1961 41.7 22.8 18.9
1961 - 1971 41.1 19.0 22.1
1971 - 1981 37.2 15 22.2
1981 - 1991 29.5 9.8 19.7
1991-2001 25.4 8.4 17.0
2001 - 2011 21.8 7.1 14.7

India: Rural and Urban Population 2011

State/Union Territory Rural Urban % of Urban Population
India 833087662 377,105,760 31.16
01 Jammu and Kashmir 9,134,820 3,414,106 27.21
02 Himachal Pradesh 6,167,805 688,704 10.04
03 Punjab 17,316,800 10,387,436 37.49
04 Chandigarh 29,004 1,025,682 97,25
05 Uttarakhand 7,025,583 3,091,169 30.55
06 Haryana 16,531,493 8,821,588 34,79
07 NCT of Delhi 419,319 16,333,916 97.50
08 Rajasthan 51,540,236 17,080,776 24.89
09 Uttar Pradesh 155,111,022 44,470,455 22.28
10 Bihar 92,075,028 11,729,609 11.30
11 Sikkim 455,962 151,726 24.97
12 Arunachal Pradesh 1,069,165 313,446 22,67
13 Nagaland 1,406,861 573,741 28.97
14 Manipur 1,899,624 822,132 30.21
15 Mizoram 529,037 561,977 51.51
16 Tripura 2,710,051 960,981 26.18
17 Meghalaya 2,368,971 595,036 20.08
18 Assam 26,780,516 4,388,756 14.08
19 West Bengal 62,213,676 29,134,060 31.89
20 Jharkhand 25,036,946 7,929,292 24.05
21 Orissa 34,951,234 6,996,124 16.68
22 Chhattisgarh 19,603,658 5,936,538 23.24
23 Madhya Pradesh 52,537,899 20,059,666 27.63
24 Gujarat 34,670,817 25,712,811 42.58
50

25 Daman and Diu 60,331 182,580 75.16

 26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 183,024 159,829 46.62
27 Maharashtra 61,545,441 50,827,531 45.23
28 Andhra Pradesh 56,311,788 28,353,745 33.49
29 Karnataka 37,552,529 23,578,175 38.57
30 Goa 551,414 906,309 62,17
31 Lakshadweep 14,121 50,308 78.08
32 Kerala 17,455,506 15,932,171 47.72
33 Tamil Nadu 37,189,229 34,949,729 48.45
34 Puducherry 394,341 850,123 68.31
35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 244,411 135,533 35,67

Rural-Urban Composition
• In India, 68.8 per cent of the total population lives in 640,867 villages (2011). States like Bihar and
Sikkim have a very high percentage of rural population.
• Only slightly over half of the total population of the states of Goa and Maharashtra lives in villages.
• The Union Territories, on the other hand, have a smaller proportion of the rural population, except
Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).
• The size of villages also varies considerably. It is less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-eastern
India, Western Rajasthan, and Rann of Kuchchh, and as high as 17 thousand persons in the states of
Kerala and parts of Maharashtra.
• The urban population's growth rate has accelerated due to enhanced economic development and im-
proved health and hygienic conditions.
• The degree of urbanisation has remained low in the agriculturally stagnant parts of the middle and lower
Ganga Plains, Telangana, non-irrigated Western Rajasthan, remote hilly tribal areas of the northeast,
along the flood-prone areas of Peninsular India and the eastern part of Madhya Pradesh.

India: % of Population of Religious Groups

State/UT Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others NA
Jammu and Kashmir 28.44 68.31 0.28 1.87 0.90 0.02 0.01 0.16
Himachal Pradesh 95.17 2.18 0.18 1.16 1.15 0.03 0.01 0.12
Punjab 38.49 1.93 1.26 57.69 0.12 1.16 0.04 0.32
Chandigarh 80.78 4.87 0.83 13.11 0.11 0.19 0.02 0.10
Uttarakhand 82.97 13.95 0.37 2.34 0.15 0.09 0.01 0.12
Haryana 87.46 7.03 0.20 4.91 0.03 0.21 0.01 0.17
Delhi 81.68 12.86 0.87 3.40 0.11 0.99 0.01 0.08
51

Rajasthan 88.49 9.07 0.14 1.27 0.02 0.91 0.01 0.10

Uttar Pradesh 79.73 19.26 0.18 0.32 0.10 0.11 0.01 0.29
Bihar 82.69 16.87 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.24
Sikkim 57.76 1.62 9.91 0.31 27.39 0.05 2.67 0.30
Arunachal Pradesh 29.04 1.95 30.26 0.24 11.77 0.06 26.20 0.48
Nagaland 8.75 2.47 87.93 0.10 0.34 0.13 0.16 0.12
Manipur 41.39 8.40 41.29 0.05 0.25 0.06 8.19 0.38
Mizoram 2,75 1.35 87.16 0.03 8.51 0.03 0.07 0.09
Tripura 83.40 8.60 4.32 0.03 3.41 0.02 0.04 0.14
Meghalaya 11.53 4.40 74.59 0.10 0.33 0.02 8.71 0.32
Assam 61.47 34.22 3.74 0.07 0.18 0.08 0.09 0.16
West Bengal 70.54 27.01 0.72 0.07 0.31 0.07 1.03 0.25
Jharkhand 67.83 14.53 4.30 0.22 0.03 0.05 12.84 0.21
Orissa 93.63 2,17 2.77 0.05 0.03 0.02 1.14 0.18
Chhattisgarh 93.25 2.02 1.92 0.27 0.28 0.24 1.94 0.09
Madhya Pradesh 90.89 6.57 0.29 0.21 0.30 0.78 0.83 0.13
Gujarat 88.57 9.67 0.52 0.10 0.05 0.96 0.03 0.10
Daman and Diu 90.50 7.92 1.16 0.07 0.09 0.21 0.03 0.10
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 93.93 3.76 1.49 0.06 0.18 0.35 0.09 0.14
Maharashtra 79.83 11.54 0.96 0.20 5.81 1.25 0.16 0.25
Andhra Pradesh 88.46 9.56 1.34 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.48
Karnataka 84.00 12.92 1.87 0.05 0.16 0.72 0.2 0.27
Goa 66.08 8.33 25.10 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.02 0.21
Lakshadweep 2.77 96.58 0.49 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.10
Kerala 54.73 26.56 18.38 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.26
Tamil Nadu 87.58 5.86 6.12 0.02 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.26
Puducherry 87.30 6.05 6.29 0.02 0.04 0.11 0.01 0.17
Andaman and Nicobar 69.45 8.52 21.28 0.34 0.09 0.01 0.15 0.18
Is.

Religious Communities of India, 2011

Religious Group Population (in million) % of Total
Hindus 966.3 79.8
Muslims 172.2 14.2
Christians 27.8 2.3
52

Sikhs 20.8 1.7

 Buddhists 8.4 0.7
Jains 4.5 0.4
Other Religions and Persuasions (ORP) 7.9 0.7
Religion Not Stated 2.9 0.2

Population Composition
Linguistic Composition
• In the context of modern India, there are about 22 scheduled languages and a number of non-sched-
uled languages. Among the scheduled languages, Hindi speakers have the highest percentage. The
smallest language groups are Sanskrit, Bodo, and Manipuri speakers (2011).

Linguistic Classification

• The speakers of major Indian languages belong to four language families, which have their sub-families
and branches or groups.

Religious Composition
• Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70-90 per cent and above) except
the districts of states along the Indo-Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu and Kashmir, Hill
53

States of North-East and in scattered areas of the Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.
• Muslims, the largest religious minority, are concentrated in Jammu and Kashmir, certain districts of
West Bengal and Kerala, many districts of Uttar Pradesh, in and around Delhi, and in Lakshadweep. They
form a majority in Kashmir Valley and Lakshadweep.
• The Christian population is distributed mostly in rural areas of the country. The main concentration is
observed along the Western coast around Goa, Kerala, and also in the hill states of Meghalaya, Mi-
zoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area, and Hills of Manipur.
• Sikhs are concentrated in relatively small areas, particularly in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
• Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religious groups in India have their concentration only in selected areas
of the country.
• Jains have a major concentration in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, while the
Buddhists are concentrated mostly in Maharashtra.
• The other areas of the Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Tripura, and Lahul
and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.
• The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs. These
groups are concentrated in small pockets scattered throughout the country.

Composition of Working Population

• The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups, namely; main
workers, marginal workers, and non-workers.
• Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183 days (or six months) in a year.
• Marginal Worker is a person who works for less than 183 days (or six months) in a year.
• It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8 percent
(2011) leaving a vast majority of about 60 percent as non-workers.
• The states with larger percentages of workers are Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pra-
desh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya.
• Among the UTs, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation rates.
• It is understood that, in the context of a country like India, the work participation rate tends to be
higher in the areas of lower levels of economic development since the number of manual workers
is needed to perform subsistence or near subsistence economic activities.
• The occupational composition of India’s population shows a large proportion of primary sector workers
compared to secondary and tertiary sectors.

Sectoral Composition of Workforce in India, 2011

Categories Persons % to total Workers Male Female

Primary 26,30,22,473 54.6 16,54,47,075 9,75,75,398
Secondary 1,83,36,307 3.8 97,75,635 85,60,672
54

Tertiary 20,03,84,531 41.6 15,66,43,220 4,37,41,311

Occupational Categories

• The 2011 Census has divided the working population of India into four major categories:
1. Cultivators
2. Agricultural Labourers
3. Household Industrial Workers
4. Other Workers.

• It is important to note that the proportion of workers in the agricultural sector in India has shown a
decline over the last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, the participation rate
in the secondary and tertiary sectors has registered an increase.
• The spatial variation of work participation rate in different sectors in the country is very wide. For in-
stance, the states like Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators.
• Conversely, states like Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and
Madhya Pradesh have a higher proportion of agricultural labourers.
• Highly urbanised areas like Delhi, Chandigarh, and Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers
engaged in other services. This indicates not only the availability of limited farming land but also large-
scale urbanisation and industrialisation, requiring more workers in non-farm sectors.

National Family Health Survey (NFHS)

• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) conducts the National Family Health Survey (NFHS)
approximately every three years.
• The survey provides high-quality, reliable, and comparable data on population dynamics and health
indicators. It also gathers data on emerging issues in health and family welfare.
• NFHS's primary aim is to assist policymakers and program-implementing agencies in setting bench-
marks for health and family welfare initiatives. It offers evidence of the effectiveness of ongoing govern-
ment programs related to health and family welfare.
55

Indicator NFHS-5 (2019-21) NFHS-4 (2015-16)

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 2.0 2.2

Women age 15-19 years who were already mothers or pregnant (%) 6.8 7.9

Current Use of Family Planning Methods-Any method (%) 66.7 53.5

Current Use of Family Planning Methods-Any modern method (%) 56.4 47.8

Total unmet need for Family Planning (%) 9.4 12.9

Mothers who had an antenatal check-up in the first trimester (%) 70.0 58.6

Mothers who had at least 4 antenatal care visits (%) 58.5 51.2

Mothers who received postnatal care within 2 days of delivery (%) 78.0 62.4

Institutional births (%) 88.6 78.9

Children aged 12-23 months fully vaccinated (%) 76.6 62.0

Children under age 6 months exclusively breastfed (%) 63.7 54.9

Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR) 24.9 29.5

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 35.2 40.7

Under-five Mortality Rate (U5MR) 41.9 49.7

India’s Situation In Various Demographic Components

Component Details
Total Fertility • Average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive
Rate (TFR) years.
• Below 2.1 indicates population decline potential. Above 2.1 suggests growth po-
tential.
• According to NFHS-5, the TFR has declined to 2.0 children per woman in India (2.2
in NFHS-4)
Infant Mortal- • Number of infant deaths under one year per 1,000 live births in a year.
ity Rate (IMR) • Lower IMR indicates better maternal and child health.
• According to NFHS-5 data, the IMR is 35.2 (40.7 in NFHS-4).
Under-five • Number of deaths of children under five per 1,000 live births in a year. Lower U5MR
Mortality Rate signifies improved child health outcomes.
(U5MR) • Reductions in U5MR are often associated with improvements in sanitation, nutrition,
vaccination programs, and overall healthcare infrastructure.
• According to NFHS-5 data, the U5MR is 41.9 (49.7 in NFHS-4).
Sex Ratio • The proportion of males to females in a population is usually expressed as males per
100 females.
• According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5 the sex ratio is 1020 fe-
56

males per 1,000 males (943 females per 1000 males as per 2011 census), which
 is the highest sex ratio since the first NFHS survey in 1992. The sex ratio in rural
India is 1,037, while in urban India, it is 985.
Child Sex Ra- • The proportion of girls to boys in the 0-6 age group is expressed as girls per 1,000
tio (CSR) boys.
• According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5 the CSR is 920 females
per 1,000 males (914 females per 1000 males as per 2011 census).
Life Expec- • Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is expected to live if current
tancy mortality rates continue. It measures overall health and well-being in a population.
• Various factors, including access to healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and lifestyle
choices influence life expectancy.
• According to the 2011-2016 Sample Registration System (SRS) data, the average
life expectancy at birth in India was 68.3 years.
Literacy • Percentage of the population over 15 years of age who can read and write.
• In India, the literacy rate is 74.04%, according to the 2011 Census.
Child Stunting • Low height-for-age in children, indicating chronic malnutrition. Stunted children
are more likely to have cognitive impairments and reduced physical capacity.
• According to NFHS-5, the Percentage of children under the age of five who are
stunted is 35.5%.
Child Wasting • Low weight-for-height in children, indicating acute malnutrition.
• These children are at increased risk of mortality and infections.
• According to NFHS-5, the Percentage of children under the age of five who are
wasted is 17%.
Child Under- • Low weight-for-age in children, indicating susceptibility to illness.
weight • According to NFHS-5, the Percentage of children under the age of five who are
underweight is 32.8%.
• Underweight children may experience developmental delays.
Child Stunting > Child Underweight > Child Wasting

[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

1. Infant mortality rate takes into account the death of infants within a month after birth.
2. Infant mortality rate is the number of infant deaths in a particular year per 100 live births during
that year.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
57

c) Both 1 and 2
 d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation

• Infant mortality rate is the probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before
reaching the age of one, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period.
• Infant mortality rate is strictly speaking not a rate (i.e. the number of deaths divided by the number
of population at risk during a certain period of time) but a probability of death derived from a life
table and expressed as a rate per 1000 live births.

Answer: d) Neither 1 nor 2

[UPSC 2008] For India, China, UK and USA, which one of the following is the correct se-
quence of the median age of their population?
a) China < India < UK < USA
b) India < China < USA< UK
c) China < India < USA< UK
d) India < China < UK < USA

Explanation

• Median age refers to the age that divides the population into two parts of equal size, that is,
there are as many persons with ages above the median as there are with ages below the median.
The median age of India is around 28.

Answer: b) India < China < USA < UK

[UPSC 2008] As per India’s National Population Policy, 2000, by which one of the following
years is it our long-term objective to achieve population stabilization?
a) 2025
b) 2035
c) 2045
d) 2055

Answer: c) 2045
[UPSC 2006] Consider the following statements:
1. Sikkim has the minimum area among the 28 Indian States (Delhi and Pondicherry not included).
2. Chandigarh has the highest literacy rate among Pondicherry, National Capital Territory of Delhi
and other Union Territories.
3. Maharashtra has the highest population after Uttar Pradesh among the 28 Indian States (Delhi
and Pondicherry not included).
58

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?

 a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3
c) 1 only
d) 3 only

Explanation

• Goa is the smaller state.

• Lakshadweep has the best literacy rate among Union Territories in India.
• According to the 2001 census, Maharashtra is the second most populous state after Uttar Pradesh.

Answer: d) 3 only
[UPSC 2005] Consider the following statements:
1. Area-wise, Chhattisgarh is larger than West Bengal.
2. According to the population Census 2001, the population of West Bengal is larger than that of
Chhattisgarh.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: c) Both 1 and 2

[UPSC 2005] Consider the following statements:
1. India is the second country in the world to adopt a National Family Planning Programme.
2. The National Population Policy of India 2000 seeks to achieve replacement level of fertility by 2010
with a population of 111 crores.
3. Kerala is the first state in India to achieve replacement level of fertility.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2
c) 2 and 3
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation

• In 1952, India was the first country in the world to launch a national family planning program.
Kerala is the first state in India to achieve a replacement level of fertility.
59

•
Answer: c) 2 and 3
[UPSC 2005] Which one of the following statements is true on the basis of Census - 2001?

a) Bihar has the highest percentage of the scheduled castes of its population.
b) The decadal growth of population of India (1991-2001) has been below 20%.
c) Mizoram is the India state with the least population.
d) Pondicherry has the highest sex ratio among the Union Territories.

Answer: d) Pondicherry has the highest sex ratio among the Union Territories.
[UPSC 2005] According to the census 2001, which one of the following Indian States has
the maximum population in India after Uttar Pradesh?
a) West Bengal
b) Maharashtra
c) Bihar
d) Tamil Nadu

Answer: b) Maharashtra
[UPSC 2003] Life expectancy is the highest in the world in :
a) Canada
b) Germany
c) Japan
d) Norway

Answer: c) Japan
[UPSC 2000] Which one of the following statements is true according to 1991 Census data?
a) U.P. has the highest density of population in India
b) Himachal Pradesh has the highest female to male sex ratio in India
c) West Bengal has the highest growth rate of population in India
d) Bihar has the lowest literacy rate in India

Answer: d) Bihar has the lowest literacy rate in India

[UPSC 1999] Assertion and Reasoning
Assertion (A): According to statistics, more female children are born each year than male children
in India.
Reason (R): In India, the death rate of a male child is higher than that of the female child.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
60

c) A is true but R is false

 d) A is false but R is true

Answer: c) A is true but R is false

[UPSC 1997] ".....They are people of yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high check bones,
sparse hair and medium height." The reference here is to
a) Nordic Aryans
b) Austrics
c) Negroids
d) Mongoloids

Answer: d) Mongoloids

------------ End of Chapter ------------

61
 4. Migration

Basics

• Migrant: A household member whose last usual place of residence, any time in the past, was different
from the present place of enumeration, was considered a migrant member in a household.
• Immigrants: Immigrants are people who move to a new country.
• Emigrants: Emigrants are people who leave their country of origin.
• Intra-district Migrants: persons who are enumerated at a different place but born within the district.
• Inter-district Migrants: persons enumerated in one district but born in another district of the state.
• Interstate Migrants: Those persons who are enumerated in a state but born in another state.
• International Migrants: Those persons who are enumerated in India but born in another country.

Causes of Migration
• These reasons can be put into two broad categories:
1. Push factor: these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin and
2. Pull factors: these attract people from different places.
• In India, people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to push factors such as poverty, high
population pressure on the land, and a lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care and
education.
• Apart from these factors, natural disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclonic storms, earthquakes, tsu-
namis, wars, and local conflicts also give an extra push to migrate.
• On the other hand, there are pull factors that attract people from rural areas to cities. The most im-
portant pull factor for a majority of the rural migrants to move to urban areas is the better opportuni-
ties, availability of regular work, and relatively higher wages.
• Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc., are
also quite important pull factors.
• The reasons for the migration of males and females are different:
 Work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (38 percent) while it is
only three percent for females.
 About 65 percent of females move out of their parental houses following their marriage. This is the
most important cause in the rural areas of India except in Meghalaya, where the reverse is the case.
In comparison to these, marriage migration of males is only 2 percent in the country.
• Push Back Factors: In India, and in some other developing countries, the urban labour force is sizeable,
and the urban unemployment rates are high. All these factors acts in combination as deterrents to
62

the fresh flow of migration from the rural to urban areas.

[UPSC 2015] Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India
in the last four decades.
• The development of transportation networks and communication technologies has facilitated more
effortless movement and job searches for potential migrants.

Internal Migration

• Post-liberalization economic growth has led to increased urban job opportunities, particularly in the
service and manufacturing sectors, triggering a significant rise in rural-urban migration.
• Intra-state migration has become more prominent with more economic opportunities within states,
attracting migrants seeking better prospects closer to home.
• The growing demand for skilled workers has resulted in the increased migration of individuals with
specialised skills and education toward urban centers.

External Migration

• Since the 1980s, there has been a substantial increase in the emigration of Indian workers to the
Middle East, Southeast Asia, and developed economies like the US and UK, driven by demand for
skilled and semi-skilled labour.
• There is a growing emphasis on skilled professionals, including doctors, engineers, IT professionals,
and other specialists, migrating for better career opportunities abroad.

The Driving Forces Behind the Transformation

• Economic Boom and Urbanization: India's economic growth and rapid urbanisation have created
job opportunities, attracting rural populations to cities and skilled workers to specific destinations.
• Globalization: Integration into the global economy has facilitated the movement of labour across
borders, opening up new avenues for Indian workers.
• Government policies encouraging vocational training and skill development have contributed to the
rise of skilled migration, both internally and externally.
• Tech-Powered Mobility: Improved communication and information technology has made it easier
for individuals to connect with potential employers and navigate the complexities of migration pro-
cesses.

Changing Demographics and Patterns

• Female Migration: There has been a notable increase in women's participation in labour migration,
both domestically and internationally. Women are increasingly seeking employment opportunities
outside their hometowns and countries, contributing to changing demographic patterns.
• Return Migration: With the maturing of economies and changing job markets in destination coun-
63

tries, there has been an increase in return migration, where migrants return to India after working
 abroad for a certain period. Return migrants often bring back skills, savings, and experiences, which
can contribute to local development.

Different forms of migration

Internal migration
• Internal/domestic migration is human migration within the specified geopolitical nation-state. It is di-
vided into two categories:
1. Long-term Migration: Resulting in the relocation of an individual or household.
2. Short-term Migration: Comprising back-and-forth movement between the source and destination.
• Females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration.
• Men predominate the rural-to-urban stream or inter-state migration due to economic reasons.

External migration
• External migration occurs when a person(s) immigrates to another country.
• External migration in India poses a grave challenge due to reasons like brain drain.
• It however brings in valuable foreign exchange into the country.

Refugee Migration
• There has been a significant trend of involuntary or forced immigration to India in the form of refugees.
• According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), a total of 244,094 ref-
ugees and asylum seekers are provided protection and assistance in India.
• In recent times India has become host to the Rohingya Muslim refugees fleeing from Myanmar.
• Over a million Rohingyas now live in the world’s largest refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.

Weather induced migration

• According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (IPCC), the single greatest impact of cli-
mate change will be on human migration. Experts believe that by 2050, more than 200 million people
will be forced to flee their homes and are called “Climate refugees”.
• In 2020 the world has witnessed a large-scale destitution resulting in human movement due to climate
catastrophes. Examples: Bushfires in Australia, floods in China, Japan, and Europe, and the costliest cy-
clone – Amphan (with an economic impact of more than $13 billion) hitting the coast of Odisha and
West Bengal in 2020.

Circular migration
• Circular migration is characterised by individuals moving between their country of origin and a destina-
tion country temporarily in response to employment opportunities. This phenomenon is predominantly
observed among low-income groups seeking seasonal employment in various locations.
64
Evolution of Circular Migration

• Circular migration gained prominence in the 1960s and 1970s with the rise of globalisation. Improved
transportation and communication, the expansion of social networks, and the growth of multinational
corporations boosted the circular migration phenomenon.

Circular Migration in India

• In India, internal migration has historically followed circular patterns.

• The uneven development post-liberalization has led to significant inter-state migration, with some states
like West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar witnessing high out-migration rates.

Challenges for Circular Migrants in India

 Circular migrants in India often face exploitation and work in unsafe conditions.
 Language barriers in destination states pose additional challenges.
 Migrants are at the mercy of middlemen and are subject to precarious, and irregular employment.
 The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted their vulnerability as many migrants embarked on long journeys
back to their hometowns during lockdowns.

Streams of Migration

• According to the United Nations, about 281 million people (3.6% of the total global population) lived
in a country other than where they were born in 2020.
65

• More people tend to move within their own countries rather than across borders.
 Top Destinations (left) and Origins (right) of International Migrants in 2020 (millions)

Top international migration country-to-country corridors, 2020 (Source: World Migration Report)

Facts
• International Female Migrants (2020)  135 million (3.5% of the world's female population).
• International Male Migrants (2020)  146 million (3.7% of the world's male population).
• Migrant workers (2019)  169 million.
• The total international remittances globally in 2020 is USD 702 billion.
• The United States is the primary contributor to remittances.
• USD 540 billion in international remittances was received by low and middle-income countries in 2020.
• India is the top remittance recipient country in 2023 with $125 billion, followed by Mexico with $67
billion, and China ($ 50 billion).

Migration Corridors
• The Mexico-United States migration corridor is the world's largest, with close to 11 million individuals.
• The second largest corridor involves migration from the Syrian Arab Republic to Turkey, primarily
66

driven by refugees escaping the prolonged civil war.

• India to the United Arab Emirates forms the third largest corridor worldwide, with over 3 million
migrants, predominantly consisting of labourers.

Impact of COVID-19 on Migration

• In 2020, the estimated number of international migrants globally was around 281 million, with nearly
two-thirds being labour migrants. However, this figure was lower by around 2 million compared to pro-
jections due to the impact of COVID-19.
• Disrupted Migration Corridors: Travel restrictions disrupted established migration patterns and "cor-
ridors" (routes frequently used by migrants).
• Uneven Impact: Low-skilled migrants in irregular situations were most affected by the disruptions.
• Migrants as Essential Workers: Migrants working in critical sectors like healthcare and agriculture
played a crucial role in many countries' responses to the pandemic.
• Remittances Continued: Despite the challenges, the flow of remittances (money migrants send home)
remained steady and even increased in some cases.

Future Migration Trends

• Prolonged international mobility restrictions due to COVID-19 are expected to weaken future growth in
the number of international migrants.
• Major migration corridors, often from developing countries to larger economies, are likely to continue,
but COVID-19 has emphasised the potential impact of digitalisation and automation on labour migra-
67

tion corridors.
Migration in India

• In India, migration was recorded beginning with the first Indian census, conducted in 1881. This data
was recorded based on place of birth.
• The first major modification was introduced in the 1961 Census by adding two additional components:
place of birth (e.g., village or town) and duration of residence (if born elsewhere).
• Further, in 1971, additional information on the place of last residence and duration of stay at the
place of enumeration were incorporated.
• According to the 2001 census, out of 1,029 million people in the country,
 307 million (30 per cent) were reported as migrants by place of birth.
 315 million (31 per cent) were reported as migrants in terms of the place of last residence.

As Origin
• India is a major source of international migration, with an estimated 17.9 million migrants living abroad
in 2020. This represents 1.3% of the country's total population.
• It is estimated that there are around 20 million people in the Indian Diaspora, spread across 110 coun-
tries. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are the leading destination for Indian migrants,
followed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada.

As Destination
• Census 2001 has recorded that more than 5 million people have migrated to India from other coun-
tries. Of these, 96 percent came from the neighbouring countries: Bangladesh (3.0 million), followed
by Pakistan (0.9 million) and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16 million refugees from Tibet,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Myanmar.
Countries No of immigrants % of total immigrants
Total international migration 5,155,423 100
Migration from neighbouring countries 4,918,266 95.5
1. Bangladesh 3084826 59.8
2. Pakistan 997106 19.3
3. Nepal 596696 11.6
4. Sri Lanka 149300 2.9
5. Myanmar 49086 1
6. China 23721 0.5
7. Afghanistan 9194 0.2
8. Bhutan 8337 0.2
68

Internal Migration
• According to the Census of 2011, there were 139 million interstate migrants relocating to urban hubs
in search of education, marriage, employment, etc.
• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, and Maharashtra are states which absorb most of the migrants. The
69

overall migration rate for India from July 2020 to June 2021 was 28.9%, with rural areas experiencing a
migration rate of 26.5% and urban areas 34.9%.
• Females accounted for a higher share of migration, with a rate of 47.9% (rural areas – 48%; urban areas
– 47.8). In contrast, males had a lower migration rate of 10.7% (rural areas – 5.9%; urban areas – 22.5%).
The primary reason for female migration was marriage, with 86.8%. On the other hand, 49.6% of males
migrated in search of employment.
• Females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types of migra-
tion. Contrary to this, men predominate the rural-to-urban stream of inter-state migration due to
economic reasons.
• Disasters such as flooding caused by monsoons, landslides, and intense cyclones triggered large-scale
internal displacements in 2020 with nearly 4 million people in India.

External Migration: Indian Diaspora

• Indian diaspora refers to people whose origins can be traced to India or are Indian citizens living
abroad. This includes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIO), and Overseas
Citizens of India (OCI).

• During the colonial period, millions of Indians were sent as indentured labourers to work on plantations
in various tropical countries.
 The British sent people from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to Mauritius, the Caribbean islands (Trin-
idad and Tobago), Guyana, Fiji, and South Africa.
 The French and the Dutch sent Indians to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Surinam.
 The Portuguese sent people from Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola and Mozambique.
70
• All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as the Girmit Act (Indian
Emigration Act). However, the living conditions of these indentured labourers were not better than the
slaves.
• There was a steady outflow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in
West Asia in the 1970s. There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, and
businessmen to Western Countries.
• The third wave of migrants comprised professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software
engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others who
migrated to countries such as the USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Germany, etc.

Opportunities
Economic

 Remittances contribute to poverty reduction and change consumption behaviour.

 Diaspora contributes to the accelerated growth of the technological sector. Examples include Benga-
luru, Gurugram, and Hyderabad thriving IT hubs.
 Policies like treating NRI/OCI investments as domestic stimulate investment and economic growth.

Diaspora Diplomacy

 Diaspora's growing affluence abroad enhances advocacy for India. They act as bridge-builders between
countries. They can shape public opinion through media and think tanks.

UN Security Council Membership

 Diaspora support can aid India's bid for a permanent seat at the UNSC. Permanent membership en-
hances India's ability to protect its diaspora.
 Diaspora influence in countries like Canada and Mexico can be leveraged.

Growing Influence in Asia

 India's role in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia is rising. Large Indian expatriate populations in
countries like Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore facilitate mutual relationships.

Spatial Variation in Migration

• Some states, such as Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana, attract migrants from other states,
such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-
migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana.
• On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states that had the
largest number of net out-migrants from the state.
• Recently, migrants from Odisha and West Bengal have been choosing to migrate to states like Maha-
71

rashtra and Gujarat to avoid loss of life and property caused by irregular weather extremes.
• Since 2013, Kerala has become a destination for low-skilled migrants. This is due to the low birth
rate, literacy rate, human development, and a rapid increase in the aging population of the state.
• Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received the highest number of migrants.

Consequences of Migration

• Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political, and demographic terms.

Economic Consequences
Positives
 A significant benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from inter-
national migrants are one of the significant sources of foreign exchange. Punjab, Kerala, and Tamil
Nadu receive very significant amounts from their international migrants.
 Although the amount of remittances sent by internal migrants is very meagre compared to international
migrants, they play an important role in the growth of the economy of the source area. For thousands
of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc., remittance
works as a lifeblood of their economy.
 Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha to the rural
areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revo-
lution strategy for agricultural development.

Negatives
 Unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding. The development
of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi
is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country.

Demographic Consequences
 Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural-urban migration is one
of the critical factors contributing to the population growth of cities.
 Age and skill-selective out-migration from the rural area have adverse effects on the rural demographic
structure.
 High outmigration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern Maharashtra has caused
serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in
the recipient’s states.

Social Consequences
 Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning,
72

girls’ education, etc., get diffused from urban to rural areas through them.
 Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contributions, such as
the evolution of composite culture, breaking through narrow considerations, and widening the
mental horizons of the people at large.
 However, it also has serious negative consequences, such as anonymity, which creates a social vacuum
and a sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feelings of sadness may motivate people to fall
into the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.
 Other migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indi-
rectly. In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as
well as mental pressure on the women.
 Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the
economy but also increases their vulnerability.

Environmental Consequences
 Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and phys-
ical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to the unplanned growth of urban settlement
and the formation of slums and shanty colonies.
 Apart from this, due to the over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of
depletion of groundwater, air pollution, and disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

Policy Recommendations to address the issue of Migrants

 Harmonize labour laws to provide equal protection to all workers.

 Social security and health benefits to migrants, ensuring their well-being.
 Portability of state-provided benefits, especially food provided through pds.
 Skill development programs to enhance their employability and income potential.
 Data collection and research on migration patterns to inform policy-making.
 Affordable housing and basic amenities in urban areas.
 Legal framework to protect migrant rights.
 Creating Highly Liveable Cities: To attract talent from abroad and reverse quality outmigration, Indian
cities must prioritize improving their quality of life.
 Dispersed Economic Investment: Efforts should be made to decentralise economic investment,
spreading job opportunities across various Indian cities.
 Decentralized Urbanization: Encouraging urbanisation in smaller towns and cities can alleviate pres-
sure on major urban centers and create employment opportunities closer to rural areas.
 Accelerating Urban Development: India's urban development processes need to be revitalized and
accelerated to accommodate the influx of rural-urban migrants and sustain economic growth.
73

Issues with existing laws

• The Migrant Workmen Act, of 1979, is a key piece of legislation that is enacted by the Indian Parlia-
ment to regulate the condition of service of inter-state labourers in Indian Labour Law.
• Whenever an employer faces a shortage of skills among the locally available workers, they would employ
better-skilled workers available outside the state as per the provision created through this act.
• It was designed to protect labourers from exploitation by contractors by safeguarding their right to non-
discriminatory wages, travel and displacement allowances, and suitable working conditions. However, it
had several limitations:
 The law covers only labourers brought by a contractor and not independent migrants.
 The requirement set out in the law makes employment more expensive as compared to hiring intra-
state workmen.
 No state has implemented this legislation in letter and spirit.

Draft Recommendations of National Migrant Policy

• NITI Aayog has released the first draft of the National Migrant Policy. According to NITI Aayog, mi-
gration should be acknowledged as an integral part of development and government policies should
not hinder but seek to facilitate internal migration.
• The draft describes two approaches to policy design:
1. First to focus on cash transfers, special quotas, and reservations.
2. Second to enhance the capability of the community and remove aspects that come in the way of
an individual’s natural ability to thrive.
• The policy rejects a hand-out approach, opting instead for a rights-based framework. It initiates dis-
cussions on:
 Creation of a database of workers, particularly those in the informal economy.
 An increase in minimum wages.
 Employment creation in the rural belt in order to stem migration.
 Measures to deal with workplace accidents, grievances and provision of adequate shelter.
• The Labour Ministry is proposed to be the nodal Ministry for the implementation of policies.
• The policy suggests that the Ministries of Panchayat Raj, Rural Development, Housing and Urban
Affairs, and Tribal Affairs use migration data to set up migration resource centers.
• The Ministry of Skill Development should focus on skill building at these centers.

Way forward
• India needs to introduce migration-centric policies and institutional mechanisms in order to ensure
inclusive growth while reducing distress-induced migration. This could result in increasing India’s pro-
spects for poverty reduction and achieving SDG-Goal 1: No poverty.
74
• The Government needs to provide social protection for the migrants punctured with the issues of poor
housing, insecure and underpaid hazardous work, and the threat of women and child involvement in
trafficking.
 States like Karnataka and Kerala have introduced schemes for migrant workers like the Mathru
Poorna scheme (benefitting the pregnant and lactating migrant women in the state) and Kerala
becoming the only state in the country to treat migrant workers as ‘the duty of the state’.
• Public-private partnership (PPP) shall be promoted in this sector to ensure safe internal migration by
creating a conducive ecosystem by providing rental housing facilities for migrant labourers working near
industrial areas.
• The state shall ensure a life of dignity, equality, and liberty for the migrants hence providing them with
a sense of belonging and social security. For example – ‘One Nation, One Ration Card’ scheme will
enable migrant workers and their families to access the Public distribution system (PDS) benefits
from any Fair price shop in India.

------------ End of Chapter ------------

75
 5. Human Settlements

• The study of human settlements is basic to human geography because the form of settlement in any
particular region reflects human relationship with the environment.
• There is no consensus on what exactly defines a village or a town. Although population size is an im-
portant criterion, it is not a universal criterion. Many villages in densely populated countries of India and
China have populations exceeding that of some towns in Western Europe and the United States.
• The basic difference between towns and villages is that the people in towns are engaged in secondary
and tertiary sectors, while in the villages, most of the people are engaged in primary sectors.
• The Census of India, 1991 defines urban settlements as all places which have
 municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, and
 have a minimum population of 5000 persons, and
 at least 75 per cent of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and
 a population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre.

Types and Patterns of Settlements

Compact or Nucleated settlements

• These settlements are those in which a large number of houses are built very close to each other. They
develop along river valleys and in fertile plains. Communities are closely knit and share common
occupations.

Dispersed Settlements
• In these settlements, houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed with fields. A cultural feature,
such as a place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.

Semi-Compact Settlements
• It refers to small, compact nuclei surrounded by scattered hamlets. Compared to compact settlements,
they occupy a larger area and can be found in both plains and plateaus, depending on the prevailing
environmental conditions.

Hamleted Settlements
• Hamleted settlements are characterised by the division of a main settlement into smaller, physically
separated units, often share a common name or identity, and are typically motivated by social, cultural,
or ethnic considerations.
76
• Locally, these hamlets are known by various names such as faliya, para, dhana, dhani, nanglay, and so
on. For instance, in the densely populated regions of the middle and lower Ganga plain, such hamleted
settlements are prevalent, reflecting the intricate social fabric of the area.

Rural Settlements

• Rural settlements are most closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities
such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, etc. The size of the settlements is relatively small.

Some factors affecting the location of rural settlements

Water Supply
• Rural settlements are usually located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs, where water is
easily obtained. Sometimes, the need for water drives people to settle in otherwise disadvantaged sites
such as islands surrounded by swamps or low-lying riverbanks.

Land
• Early settlers chose plain areas with fertile soils. In Europe, villages grew up near rolling country, avoid-
ing swampy, low-lying land, while people in Southeast Asia chose to live near low-lying river valleys
and coastal plains suited for wet rice cultivation.

Upland
• Upland, which is not prone to flooding, was chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss of life. Thus,
in low-lying river basins, people choose to settle on terraces and levees, which are dry points.
77

• In tropical countries, people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from
floods, insects, and animal pests.
Building Material
• The availability of building materials like wood and stone near settlements is another advantage. Early
villages were built in forest clearings where wood was plentiful.
• Cave dwellings were important in loess areas of China, and mud bricks were used to build buildings
in the African Savanna. The Eskimos, in polar regions, constructed igloos from ice blocks.

Defence
• During times of political instability, war, and hostility from neighbouring groups, villages were built on
defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria, upstanding inselbergs formed good defensive sites. In India,
most of the forts are located on higher ground or hills.

Planned Settlements
• Sites that villagers themselves do not spontaneously choose, planned settlements are constructed by
governments by providing shelter, water and other infrastructures on acquired lands.
• The villagization scheme in Ethiopia and the canal colonies in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area
in India are good examples.

Rural Settlement Patterns

• Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the houses are sited in relation to each other. The site of
the village, the surrounding topography and terrain influence the shape and size of a village.

On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements

• These may be a number of geometrical forms and shapes such as Linear, rectangular, circular star like,
T-shaped village, double village, cross-shaped village etc.

Linear pattern
78

• In such settlements houses are located along a road, railway line, river, canal edge or along a levee.
Rectangular pattern

• Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter montane valleys. The roads
are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.

Circular pattern

• Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned in such a way that
the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to protect them from wild animals.
79
Star like pattern

• Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses built along the roads.

T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements

• T-shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of the roads while Y-shaped settlements emerge as the
places where two roads converge on the third one and houses are built along these roads.
• Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four direction.

Double village

• These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry.

Rural Settlements in India

• Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into four types:
1. Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
2. Semi-clustered or fragmented,
3. Hamleted, and
4. Dispersed or isolated.

Clustered Settlements
• The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built-up area of houses. In this type of village, the
general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, barns and pastures.
• The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognisable pattern or geometric
shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial
plains and in the northeastern states.
• Sometimes, people live in compact villages for security or defence reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand
region of central India and in Nagaland.
80

Semi-Clustered Settlements
• Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may result from the tendency of clustering in a restricted
area of dispersed settlement. More often, such a pattern may also result from the segregation or frag-
mentation of a large compact village.
• In this case, one or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away from
the main cluster or village. In such cases, generally, the land-owning and dominant community oc-
cupies the central part of the main village, whereas people of lower strata of society and menial
workers settle on the outer flanks of the village.
• Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.

Hamleted Settlements
• Sometimes, a settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each other bearing
a common name. These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc., in various parts of
the country. This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
• Such villages are more frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower
valleys of the Himalayas.

Dispersed Settlements
• Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few
huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes.
• Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by the extremely fragmented nature of the terrain
and land resource base of habitable areas. Many areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh
and Kerala have this type of settlement.

Problems of Rural Settlements

 Rural settlements in developing countries are poorly equipped with infrastructure. This presents a great
challenge and opportunity for planners.
 Supply of water to rural settlements in developing countries is not adequate. People in villages, partic-
ularly in mountainous and arid areas, have to walk long distances to fetch drinking water.
 Waterborne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a common problem.
 The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities causes health-related problems.
 Mud, wood, and thatch houses remain susceptible to damage during heavy rains and floods and require
proper maintenance every year.
 Most house designs lack proper ventilation. Besides, a house design includes an animal shed and its
fodder store within it. This is purposely done to protect domestic animals from wild animals.
 Unmetalled roads and a lack of modern communication networks create a unique problem. During
the rainy season, the settlements remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in providing emergency
81

services. Adequate health and educational infrastructure is also difficult to provide.

Urban Settlements

• The first urban settlement to reach a population of one million was the city of London by around. A.D.
1810. By 1982, approximately 175 cities in the world had crossed the one million population mark.
• Presently, 54 per cent of the world’s population lives in urban settlements compared to only 3 per cent
in the year 1800.

Classification of Urban Settlements

Population Size
• The lower limit of the population size for a settlement to be designated as urban is 1,500 in Colombia,
2,000 in Argentina and Portugal, 2,500 in the U.S.A. and Thailand, 5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan.
• In India, in addition to the size of the population, the density of 400 persons per sq. km and the share
of non-agricultural workers are taken into consideration.
• In Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, all places with a population of 250 are called urban. In Iceland, the
minimum population for a city is 300, whereas in Canada and Venezuela, it is 1,000.

Occupational Structure
• In some countries, such as India, the major economic activities, in addition to the size of the population,
are also taken as a criterion for designating a settlement as urban.

Administration
• The administrative setup is a criterion for classifying a settlement as urban in some countries. For exam-
ple, in India, a settlement of any size is classified as urban if it has a municipality, Cantonment Board
or Notified Area Council.
• Similarly, in Latin American countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative centre is considered
urban irrespective of its population size.

Administrative Towns
• National capitals, which house the administrative offices of central governments, such as New Delhi,
Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington D.C., and London, etc., are called administrative towns.
• Provincial (subnational) towns can also have administrative functions, such as Victoria (British Columbia),
Albany (New York), and Chennai (Tamil Nadu).

Trading and Commercial Towns

• Agricultural market towns, such as Winnipeg and Kansas City; banking and financial centres, like
Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centres, like Manchester and St Louis; and transport nodes,
such as Lahore, Baghdad and Agra, have been important trading centres.
82

Cultural Towns
• Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri Varanasi, etc., are of great religious
importance.
• Additional functions that the cities perform are health and recreation (Miami and Panaji), industrial
(Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying (Broken Hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Sin-
gapore and Mughal Sarai).

Types of Urban Settlements

• Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated
as towns, cities, million cities, conurbations, or megalopoleis.

Town
• Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always
be clear-cut, but towns have specific functions such as manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and
professional services.

City
• Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions. They tend to
have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices.
• When the population crosses the one million mark, it is designated as a million city.

Planned Cities
• While most cities in developed countries are planned, most urban settlements of developing countries
have evolved historically with irregular shapes. For example, Chandigarh and Canberra are planned
cities, while smaller towns in India have evolved historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.
• Addis Ababa (Ethiopian capital), as the name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower), is a ‘new’ city that
was established in 1878. The whole city is located on a hill-valley topography.

Conurbation
• The term conurbation applies to a large urban area that resulted from the merging of originally
separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples.

Million City
• The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the
million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850 and New York in 1860, and by 1950, there were
around 80 such cities.
• In 2016, there were 512 cities with at least 1 million inhabitants globally. By 2030, a projected 662 cities
will have at least 1 million residents.
83

Megalopolis
• Megalopolis signifies a ‘super-metropolitan’ region extending as the union of conurbations. The urban
landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in the U.S.A. is the best-known
example of a megalopolis.

Mega Cities
• A megacity or megalopolis is a general term for cities and their suburbs with a population of more
than 10 million people.
• New York, with a total population of about 12.5 million, was the first to attain the status of a mega
city by 1950. There are now 31 megacities.

Healthy City
• World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that, among other things, a ‘healthy city’ must have:
1. A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.
2. Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ its inhabitants.
3. Involves the ‘Community’ in local government.
4. Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.

Problems of Urban Settlements

 People flock to cities to avail of employment opportunities and civic amenities. Since most cities in
developing countries are unplanned, it creates severe congestion.
 Shortage of housing, vertical expansion and growth of slums and illegal settlements are characteristic
features of modern cities in developing countries.

Economic Problems
 The decreasing employment opportunities in rural and smaller urban areas of developing countries
consistently push the population to urban areas.
 The enormous migrant population generates a pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is
already saturated in urban areas.

Socio-cultural Problems
 Cities in developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient financial resources fail to create
adequate social infrastructure catering to the basic needs of the huge population.
 The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor.
 Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates.
 Male selective migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.

Environmental Problems
84

 The large urban population in developing countries disposes of a huge quantity of water and all types
of waste materials. An improper sewerage system creates unhealthy conditions.
 Massive use of traditional fuel in the domestic and industrial sectors severely pollutes the air. Domestic
and industrial wastes are either left in general sewerages or dumped without treatment.
 Huge concrete structures erected to accommodate the population and economy play a very conducive
role in creating heat islands.

[UPSC 2013] Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of
the world.
Cause Explanation and Example
Lack of vegeta- • Trees and vegetation help cool urban areas through shading and evapotranspira-
tion tion. Their absence leads to higher temperatures.
• Example: Concrete jungle cities like Dubai with very little greenery.
Albedo Effect • Dark surfaces like asphalt and building materials absorb more heat from the sun
compared to lighter, more reflective surfaces.
Anthropogenic • Heat generated from vehicles, factories, AC units and other sources gets trapped in
heat urban canyons formed by tall buildings.
• For example, Industrial cities and commercial hubs.
Urban Geome- • Tall buildings and narrow streets create urban canyons that trap long-wave radia-
try tion and warm air.
• Example: Downtown areas with high-rises like Manhattan.
Urban Heat Is- • Once an urban heat island forms, it can create feedback mechanisms that reinforce
land Feedbacks higher temperatures.
• For example, increased energy demand for cooling in buildings can further contrib-
ute to the release of waste heat, exacerbating the urban heat island effect.
Urban Canyon • Tall structures disrupt wind patterns, preventing cooling breezes from penetrating
Effect inner city areas.
• Example: Metropolitan cities with skyscrapers like Shanghai.

Urban Strategy
• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has outlined these priorities as part of its
‘Urban Strategy’:
 Increasing ‘Shelter’ for the urban poor.
 Provision of basic urban services such as ‘Education’, ‘Primary Health care’, ‘Clean Water and Sanita-
tion’.
 Improving women’s access to ‘Basic Services’ and government facilities.
 Upgrading ‘Energy’ use and alternative ‘Transport’ systems.
85

 Reducing ‘Air Pollution’.

Urban Settlements in India
• Even at the time of Indus Valley civilisation, towns like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were in existence.
The following period has witnessed the evolution of towns. It continued with periodic ups and downs
until the arrival of Europeans in India in the eighteenth century.
• On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as Ancient towns,
Medieval towns, and Modern towns

Ancient Towns
• There are a number of towns in India having historical backgrounds spanning over 2000 years. Most of
them developed as religious and cultural centres.
• Varanasi is one of the important towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), and
Madurai are some other examples of ancient towns in the country.

Medieval Towns
• About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period. Most of them developed as
headquarters of principalities and kingdoms. These are fort towns that came up on the ruins of ancient
towns. Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur.

Modern Towns
• The Europeans have developed a number of towns in India. Starting their foothold on coastal locations,
they first developed some trading ports such as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc.
• The British consolidated their hold around three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai
(Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and built them in the British style.
• Towns based on modern industries also evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited as an example.
• After independence, a large number of towns have been developed as administrative headquarters, e.g.,
Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc., and industrial centres, such as Durgapur,
Bhilai, Sindri, and Barauni.
• Some old towns also developed as satellite towns around metropolitan cities, such as Ghaziabad, Roh-
tak, and Gurugram around Delhi.

Urbanisation in India
• The total urban population increased elevenfold during the twentieth century. In 2011, the level of
urbanisation in India was 31.16 per cent, which is quite low compared to developed countries. The
growth rate of urbanisation has slowed down during the last two decades.

Classification of Towns on the basis of Population Size

Census of India classifies urban centres into six classes. An urban centre with a population of more than
86

•
one lakh is called a city or class I town.
• Cities with populations between one and five million are called metropolitan cities, and those with
populations of more than five million are mega cities.
• Majority of metropolitan and megacities are urban agglomerations. An urban agglomeration may con-
sist of any one of the following three combinations:
1. a town and its adjoining urban outgrowths,
2. two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths and
3. a city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread.

Population of Million plus Cities/Urban Agglomeration, 2011

Name of Urban Agglomeration Population
1 Greater Mumbai UA 1,84,14,288
2 Delhi UA 1,63,14,838
3 Kolkata UA 1,41,12,536
4 Chennai UA 86,96,010
5 Bengaluru UA 84,99,399
6 Hyderabad UA 77,49,334
7 Ahmedabad UA 63,52,254
8 Pune UA 50,49,968
9 Surat UA 45,85,367
10 Jaipur (M Corp.) 30,73,350
11 Kanpur UA 29,20,067
12 Lucknow UA 29,01,474
13 Nagpur UA 24,97,777
14 Ghaziabad UA 23,58,525
15 Indore UA 21,67,447
16 Coimbatore UA 21,51,466
17 Kochi UA 21,17,990
18 Patna UA 20,46,652
19 Kozhikode UA 20,30,519
20 Bhopal UA 18,83,381
21 Thrissur UA 18,54,783
22 Vadodara UA 18,17,191
23 Agra UA 17,46,467
24 GVMC (MC) 17,30,320
Malappuram UA
87

25 16,98,645
26 Thiruvananthapuram UA 16,87,406
 27 Kannur UA 16,42,892
28 Ludhiana (M Corpl) 16,13,878
29 Nashik UA 15,62,769
30 Vijayawada UA 14,91,202
31 Madurai UA 14,62,420
32 Varanasi UA 14,35,113
33 Meerut UA 14,24,908
34 Faridabad (M Corp.) 14,04,653
35 Rajkot UA 13,90,933
36 Jamshedpur UA 13,37,131
37 Srinagar UA 12,73,312
38 Jabalpur UA 12,67,564
39 Asansol UA 12,43,008
40 Vasal Virar City (M Corp.) 12,21,233
41 Allahabad UA 12,16,719
42 Dhanbad UA 11,95,298
43 Aurangabad UA 11,89,376
44 Amritsar UA 11,83,705
45 Jodhpur UA 11,37,815
46 Ranchi UA 11,26,741
47 Raipur UA 11,22,555
48 Kollam UA 11,10,005
49 Gwalior UA 11,01,981
50 Durg-Bhillainagar UA 10,64,007
51 Madurai UA 10,25,682
52 Tiruchirappalli UA 10,21,717
• Out of 468 cities, 53 cities/urban agglomerations are metropolitan cities. Six of them are mega cities
with a population of over five million each.
• More than 60 per cent of urban population in India lives in Class I towns. More than one-fifth (21.0%) of
the urban population lives in megacities.

Class-wise number of towns and cities and their population, 2011

Class Population Size No of Cities Total Urban Population % of Total Urban Population
I 1,00,000 & more 468 2,27,899 60.45
II 50,000 - 99,999 474 41,328 10.96
88
 III 20,000 - 49,999 1,373 58,174 15.43
IV 10,000-19,999 1,683 31,866 8.45
V 5,000 - 9,999 1,749 15,883 4.21
VI Less than 5,000 424 1,956 0.51

Functional Classification of Towns in India

• On the basis of dominant or specialised functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as
follows:

Administrative towns and cities

• Towns supporting administrative headquarters are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New
Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Chennai, etc.

Industrial towns/Production centers

• Urban areas with manufacturing industries are classified as manufacturing cities. These cities generally
possess strong connectivity to both raw material sources and markets for their manufactured goods.
Examples: Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.

Transport Cities
• They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities, such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhi-
kode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughalsarai, Itarsi,
Katni, etc.

Commercial towns
• Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna,
etc., are some examples.

Mining towns
• These towns have developed in mineral-rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar,
Singrauli, etc.

Defence towns
• Defence towns are distinguished by the presence of cantonments, barracks, military training centers,
garrisons, air force bases, airfields, strategic locations, and naval headquarters.
• Examples of such towns include Adampur, Ambala, Halwara, Jalandhar, Jamnagar, Jodhpur,
Khadakwasla, MOHO, Pathankot, Udhampur, Vishakhapatnam, among others.

Educational towns
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• Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns, such as
Roorkee, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad, etc.

Religious and cultural towns

• Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, and
Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.

Tourist or Recreation or Resort towns

• Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), and Mount
Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

Residential Towns
• Several towns and cities are established primarily to offer residential housing for urban residents. For
example, places like Panchkula near Chandigarh and Partapur near Meerut are predominantly resi-
dential in nature.

[UPSC 2015] Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this state-
ment in the backdrop of rural urban integration.
Benefits of Rural-Urban Integration

Economic Interdependence
• Rural areas are primary suppliers of agricultural products, raw materials, and labour to urban centres.
• Urban areas, in turn, provide markets for rural produce and offer employment opportunities in non-
agricultural sectors such as manufacturing, services, and construction.

Reduced Urban Strain

• Development in smart villages can create opportunities and improve living standards, potentially re-
ducing the strain of excessive migration to cities.

Resource Management
• Smart cities require a steady supply of resources like water, food, and energy, which are often sourced
from rural areas.
• Sustainable management of natural resources in rural areas, such as water conservation, sustainable
agriculture, and renewable energy generation, is crucial for ensuring the resilience of urban centres.

Environmental Sustainability
• Rural-urban integration is vital for mitigating environmental degradation. Effective waste manage-
ment, pollution control, and biodiversity conservation strategies must encompass both urban and
rural areas.
90

Infrastructure Development
• Smart infrastructure, including transportation networks, communication systems, and utilities, must
be developed in both rural and urban areas.
• Improved connectivity between rural and urban regions enhances access to markets, healthcare,
education, and other essential services.

Social Well-being
• Enhancing social infrastructure, such as healthcare facilities, educational institutions, and community
spaces, benefits both rural and urban populations.
• Addressing disparities in access to basic services and opportunities promotes inclusive growth and
reduces migration pressure on urban areas.

Technological Innovation
• Smart villages can serve as test beds for innovative technologies and sustainable practices that can
later be scaled up to smart cities.
• Leveraging digital technologies for e-governance, e-commerce, and skill development can bridge
the rural-urban divide and promote economic empowerment.

Policy Implications
• Integrated planning and policy coordination at national, state, and local levels are essential to pro-
mote rural-urban linkages.
• Initiatives such as the Smart Cities Mission should incorporate rural development strategies to en-
sure inclusive and sustainable urbanisation.

------------ End of Chapter ------------

91
 6. International Trade

• International trade is the result of specialisation in production. It benefits the world economy if differ-
ent countries practise specialisation and division of labour in the production of commodities or pro-
vision of services. Each kind of specialisation can give rise to trade.
• International trade is based on the principles of comparative advantage, complementarity, and trans-
ferability of goods and services and should, in principle, be mutually beneficial to the trading partners.

Evolution of International Trade

• The Silk Route, a 6,000-km route connecting Rome to China, is an early example of long-distance trade.
• After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, European commerce grew during the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries with the development of shipping trade between Europe and Asia.
• From the fifteenth century onwards, European colonialism began, and along with the trade of exotic
commodities, a new form of trade emerged — the slave trade.
• The Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured African natives and forcefully transported them
to the newly discovered Americas for their labour in the plantations.
• Slave trade was a lucrative business for more than two hundred years till it was abolished in Denmark
in 1792, Great Britain in 1807, and the United States in 1808.
• After the Industrial Revolution, the demand for raw materials like grains, meat, and wool also expanded,
but their monetary value declined in relation to the manufactured goods.
• The industrialised nations imported primary products as raw materials and exported the value-
added finished products back to the non-industrialised nations.
• In the latter half of the nineteenth century, regions producing primary goods became less important,
and industrial nations became each other’s principal customers.
• During World Wars I and II, countries imposed trade taxes and quantitative restrictions for the first time.
• During the post-war period, organisations like the General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (which
later became the World Trade Organization) helped reduce tariffs.

Basis of International Trade

• The world’s national resources are unevenly distributed because of differences in their physical
makeup, such as geology, relief soil, and climate. Hence, countries participate in international trade to
obtain commodities that they cannot produce themselves or cannot purchase elsewhere at a lower price.

Geological structure
It determines the mineral resource base.
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•
• Topographical differences ensure the diversity of crops and animals raised.
• Lowlands have greater agricultural potential.
• Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.

Mineral resources
• They are unevenly distributed the world over. The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for
industrial development.

Climate
• It influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures diversity in the
range of various products; for example, wool production can take place in cold regions, and bananas,
rubber, and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.

Population factors
• The size, distribution and diversity of people between countries affect the type and volume of goods
traded.

Cultural factors
• Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures and are valued worldwide; for example,
China produces the finest porcelains and brocades. Iran's carpets are famous, while North African
leatherwork and Indonesian batik cloth are prized handicrafts.

Size of population
• Densely populated countries have large volumes of internal trade but little external trade because most
of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets.
• The standard of living of the population determines the demand for better-quality imported products
because, with a low standard of living, only a few people can afford to buy costly imported goods.

Stage of economic development

• At different stages of countries' economic development, the nature of items traded changes. In agri-
culturally important countries, agro products are exchanged for manufactured goods, whereas indus-
trialised nations export machinery and finished products and import food grains and other raw materials.

Extent of foreign investment

• Foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries that lack the capital required for the
development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, lumbering, and plantation agriculture.
• By developing capital-intensive industries in developing countries, the industrial nations ensure the
import of foodstuff and minerals and create markets for their finished products. This entire cycle
steps up the volume of trade between nations.
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Transport
• In olden times, the lack of adequate and efficient means of transport restricted trade to local areas. Only
high-value items, e.g. gems, silk and spices, were traded over long distances.
• Trade has experienced spatial expansion due to the expansion of rail, ocean, and air transport and better
means of refrigeration and preservation.

Important Aspects of International Trade

Bilateral trade
• Two countries do bilateral trade with each other. They enter into an agreement to trade specified com-
modities amongst them. For example, country A may agree to trade some raw material with an agree-
ment to purchase some other specified item to country B or vice versa.

Multi-lateral trade
• As the term suggests, multilateral trade is conducted with many trading countries. The same country
can trade with several other countries. The country may also grant the status of the “Most Favoured
Nation (MFN)” to some of the trading partners.

Volume of Trade
• The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up the volume. However, services traded cannot be meas-
ured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the
volume of trade. The total volume of world trade has been steadily rising over the past decades.

Composition of Trade
• Trade of primary products was dominant at the beginning of the last century. Later, manufactured goods
gained prominence, and currently, though the manufacturing sector commands the bulk of the
global trade, the service sector, which includes travel, transportation and other commercial services,
has been showing an upward trend.
• The share of continents in the world merchandise trade has changed, as Europe’s contribution is de-
clining while the contribution of Asian countries is growing.

Direction of Trade
• Historically, the developing countries of the present used to export valuable goods and artefacts, etc.,
which were exported to European countries.
• During the nineteenth century, there was a reversal in trade direction. European countries started
exporting manufactured goods to exchange foodstuffs and raw materials from their colonies.
• Europe and the U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners worldwide and were leaders in the trade of
manufactured goods. Japan, at that time, was the third important trading country.
94
• The world trade pattern underwent a drastic change during the second half of the twentieth century.
Europe lost its colonies while India, China and other developing countries started competing with
developed countries. The nature of the goods traded has also changed.

Balance of Trade
• Balance of trade records the volume of goods and services imported as well as exported by a country
to other countries.
• If the value of imports is more than the value of a country’s exports, the country has a negative or
unfavourable balance of trade.
• If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the country has a positive or favourable
balance of trade.
• Balance of trade and balance of payments have serious implications for a country’s economy. A negative
balance would mean that the country spends more on buying goods than it can earn by selling its
goods, ultimately exhausting its financial reserves.

India’s Foreign Trade (Value in Rs. Crores)

Year Exports Imports Trade Balance
2004-05 3,75,340 5,01,065 -1,25,725
2009-10 8,45,534 13,63,736 -5,18,202
2013-14 19,05,011 27,15,434 -8,10,423
2016-17 18,52,340 25,77,422 -7,25,082
2021-22 71,52,000 78,44,000 -6,92,000
2022-23 66,14,000 72,18,000 -6,04,000

Case for Free Trade

• The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade or trade liberalisation. This is done
by bringing down trade barriers like tariffs.
• Trade liberalisation allows goods and services from everywhere to compete with domestic products.
• Globalisation, along with free trade, can adversely affect the economies of developing countries by
imposing conditions that are unfavourable and not ensuring an equal playing field.
• With the development of transport and communication systems, goods and services can travel faster
and farther than ever before. However, free trade should allow rich countries to enter the markets and
developed countries to keep their markets protected from foreign products.
• Countries also need to be cautious about dumped goods as, along with free trade, dumped goods of
lower prices can harm domestic producers.
95
  The practice of selling a commodity in two countries at a price that differs for reasons not related
to costs is called dumping.

World Trade Organisation

• In 1948, to liberalise the world from high customs tariffs and various other types of restrictions, the
General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed by some countries.
• In 1994, the member countries decided to set up a permanent institution to promote free and fair trade,
and the GATT was transformed into the WTO in 1995.
• WTO is the only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It
sets the rules for the global trading system and resolves disputes between its member nations.
• WTO also covers trade in services, such as telecommunication and banking, and other issues, such as
intellectual rights.
• However, the WTO has been criticised and opposed by those who are worried about the effects of free
trade and economic globalisation. They argue that free trade does not make ordinary people’s lives
more prosperous. Instead, it widens the gulf between rich and poor by making rich countries
richer. This is because the influential nations in the WTO focus on their commercial interests.
• Moreover, many developed countries have not fully opened their markets to products from de-
veloping countries. Issues of health, workers' rights, child labour, and the environment are also argued
to be ignored.

Regional Trade Blocs

• Regional Trade Blocs have come up to encourage trade between countries with geographical proximity,
similarity and complementarities in trading items and to curb restrictions on trade.
Bloc Member Nations
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Ma-
laysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.
EU European Union (27): Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.
LALA Latin American Integration Association: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico,
Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.
NAFTA North American Free Trade Association: U.S.A., Canada and Mexico.
OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries: Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
96

Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E. and Venezuela.

 SAFTA South Asian Free Trade Agreement: Bangladesh, Maldives, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka.
• Over 120 regional trade blocs generate more than 52 per cent of the world trade. These trading blocs
developed as a response to the failure of global organisations to speed up intra-regional trade.
Bloc Headquarters Origin Commodities
ASEAN Jakarta 1967 Agro products, rubber, palm oil, rice, copra, coffee, minerals — copper, coal,
nickel and tungsten. Energy — petroleum and natural gas and Software
products.
CIS Minsk 1991 Crude oil, natural gas, gold, cotton, fibre, aluminium.
EU Brussels 1993 Agro products, minerals, chemicals, wood, paper, transport vehicles, optical
instruments, clocks - works of art, antiques.
Single market with a single currency.
LALA Montevideo 1994 Economic cooperation to encourage market expansion.

NAFTA Mexico City 1949 Agro products, motor vehicles, automotive parts, computers, textiles, etc.
OPEC Vienna 1960 Coordinate and unify petroleum policies.
SAFTA Kathmandu 2006 Reduce tariffs on inter-regional trade

Gateways of International Trade

Ports
• Harbours and ports are the chief gateways to international trade. Ports provide facilities for docking,
loading, unloading, and storing cargo.

97
• In order to provide these facilities, the port authorities make arrangements for maintaining navigable
channels, arranging tugs and barges, and providing labour and managerial services.
• The importance of a port is judged by the size of cargo and the number of ships handled. The quantity
of cargo handled by a port is an indicator of the level of development of its hinterland.
 San Francisco Bay is the largest land-locked harbour in the world.

Types of ports according to cargo handled

1. Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in bulk cargo, such as grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals, and similar
materials.
2. Commercial Ports: These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured goods, as
well as passenger traffic.
3. Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes. Most of the
world’s great ports are comprehensive ports.

Types of port on the basis of location

Inland Ports

• These ports are located away from the seacoast. They are linked to the sea through a river or a canal
and are accessible to flat-bottom ships or barges.
• Examples: Manchester is linked with a canal; Memphis is located on the Mississippi River; the Rhine
has several ports, like Mannheim and Duisburg; and Kolkata is located on the Hooghly River, a branch
of the Ganga.

Out Ports

• These are deep-water ports built away from the actual ports. They serve the parent ports by receiving
ships that are unable to approach them due to their large size. A classic combination, for example, is
Athens and its outport, Piraeus, in Greece.

Types of port on the basis of specialised functions

Oil Ports

• These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports, and some are
refinery ports.
• Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, and Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports.
• Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.

Ports of Call

• These are the ports that originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships an-
chored for refuelling, watering, and taking food items. Later, they developed into commercial ports.
98

Aden, Honolulu, and Singapore are good examples.

Packet Station

• These are also known as ferry ports. Packet stations are exclusively concerned with the transportation
of passengers and mail across short distances across water bodies.
• These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that they face each other across the water body, e.g.
Dover in England and Calais in France across the English Channel.

Entrepot Ports

• These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Sin-
gapore is an entrepot for Asia, Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.

Naval Ports

• These are ports that are only of strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have repair work-
shops for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.

Airports
• Air transport plays an important role in the international trade. It has the advantage of taking the least
time for carriage and handling high-value or perishable goods over long distances.
• It is very costly and unsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky commodities. This ultimately reduces the
participation of this sector in international trade as compared to the oceanic routes.

India’s International Trade

• India’s contribution to world trade is only one per cent of the total volume.
• In 1950-51, India’s external trade was worth Rs.1,214 crore, which rose to USD 800 billion in 2023.
• Though the total volume of imports and exports has increased, the value of imports has continued to
be higher than that of exports.

Changing Pattern of the Composition of India’s Exports

• India's total exports reached USD 776 billion in 2022-23, nearly double the levels seen in 2013-14.
• The export landscape in India has diversified, with merchandise exports accounting for almost USD
450 billion and services contributing around USD 326 billion in 2022-23.
• The diversification of merchandise exports across sectors like agriculture, electronics, and manufac-
turing has been instrumental in driving overall export growth.
• India's services sector, particularly IT and software services, has been a major driver of export growth.
• Agricultural exports have also surged to USD 53 billion, showcasing the broadening export base.
• India's strategic focus on signing Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with countries like ASEAN, SAARC, Japan,
South Korea, and others has expanded market access and created new trade opportunities.
99

• The Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative has played a pivotal role in boosting India's export competitiveness.
• The Districts as Export Hubs Initiative in India aims to identify products and services with export
potential in various districts and facilitate their export through strategic interventions.
• This initiative plays a crucial role in boosting India's export potential across different sectors by leverag-
ing the strengths and resources available at the district level. For example, products like GI-tagged Jal-
gaon Banana and Bhagalpuri Zardalu Mango have been successfully exported to countries like the
UAE and the UK.
• Gujarat (33.29%), Maharashtra (16.13%), and Tamil Nadu (8.93%) have registered the largest share
of exports among the states for the last two years.
• The top five destinations of India's exports during 2022-23 are:
Destination Share of India's Total Exports
USA 17.46%
UAE (United Arab Emirates) 7.03%
Netherlands 4.53%
China PRP (People's Republic of China) 3.33%
Singapore 2.69%
• The top ten principal commodities of export during 2022-23, which constitute 49.05% of India’s total
exports, are:
Principal Commodity Share Major Destinations
Petroleum Products 21.78% Netherlands (11.56%), UAE (8.2%), USA (6.2%)
Pearl, Precious, Semiprecious 5.71% USA (36.52%), Hong Kong (23.68%), Belgium
Stones (10.23%)
Drug Formulations, Biological 4.3% USA (34.72%), Belgium (3.23%), South Africa (2.98%)
Iron And Steel 2.94% Italy (12.49%), UAE (8.21%), USA (7.14%)
Gold & Other Precious Metal Jewellery 2.82% USA (26.67%), UAE (24.96%), Hong Kong (24.09%)

Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Import

• India faced a serious food shortage during the 1950s and 1960s. The major import items at that time
were food grain, capital goods, machinery and equipment. The balance of payment was adverse as there
were more imports than exports in spite of all the efforts of import substitution.
• After the 1970s, food grain imports were discontinued due to the success of the Green Revolution,
but the energy crisis of 1973 pushed petroleum prices up, and the import budget was also pushed up.
• Fertilisers and petroleum replaced food grain imports. Machines and equipment, special steel, edible
oil and chemicals largely make up the import basket.
• The import of petroleum products has steeply risen. Petroleum is used not only as fuel but also as an
industrial raw material. This indicates the tempo of rising industrialisation and a better standard of
100

living. A sporadic price rise in the international market is another reason for the same.
• Import of capital goods maintained a steady increase due to rising demand in the export-oriented in-
dustrial and domestic sectors. Non-electrical machinery, transport equipment, manufacturers of metals
and machine tools were the main items of capital goods.
• Imports of food and allied products declined, with a fall in edible oil imports.
• Other major imports from India include pearls and semi-precious stones, gold and silver, metalliferous
ores and metal scrap, non-ferrous metals, and electronic goods.

Petroleum Crude
• During 2022-23, India's most significant import was Petroleum crude. Iraq and Saudi Arabia are the
major import sources of petroleum crude. The top 10 countries from which this product was imported
accounted for 88.55% of the total import share.

Top Import Commodities (2022-23)

Commodity Share Major Sources
Petroleum: Crude 22.89% Iraq (20.53%), Russia (18.3%), Saudi Arabia (17.85%)
Coal, Coke And Briquettes Etc., 7.05% Australia (29.57%), Indonesia (29.5%), Russia (9.43%)
Petroleum Products 6.60% Qatar (26.73%), UAE (21.53%), Saudi Arabia (8.82%)
Gold 4.83% Switzerland (35.69%), South Africa (10.38%), UAE (8.25%)
Precious & Semiprecious Stones 4.22% UAE (32.85%), USA (18.23%), Hong Kong (16.09%)

Import from Sources

• During 2022-23, the highest import of US$ 90,721 million was recorded from China, which constitutes
the largest share at 13.83% of India’s total imports. The top five import sources are:
Source Percentage Share
China 13.83%
UAE 7.45%
USA 7.14%
Russia 6.33%
Saudi Arabia 5.89%

Geographical Factors Influencing India’s International Trade

Maritime Trade and Coastal Advantage
• India's extensive coastline of over 7,500 kilometres provides a natural advantage in maritime trade.
Major ports along the western and eastern coasts serve as vital gateways for international trade.
• Ports on the western coast historically facilitate trade with the Middle East, Africa, and Europe, while
those on the eastern coast engage with Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Asia-Pacific region. This stra-
101

tegic location makes India a Gateway to Asia.

Land Borders and Regional Trade
• India shares land borders with seven countries, influencing regional trade dynamics. Despite occasional
tensions, India actively seeks stronger economic ties with Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan.
• Proximity to Southeast Asia and Central Asia enables overland trade and connectivity projects like the
International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and the Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Ne-
pal (BBIN) initiative.

Hinterland Connectivity and Inland Trade

• Extensive rail, road, waterway, and air networks facilitate the movement of goods from inland regions
to coastal ports and airports.
• Development of freight corridors, logistics parks, and container depots improves trade efficiency.
• India serves as a transit hub for landlocked regions, enhancing regional trade and commerce.

Resource Endowments and Trade Patterns

• Diverse geographical features and resource endowments influence trade patterns.
• Rich agricultural resources support exports of rice, spices, and marine products.
• Mineral resources contribute to the export of mineral and metal products while fuelling the import of
raw materials and energy resources.
• Geographical distribution of industrial clusters shapes trade patterns, with regions like Gujarat, Ma-
harashtra, and Tamil Nadu emerging as major export centres.

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102
 7. Major Ports of India

• Indian Ports are broadly classified as Major and Non-Major Ports. The Major Ports are under the Union
List, while the Non-Major Ports are on the Concurrent List of the Constitution of India.
• Major Ports, as defined in the Indian Ports Act 1908, are ports declared by the Government of India
through Official Gazette declaration or under existing laws as major ports.
• India has 12 major ports, which handle about 58% of sea-borne traffic. Of these, Ennore Port Ltd is
a company, and the remaining 11 are Port Trusts governed by the provisions of the Major Port Trusts
Act of 1963.
• India has around 200 Non-Major ports, which handle about 42% of sea-borne traffic. They are under
the jurisdiction of respective State Maritime Boards/Governments.
• Approximately 90% of the country's Export-Import (EXIM) cargo is handled by volume at its ports, while
around 70% is handled by value.

Some Key Terms

• Inland Port: It is a port on an inland waterway, such as a river, lake, or canal, which may or may not
be connected to the ocean. It is also used to refer to a dry port, which is a land extension of a
seaport, usually connected by rail to the docks.
• Riverine Port: Riverine ports are located on the riverfront. They are different from seaports because
the former are in coastal areas. Riverine ports are commonly referred to as inland ports, and they are
mostly extensions of seaports.
• Natural Harbour: A harbour is a sheltered body of water where ships, boats, and barges can be
docked. Ports are human-made facilities, whereas Harbors are mostly natural.
• Trans-shipment: Transshipment at sea is done by transferring goods such as cargo, personnel, and
equipment from one ship to another. It is a common practice in global fisheries and typically takes place
between smaller fishing vessels and large specialised refrigerated transport vessels, also referred to as
“reefers”, that onload catch and deliver supplies.
• Tidal Port: A tidal port is one in which the level of water within the port varies with the change in
the level of water in the oceans. Tidal ports are mostly located near coastal areas.
• Satellite port: A satellite port is a port, either created or pre-existing, in a community near a port that
is nearing capacity and requires relief from the current heavy loads.

Facts

• Oldest Port in India: Lothal Port of Gujarat

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• Biggest and most famous port during the Mughal Period: Surat Port
• Deepest Port: Gangavaram Port (Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh)
• Largest Container Port: Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT)
• Largest Natural Port: Mumbai Port
• Largest Artificial Port: Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) or Nhava Sheva
• Largest Port by volume of cargo handled: Kandla Port
• Largest Port on the East Coast: Chennai Port
• First Port built after the independence of India: Kandla Port
• Southernmost Port in India: Tuticorin Port
• Highest number of ports: Maharastra

Ports of The East Coast

Kolkata Port (KoPT)

• KoPT, on the left bank of the Hugli River, is the first major and the only riverine port in India.
• It is officially known as the Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port Trust of Kolkata.
• It is the oldest port among the major ports of India.
• It is confronted with the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli River. The estuary's dynamic nature
results in frequent shifting of the navigation channels.
• The major export items are iron ore, leather, cotton textiles, etc.
• The major import items are wheat, raw cotton, iron and steel, etc.
⇨ The Bhagirathi-Hugli River system is a major distributary of the Ganga in West Bengal. The entire
280 km of river from Saugor to Nabadwip is tide-influenced.

Why does Kolkata Port need constant dredging of Hooghly?

• Kolkata is a tidal port that serves as a port during high tide when the water in the Hooghly rises.
However, with high tide, a lot of sediment is also deposited in the Hooghly.
• Therefore, the river must be constantly dredged to clear out sediments and ensure the depth of the river
remains sufficient to allow large ships to enter the port.

Haldia Port (or Haldia Dock Complex)

• Haldia Port (or Diamond Harbour) is located at the confluence of the Haldi and Hooghly Rivers.
• It was built to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port.
• The port is the primary of two dock facilities managed by the Kolkata Port Trust, with the other being
the Kolkata Dock System situated approximately 100 km upstream.

Paradip Port (PPT)

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• PPT is a natural port near the confluence of the Mahanadi River and the Bay of Bengal.
• It is the first major port on the East Coast commissioned after independence.
• Late Biju Patnaik, the then CM of Odisha, is the founder of this only major port of the state.
• Iron ore is the major export item of this port. The major imports are crude oil, fertilisers, etc.,
• Paradip Port serves an extensive hinterland spanning the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.

Highest Cargo Handing Major Port

• The Paradip Port Authority (PPA) has achieved a remarkable milestone of cargo throughput of 145.38
million metric tonnes (MMT) in the fiscal year 2023-24. This achievement makes it the top cargo-han-
dling major port in the country, surpassing previous records set by Deendayal Port, Kandla.
• Also, Paradip Port's berth productivity is the highest among all ports in the country.

Visakhapatnam Port (VPT)

• VPT, located midway between Kolkata and Chennai, is the only major port in Andhra Pradesh.
• It is a natural port with a landlocked harbour (encircled by land with an opening to the ses), and
the Meghadrigedda River joins the harbour area in the Inner Harbour.
• It is a breakwater and large seaport-type port.
• The main trade items handled by this port are coking coal, iron ore, gypsum, manganese ore, coke,
steam coal, etc. Manganese Ore is the major export item from this port.

Tuticorin Port (TPT)

• TPT is officially known as the V.O. Chidambaram Port. It is located strategically close to the East-West
International Sea routes.
• Located in the Gulf of Mannar, sheltered by Sri Lanka to the southeast and India to the west, it is
protected from storms and cyclonic winds.
• This artificial port is the fourth-largest container terminal in India. It is Tamil Nadu’s third international
port and second-largest all-weather port.
• Its principal exports include general cargo, sugar, granite, and limonite ore. Major imports include coal,
cement, fertilisers, rock phosphate, petroleum products, petroleum coke, and edible oils.

Chennai Port (ChPT)

• Chennai Port, the third oldest major and second largest port in the country, is in Tamil Nadu.
• As an artificial harbour, the port faced vulnerability to cyclones and sand accretion from underwater
currents, reducing the draft.
• The primary exports include iron ore, leather, automobiles, and cotton textiles.
• The major imports comprise wheat, raw cotton, machinery, iron, and steel.

Ennore Port
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• Ennore Port (or Kamarajar Port) is located about 24 km north of Chennai Port. It is an artificial port.
• It is the 12th major port of India and the first port in India to be a public company.
• The Kamarajar Port is the only corporatised major port and is registered as a company. It is incorpo-
rated as Ennore Port Limited under the Companies Act of 1956.
• The primary exports consist of automobiles. The imports include bulk shipments of propylene oxide.

Port Blair Port

• Under the Indian Ports Act of 1908, the Government of India has declared the Port Blair Port with its
territorial jurisdiction over all ports of the A&N Islands.
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• The Major Port Trusts Act of 1963 has become applicable to the Port Blair Port.
 • Despite GoI's plan for it to be the major port, no action has been taken.

Ports of The West Coast

Kandla Port
• Kandla Port (or Deendayal Port) is located on the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. It was constructed in the
1950s as the chief seaport serving western India after the partition.
• It is a natural harbour in the Kutch district near the city of Gandhidham. It has a modern container
terminal and a dry dock facility.
• It is the largest public port based on the volume of cargo handled.
• The major import items of this port are petroleum, chemicals, steel, iron machinery, etc.
• The major exports from this port are grains, processed food products, textiles, etc.

Tuna Tekra Deep Draft Terminal

• PM Modi laid the foundation stone for the all-weather Tuna Tekra deep draft terminal at the Global
Maritime India Summit 2023 in Gujarat.
• This state-of-the-art greenfield terminal will be developed in PPP mode. It will be a gateway for
Indian trade via the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.

Mundra Port
• Mundra Port is the largest private port and the largest container port in India. It is located on the
north shores of the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat.
• This deep-draft, all-weather port is the largest coal import terminal in India. It is also a special eco-
nomic zone (SEZ).

Mumbai Port
• Mumbai Port is situated in Thane Creek on the lee side of Salsette/Mumbai Island. It is an all-weather
natural port and well protected from the fury of sea waves.
• Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Mumbai Port became India's principal gateway, playing a
pivotal role in the country's trade and commerce development.
• It is India's largest port in terms of size and shipping traffic.
• The major export items are textiles, raw cotton, etc.,
• The primary imports are petroleum, petroleum products, fertilisers, chemicals, paper, and raw cotton.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT)

• Jawaharlal Nehru Port (or Nhava Sheva) is a prominent seaport in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra. It is
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the largest public container port in India.

• It has developed a multi-product Special Economic Zone on its owned freehold land to attract interna-
tional capital and global manufacturing giants.
• The key exports include textiles, sporting goods, carpets, textile machinery, boneless meat, as well as
chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
• The significant imports encompass chemicals, machinery, plastics, electrical machinery, vegetable oils,
aluminium, and other non-ferrous metals.
• The JNPA's hinterland covers a large part of India, including the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Karnataka, and most of North India.

Vadhavan Port
• Vadhavan Port is an ‘All Weather, All Cargo’ satellite port that can handle deep draft ships and larger
vessels. The port will be located close to the JNPT in Uran, Navi Mumbai.
• This satellite port helps overcome issues such as limited land availability and draft adequacy, which is
the depth of water to which a ship sinks according to its load.
• It will be India’s 13th major port once completed. It is expected to handle spillovers in container vessel
traffic at the Jawaharlal Nehru Port, India’s top container port.
• The Vadhavan port will be developed on a “landlord model,” in which the government owns the port's
infrastructure and leases it to private companies. Private developers undertake all business activities
under PPP mode.

Marmugao Port
• Mormugao Port is situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary in Goa.
• 39% of India's iron ore exports go through Mormugao.
• The hinterland of the port covers the states of Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
• The major imports include coal, iron ore, petroleum products, fertilisers, chemicals, cement, timber, etc.,
• The primary exports are iron ore, manganese ore, granite, bauxite, pellets, and other minerals.

New Mangalore Port

• New Mangalore Port is a natural port. situated in Panambur, Mangalore. It is the only major port of
Karnataka.
• Primary exports encompass iron ore concentrates and pellets, manganese, cashews, iron ore fines, gran-
ite stones, coffee, and containerised cargo.
• Major imports include LPG, finished fertilisers, phosphoric acid, crude and petroleum products, timber
logs, wood pulp, liquid ammonia, and other liquid chemicals.
• The hinterland of the port includes the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
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Cochin Port
• Cochin port lies on two islands, Willingdon and Vallarpadam, in the Lake of Kochi in Kerala.
• This natural port is a major port on the Arabian Sea – Laccadive Sea – Indian Ocean Sea route.
• It is the first transshipment port in India. It acts as a gateway for trade with neighbouring countries
like Sri Lanka, Maldives, and the Middle East.
• The hinterland of the port includes the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and parts of Tamil Nadu.
• The imports of this port are chemical fertilisers, mineral oils, etc.,
• The major exports are tea and coffee.

Vizhinjam International Seaport

• Vizhinjam Port is India's first deepwater trans-shipment port near Thiruvananthapuram.
• Adani Ports and SEZ Private Ltd (India’s largest commercial port operator) is building this multi-pur-
pose seaport on a DBFOT model.
• The port is expected to compete with Colombo, Singapore, and Dubai.
⇨ Trans-shipment port: It is a port where cargo is transferred from one ship to another.
⇨ DBFOT model: A private company designs, builds, finances, operates, and maintains a public infra-
structure project for a specific time period and then transfers it back to the public sector.

Advantages of Vizhinjam International Seaport as a Trans-shipment Port

 Natural depth: The port has a natural depth of 18 m, which means it can accommodate large container
ships without dredging.
 Strategic location: It is on the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula, near the international shipping route
connecting Europe, the Persian Gulf, and the Far East.
 Good connectivity: The port is well-connected to the rest of India by road and rail.

Why India Needs a Trans-shipment Port?

• India has 12 major ports but lacks a mega-port for ultra-large container ships. So, 75% of India's
trans-shipment cargo is handled at foreign ports like Colombo, Singapore, and Klang.

[UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:

Port Well known as
1. Kamarajar Port First major port in India registered as a company
2. Mundra Port Largest privately owned port in India
3. Visakhapatnam Port Largest container port in Port India

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
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c) All three pairs

 d) None of the pairs

Explanation

• Ennore Port (or Kamarajar Port) is located about 24 km north of Chennai Port. It is an artificial
port. It is the 12th major port of India and the first port in India to be a public company.
• Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust – Nhava Sheva (JNPT) is the largest container port in India and one
of the most essential subcontinent harbours on the Western coast.

Answer: b) Only two pairs

Indian Ports as Gateways of Trade

• An interesting fact about ports in India is that its west coast has more ports than its east coast.

 Coromandel coast (Tamil Nadu)  Coastline of emergence (shallow continental shelf)

 Malabar coast (Kerala Coast)  Coastline of emergence (shallow continental shelf)
 Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast)  Coastline of submergence (deep ports)
 West-flowing rivers form estuaries, whereas east-flowing rivers form deltas (accumulation of sed-
iments).
 Estuaries are ideal for port construction. Building and maintaining the ports is easy and cost-
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effective. The plants and sand bars in estuaries help prevent shoreline erosion.
Some of the Indian ports, along with their hinterlands
Major Ports Hinterlands
Kandla Port J&K, Punjab, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat, MP, Uttaranchal, UP
Mumbai Port Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Rajasthan
Jawaharlal Nehru Port Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi
Marmagao Port Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra
New Mangalore Port Karnataka, parts of Kerala
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Kochi Port Kerala, southern Karnataka, south-western Tamil Nadu

 Kolkata Port Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim, NE states, Nepal, Bhutan
Paradip Port Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
Visakhapatnam Port Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Tuticorin Port Tirupur, Coimbatore, Erode, and Karur in Tamil Nadu, parts of Kerala
Chennai Port Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Ennore Port Parts of Tamil Nadu

India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

• IMEC is a proposed economic corridor to enhance connectivity and economic integration among Asia,
the Middle East, and Europe.
• It will span from India to Europe through the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and Greece. It will
include railway lines, shipping lanes, and road networks.
• Indian ports that will be connected to IMEC are Mundra (Gujarat), Kandla or Deendayal Port (Guja-
rat), and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Navi Mumbai).
• The IMEC was announced at the G20 summit in New Delhi. It is a counter to China's Belt and Road
Initiative (aims to connect China to Europe & Africa).
• The IMEC comprises two separate corridors: the East Corridor (India to the Persian Gulf) and the
North Corridor (the Persian Gulf to European ports).
• The IMEC also focuses on digital connectivity, promoting fibre optic cables and data centres along the
corridor.

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Issues and Challenges with Indian Ports

• Draught Levels: Most Indian container handling ports lack the capability to handle large container ves-
sels due to inadequate depth; a minimum draft depth of 18 m is needed to enable mother vessels to
dock at ports.
• Connectivity to Ports: Weak hinterland connectivity between production centres and gateway ports
often leads to higher costs and delays because of sub-optimal mode choices.
• Transhipment Port: Due to the absence of a transhipment port in India, a large percentage of contain-
ers in India are currently transhipped through other ports, such as Colombo, Singapore, Dubai, and
Salah. This leads to additional costs and delays due to the feeder voyage from India to the hub port.
• High turnaround times: Ports in India suffer from high turnaround times for ships. For example, in
Singapore, the average ship turnaround time is less than a day. However, in India, it is over two days.
• Port congestion: Port congestion due to container volume, shortage of handling equipment, and inef-
ficient operations are major concerns. Example: Nhava Sheva port.
• Sub-optimal Transport Modal Mix: Lack of requisite infrastructure for evacuation from major and non-
major ports leads to sub-optimal transport modal mix.
• Lengthy inspection and scrutiny: Though customs operations in India are rapidly going paperless and
converting to digital, inspections and scrutiny continue to be lengthy for cargo and other shipping op-
erations.
• Inadequate Infrastructure and Technology Issues: Another problem is the lack of adequate berthing
facilities, berths, and sufficient length for proper berthing of vessels at the Non-Major Ports. Most Non-
Major Ports do not have proper material handling equipment in place, which could facilitate a quick
turnaround. Further, many ports also lack adequate navigational aids, facilities, and IT systems.
• Jurisdiction: The major problem with regulation is that major and non-major ports fall under different
jurisdictions. Further, the regulatory framework is rigid.
• Environmental Pollution: During the operation of ports, spillage or leakages from the loading and
unloading of cargo and pollution from oil spills are common due to poor adherence to environmental
laws and standards. The water discharged during the cleaning of a ship and the discharge of ballast
water is a threat to marine ecosystems.
• Manpower Issues: Lack of adequate training, falling manpower quality, and opposition to reform are
major issues.

Government Initiatives

• In 2020, the Ministry of Shipping was renamed the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.
• In 2021, the Major Port Authorities Bill 2020 was passed by the Parliament of India. The bill aims to
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decentralise decision-making and reinforce excellence in major port governance

• All the major ports have been instructed to take immediate steps to complete the cybersecurity audit
for the entire infrastructure installed at the ports and take appropriate measures to strengthen cyberse-
curity at the ports.
• The Government of India allows 100% FDI under the automatic route for port development projects.
• Project UNNATI was launched to benchmark the operational and financial performance of the 12 major
ports with selected Indian private ports and best-in-class international ports for identifying improvement
areas.
• Coastal Berth Scheme: The scheme aims to provide financial support to ports/state governments for
the creation of infrastructure for the movement of cargo/passengers by sea or National Waterways. This
scheme was integrated under the Sagarmala Programme
• SAROD-Ports: SAROD-Ports were launched in 2020 to affordable and timely resolve disputes in a fair
manner and enrich the Dispute Resolution Mechanism with a panel of technical experts as arbitrators.
This institution will promote ease of doing business in the maritime sector because of the fast, timely,
cost-effective, and robust dispute resolution mechanism.

Sagarmala Project
• The Sagarmala Project is a flagship Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and
Waterways (MoPSW).
• It aims to foster port-led development in India by leveraging its 7,500 km coastline, 14,500 km of
navigable waterways, and strategic global maritime position.
• The Union Cabinet approved the concept of Sagarmala in 2015. The vision is to reduce domestic and
EXIM cargo logistics costs with optimised infrastructure investment.
• The five pillars of the Sagarmala Project are:
1. Port modernisation & new port development
2. Port connectivity enhancement
3. Port-led industrialisation
4. Coastal community development
5. Coastal shipping and Inland water transport
• Projects under Sagarmala are implemented by relevant Major Ports, Central Ministries, State Mari-
time Boards, State Governments, and other agencies.

Six Megaports planned under Sagarmala Project

State Place Port
Kerala Vizhinjam Vizhinjam International Seaport
Tamil Nadu Colachel Colachel Seaport
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Maharashtra Vadhavan (near Dahanu) Vadhavan Port

 Karnataka Tadadi Tadadi port
Andhra Pradesh Machilipatnam Machilipatnam Port
West Bengal Sagar Island Sagar Island Port

National Technology Centre for Ports, Waterways and Coasts (NTCWPC)

• Under the Sagarmala Scheme, NTCWPC was established at IIT Chennai. The institute acts as a techno-
logical arm of the MoPSW. It aims to drive technological advancements in India’s port sector.
• The NTCWPC focuses on creating innovative solutions to address challenges faced by ports, waterways,
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and coastlines. This includes research and development in areas like:

  Port infrastructure design and engineering.
 Dredging and siltation management.
 Ocean renewable energy.
 Autonomous platforms and vehicles.
 Coastal erosion and climate change mitigation.

Comprehensive Port Connectivity Plan (CPCP)

• Under PM Gati Shakti, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) pre-
pared a Comprehensive Port Connectivity Plan (CPCP).
• It was prepared in collaboration with the
 Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways (MoPSW),
 Ministry of Railways (MoR),
 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) and
 State Maritime Boards.
• CPCP incorporates road and rail projects along with port projects. These projects aim to enhance ports'
last mile and hinterland connectivity.
• The projects initiated through the Sagarmala Program and those outlined in the CPCP prioritise enhanc-
ing the final stretch and immediate connectivity of ports to their hinterlands.

PM Gati Shakti – National Master Plan for Multi-modal Connectivity

• PM Gati Shakti is a digital platform that brings 16 ministries together for integrated planning and
coordinated implementation of infrastructure connectivity projects.
• It will incorporate the infrastructure schemes of various Ministries and State Governments, such as
Bharatmala, Sagarmala, inland waterways, dry/land ports, UDAN, etc.

116
[UPSC 2016] Recently, which of the following States has explored the possibility of con-
structing an artificial inland port to be connected to the sea by a long navigational chan-
nel?
a) Andhra Pradesh
b) Chhattisgarh
c) Karnataka
d) Rajasthan

Explanation

• Rajasthan has investigated the feasibility of establishing an artificial inland port, which would be linked
to the sea through an extensive navigational channel.
• It aims to boost water transportation within the state and offer an alternative mode of transit to
complement the current road and rail networks.

Answer: d) Rajasthan
[UPSC 1995] Of the four places marked 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the map, the one indicating a tidal
port is:

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Explanation

• Kanda is a tidal port.

Answer: d) 4

------------ End of Chapter ------------

117
 8. Transport and Communication

• The principal modes of transportation are land, water, air, and pipelines. The significance of a mode
depends on the type of goods and services to be transported, the costs of transport, etc.
• Ocean freighters handle the international movement of goods. Road transport is cheaper and faster
over short distances and for door-to-door services. Railways are most suited for large volumes of bulky
materials over long distances. Airways are suited to move high-value, light, and perishable goods.
Pipelines transport gas and liquids like mineral oil and water.

Land Transport

• The revolution in transport came about only after the invention of the steam engine. The first public
railway line was opened in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in northern England. Railways
opened up continental interiors for commercial grain farming, mining, and manufacturing in the U.S.A.
• Pipelines, ropeways, and cableways are among the newer developments in land transportation.
• The great freight carriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges, boats and motor trucks, and pipelines.
• In general, old and elementary means of transportation, such as the human porter, pack animal, cart, or
wagon, are the most expensive, and large freighters are the cheapest.

Pack Animals
• Horses are used as a draught animal even in the Western countries. Dogs and reindeer are used in
North America, North Europe, and Siberia to draw sledges over snow-covered ground. Mules are pre-
ferred in the mountainous regions, while camels are used for caravan movement in deserts. In India,
bullocks are used for pulling carts

Roads
• Road transport is the most economical for short distances compared to railways.
• The world’s total motorable road length is only about 15 million km, of which North America accounts
for 33 per cent. This continent has the highest road density and the highest number of vehicles.
• India has about 66.71 lakh km of road network, which is the second largest in the world.

Highways
• In North America, highway density is high, about 0.65 km per sq. km. Every place is within 20 km distance
from a highway.
• The Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver, British Columbia (west coast), to St. John’s City,
Newfoundland (east coast), and the Alaskan Highway links Edmonton (Canada) to Anchorage
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(Alaska).
• The Pan-American Highway, a large portion of which has been constructed, will connect the countries
of South America, Central America, and the U.S.A.-Canada.
• The Transcontinental Stuart Highway connects Darwin (north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant
Creek and Alice Springs in Australia.
• Europe has a large number of vehicles and a well-developed highway network. In Russia, a dense high-
way network is developed in the industrialised region west of the Urals with Moscow. The important
Moscow-Vladivostok Highway serves the region to the east. Due to the vast geographical area, high-
ways in Russia are not as important as railways.
• In India, many highways link the major towns and cities. National Highway 44 is the longest highway
in India, connecting Srinagar with Kanyakumari.
• The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway connects the four metropolitan cities — New
Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, and Hyderabad.

[UPSC 2023] With reference to India's projects on connectivity, consider the following
statements:
1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.
2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.
3. Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with
Kunming in China.

How many of the above statements are correct?

a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All three
d) None

Explanation

• The East-West Corridor is part of the Golden Quadrilateral project, but it connects Silchar in Assam
to Porbandar in Gujarat.

Trilateral Highway
• The Trilateral Highway initiative seeks to link Moreh in Manipur, India, with Mae Sot in Thailand
through Myanmar, fostering trade, connectivity, and interpersonal relationships across the involved
nations.

Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM)

• The Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM) proposes to establish an eco-
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nomic pathway connecting Kunming in China to Kolkata in India, traversing through Myanmar and
Bangladesh.
 Answer: d) None

Railways
• The railway gauges vary in different countries and are roughly classified as broad (more than 1.5 m),
standard (1.44 m), metre gauge (1 m), and smaller gauges.
• Europe has one of the densest rail networks in the world. The industrial regions exhibit some of the
highest densities in the world. Passenger transport is more important than freight in many of these
countries.
• Underground railways are important in London and Paris. Channel Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel
Group through England, connects London with Paris.
• Trans-continental railway lines have now lost their importance to quicker and more flexible transport
systems of airways and roadways.
• Railways account for about 90 per cent of Russia’s total transport. Underground railways and commuter
trains are also important in Moscow.
• North America has one of the most extensive rail networks. In contrast to many European countries,
the railways are used more for long-distance bulky freight like ores, grains, timber, and machinery
than for passengers.
• The west-east Australian National Railway line runs across the country from Perth to Sydney. New Zea-
land’s railways are mainly in the North Island to serve the farming areas.
• In South America, the rail network is the densest in two regions, namely, the Pampas of Argentina and
the coffee-growing region of Brazil.
• In Asia, the rail network is the densest in the thickly populated areas of Japan, China, and India.
• India has the 4th largest railway system globally, following the US, Russia, and China. As of 2020,
Indian Railways' route length was 67,956 km, with a running track length of 99,235 km.

Trans-Continental Railways
• Trans-continental railways run across the continent and link its two ends. They were constructed for
economic and political reasons to facilitate long runs in different directions.

Trans-Siberian Railway
• The Trans-Siberian Railway runs from St. Petersburg in the west to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast.
It crosses the Ural Mountains and the Ob and Yenisei rivers. Chita is an important agro centre, and
Irkutsk, a fur centre, are on the route.
• It is the longest (9,332 km) double-tracked and electrified transcontinental railway in the world. It
has helped open up the Asian region to West European markets.
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• There are connecting links to the south, namely, to Odesa (Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast, Tash-
kent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia), and Shenyang (Mukden), and Beijing in China.
Trans-Canadian Railways
• This 7,050 km long rail line in Canada runs from Halifax in the east to Vancouver on the Pacific Coast,
passing through Montreal, Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Calgary.
• It gained economic significance because it connected the Quebec-Montreal Industrial Region with
the wheat belt of the Prairie Region and the Coniferous Forest region in the north.

121
• A loop line from Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior) connects this rail line with one of the
world's important waterways. This line is Canada's economic artery. Wheat and meat are the im-
portant exports on this route.

The Union and Pacific Railway

• This rail line connects New York on the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast, passing
through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden, and Sacramento. The most valuable exports on this
route are ores, grain, paper, chemicals, and machinery.

The Australian Trans-Continental Railway

• This rail line runs west-east across the southern part of the continent from Perth on the west coast to
Sydney on the east coast, passing through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill, and Port Augusta.
• Another major north-south line connects Adelaide and Alice Spring and is to be joined further to the
Darwin–Birdum line.

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The Orient Express

• This line runs from Paris to Istanbul, passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest and
Belgrade. The chief exports on this rail route are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and machinery.

Water Transport

• Water transport is divided into sea routes and inland waterways. It is much cheaper because the friction
of water is far less than that of land. The energy cost of water transportation is also lower.

Sea Routes

• Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a cheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) of bulky
material over long distances from one continent to another. The development of refrigerated cham-
bers for perishable goods, tankers, and specialised ships has also improved cargo transport.

The Northern Atlantic Sea Route

• This link connects the Northeastern U.S.A. and Northwestern Europe, two industrially developed regions.
Both coasts have highly advanced ports and harbour facilities.
• One-fourth of the world’s foreign trade moves on this route. It is, therefore, the busiest in the world
and is otherwise called the Big Trunk Route.

The Mediterranean-Indian Ocean Sea Route

• This sea route passes through the heart of the Old World and serves more countries and people than
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any other route. Port Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo, and Singapore are some of the important ports
on this route.
• The construction of the Suez Canal greatly reduced the distance and time compared to the earlier route
through the Cape of Good Hope, which was longer than the route through the Suez Canal.

The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route

• This trade route connects the highly industrialised Western European region with West Africa, South
Africa, Southeast Asia, and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies of Australia and New
Zealand.
• The volume of trade between both East and West Africa is on the increase due to the development of
rich natural resources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee, and fruits.

The Southern Atlantic Sea Route

• This sea route connects West European and West African countries with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay.
Traffic on this route is less because of the limited development in South America and Africa. Only
southeastern Brazil, the Plata estuary, and parts of South Africa have large-scale industries.
• There is also little traffic on the route between Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town because both South
America and Africa have similar products and resources.

The North Pacific Sea Route

• Trade across the vast North Pacific Ocean moves by several routes that converge at Honolulu.
• The North Pacific Sea Route links the ports on the west coast of North America with those of Asia.
These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles on the American side and
Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and Singapore on the Asian side.
• The direct route on the Great Circle links Vancouver and Yokohama and reduces the travelling distance
by half.

The South Pacific Sea Route

• This sea route connects Western Europe and North America with Australia, New Zealand, and the
scattered Pacific islands via the Panama Canal. It is also used to reach Hong Kong, the Philippines, and
Indonesia. Honolulu is an important port on this route.

Coastal Shipping
• While oceanic routes connect different countries, coastal shipping is a convenient mode of transporta-
tion with long coastlines, e.g. U.S.A, China, and India.
• Shenzhen States in Europe are most suitably placed for coastal shipping connecting one member’s
coast with the other.

Shipping Canals
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• The Suez and the Panama Canal are two vital man-made navigation canals.
The Suez Canal
• This canal, which links the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, was constructed in 1869 in Egypt
between Port Said in the north and Port Suez in the south. It is a sea-level canal without locks. After
several enlargements, it is 193.30 km long, 24 m deep and 205 metres wide.
• It gives Europe a new gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces the direct sea route distance between
Liverpool and Colombo compared to the Cape of Good Hope route.
• About 100 ships travel daily, and each ship takes 10-12 hours to cross this canal. The tolls are so high
that some find it cheaper to take the longer Cape Route whenever the consequent delay is not im-
portant.

The Panama Canal

• This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. It was constructed
across the Panama Isthmus between Panama City and Colon by the U.S. government, which purchased
an area of 8 km on either side. It shortens the distance between New York and San Francisco by 13,000
km by sea.
• The Canal is about 82 km long and involves a very deep cutting for a length of 12 km. It has a six-lock
system, and ships cross the different levels (26 m up and down) through these locks before entering
the Gulf of Panama. The economic significance of this Canal is relatively less than that of the Suez.

Inland Waterways
• Inland waterways are economical for transporting very heavy cargoes such as coal, cement, timber, and
metallic ores. However, the development and operability of inland waterways are dependent on the
navigability width and depth of the channel, continuity in the water flow, transport technology, etc.
• In ancient times, riverways were the main highways of transportation, as in India. However, they lost
importance because of competition from railways, construction of dams, a lack of water due to diversion
for irrigation, and poor maintenance.

The Rhine Waterways

• It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands with
the North Atlantic Sea Route.
• The Rhine flows through Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, and the Netherlands.
It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands, to Basel in Switzerland.
Ocean-going vessels can reach up to Cologne.
• The Ruhr River joins the Rhine from the east. It flows through a rich coalfield, and the whole basin has
become a prosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf is the Rhine port for this region.
Huge tonnage moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr, the world’s most heavily used waterway.
125

•
Each year, more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargo.
The Danube Waterway
• The Danube River rises in the Black Forest and flows eastwards through Germany, Austria, Slovakia,
Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Moldova. It is navigable up to Taurna
Severin. The chief export items are wheat, maise, timber, and machinery.

The Volga Waterway

126
• Russia has many developed waterways, of which the Volga is one of the most important. It is 11,200 km
navigable and drains into the Caspian Sea. The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with the Moscow
region, and the Volga-Don Canal connects it with the Black Sea.

The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Seaway

• The estuary of the St. Lawrence River, along with the Great Lakes (Superior, Huron Erie, and Ontario),
forms a unique commercial waterway in the northern part of North America.
• The Great Lakes are connected by the Soo Canal (between Lake Superior and Lake Huron) and Wel-
land Canal (between Lake Erie to the south and Lake Ontario to the north; the canal helps bypass the
Niagara River, the natural connection between Lakes Erie and Ontario) to form the St. Lawrence in-
land waterway.
• The ports on this route, like Duluth and Buffalo, are equipped with all the facilities of ocean ports. As
such, large oceangoing vessels are able to navigate up the river deep inside the continent to Montreal.
But here, goods have to be trans-shipped to smaller vessels due to the presence of rapids. Canals have
been constructed up to 3.5 m deep to avoid these.
127

The Mississippi Waterways

• The Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects the interior part of the U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexico in the
south. Large steamers can go through this route up to Minneapolis.

Air Transport
• Routes in the Himalayan region are often obstructed by landslides, avalanches, or heavy snowfall. At
such times, air travel is the only alternative to reaching a place.
• At present, no place in the world is more than 35 hours away. The world's longest flight is the 15,300
km route from New York City to Singapore, operated by Singapore Airlines, which takes 18.5 hours.
• The manufacturing of aircraft and their operations require elaborate infrastructure, such as hangars,
landing, fuelling, and maintenance facilities. Airport construction is also very expensive and has devel-
oped more in highly industrialised countries with a large volume of traffic.

Inter-Continental Air Routes

• In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distinct east-west belt of inter-continental air routes. A dense
network exists in the Eastern U.S.A., Western Europe, and Southeast Asia. The U.S.A. alone accounts for
60 per cent of the airways of the world.
• New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai,
Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Chicago are the nodal points where air
128

routes converge or radiate to all continents.

• Africa, the Asian part of Russia, and South America lack air services. Air services are limited between 10
and 35 latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere due to the sparser population, limited landmass, and
economic development.

Pipelines
• Pipelines are used extensively to transport liquids and gases such as water, petroleum, liquified coal
and natural gas for an uninterrupted flow. Cooking gas, or LPG, is supplied through pipelines in many
parts of the world. In New Zealand, milk is being supplied through pipelines from farms to factories.
• In the U.S.A., there is a dense network of oil pipelines from the producing areas. Big Inch is a famous
pipeline that carries petroleum from the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the northeastern states.
About 17 per cent of all freight per tonne-km. is carried through pipelines in the U.S.A.
• Pipelines connect oil wells to refineries, ports, and domestic markets in Europe, Russia, West Asia, and
India. Turkmenistan has extended pipelines to Iran and also to parts of China. The proposed Iran-India
via Pakistan international oil and natural gas pipeline will be the longest in the world.

Communications

• The telegraph was instrumental in the colonisation of the American West. Telephone became a critical
factor in the urbanisation of America. Firms centralised their functioning at city headquarters and located
their branches in smaller towns. In developing countries, cell phones are important for rural connectivity.
• The first major breakthrough is the use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with mounting competition,
telephone companies all over the world soon upgraded their copper cable systems to include optic fiber
129

cables. These allow large quantities of error-free data to be transmitted rapidly.

• With the digitisation of information in the 1990s, telecommunication slowly merged with computers to
form integrated networks termed as Internet.

Satellite Communication
• Communication through satellites emerged as a new area in communication technology since the 1970s
after U.S.A. and former U.S.S.R. pioneered space research.
• Artificial satellites have rendered the unit cost and time of communication invariant in terms of dis-
tance. This means it costs the same to communicate over 500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite.
• India has also made great strides in satellite development. Aryabhatta was launched on 19 April 1979,
Bhaskara-I in 1979 and Rohini in 1980. Bhaskara, Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long-distance
communication, television and radio very effective.

Cyber Space – Internet

• Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerised space. It is encompassed by the Internet such as the
World Wide Web (www).
• The speed at which this electronic network has spread is unprecedented in human history. There were
less than 50 million Internet users in 1995, about 400 million in 2000 A.D., and over two billion in 2010.
• In the last few years there has been a shift among global users from U.S.A. to the developing countries.
The percentage share of the U.S.A. has dropped from 66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the majority
of the world’s users are in the U.S.A., U.K., Germany, Japan, China, and India.

------------ End of Chapter ------------

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 9. Transport and Communication in India

Road Transport in India

• India has the second largest road network in the world, with a total length of 63.73 lakh km. About
85 percent of passenger and 70 percent of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.
• Roads are classified as National Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major District Roads, and Rural
Roads for construction and maintenance.
• The ‘Nagpur Plan’ (1943) was the first serious attempt at modern road development. However this plan
stalled due to coordination issues between princely states and British India. After Independence, a
twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads.

Grand Trunk (GT) Road

• Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his empire from the Indus
Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal. This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the
British period, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar. At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata.

National Highways
• National Highways are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). They
facilitate interstate transport and strategic movement of defense personnel and materials. These also
connect the state capitals, major cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc.
• The National Highway (NH) network increased by ~60% from 91,287 km in 2014 to 1,46,145 km in
2023. Although the National Highways constitute only about 1.67% of the total road length, they
carry 40% of the road traffic.

Naming of National Highways (NHs)

• The assignment of numbers to National Highways follows a logical pattern. For all the important high-
ways, one- or two-digit numbers are used.

NHs from East to West

• For all the NHs from East to West, even numbers are used. It is assigned from East to West in the
ascending order. For e.g., NH-2 is in NE States, and NH-68 is in Rajasthan.

NHs from North to South

• For all the NHs from North to South, odd numbers are assigned. In this case, the highways are named
in ascending numbers from North to South. For e.g., NH-1 is in J&K and NH-87 is in TN.
131

Subsidiary Highways
• Highways bearing three-digit numbers are known as subsidiary highways. They form intricate
branches of their parent NHs. For instance, the extensions 244, 144, and 344 are offshoots of the main
artery, NH 44.
• The first digit in the subsidiary highway numbers dictates their directional orientation. Odd digits
signify East-to-West trajectories, while even digits denote North-to-South orientations. The sections of
the subsidiary highways are denoted by placing a letter (A, B, C, or D) in the three-digit number.

132

Important National Highways (NH)

NH States/UTs Description
NH 1 J&K and Ladakh Connects Uri, Baramulla, Srinagar, and Kargil and
terminates at Leh
NH 301 J&K Starts from Kargil on NH-1 and terminates at Zanskar
NH 701 J&K Starts from Baramulla on NH-1 and terminates at Tang-
dhar
NH 2 Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
NH 102 Starts near Imphal and terminates at Moreh (Indo/Myanmar Border)
NH 3 Punjab, HP, J&K, and Ladakh It connects Atari (India/Pakistan Border), Amritsar,
Jalandhar, Mandi, Kullu, Manali, etc., and terminates
at Leh.
NH 4 A and N Islands Connects Port Blair
NH 5 Haryana, Chandigarh, HP, Punjab Proceeds to the Indo-Tibetan border near Shipkila
NH 6 Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram
NH 7 Haryana, HP, Punjab, Uttarakhand Traverses between Varanasi and Kanyakumari
NH 8 Assam, Tripura Terminates at the Indo/Bangladesh border in Tripura
NH 9 Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, UP, Uttarakhand
NH 10 Sikkim, WB Starts from Indo/Bangladesh border and terminates at
Gangtok
NH 13 Arunachal Pradesh Starting from Tawang and connecting Bomdila, Ziro,
Pasighat, etc.
NH 14 WB
NH 15 Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
NH 16 Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, TN, WB Golden Quadrilateral
NH 17 Assam, WB
NH 18 Jharkhand, Orissa, WB
NH 19 Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Jharkhand, Golden Quadrilateral
UP, WB
NH 20 Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa
NH 21 Rajasthan, UP
NH 22 Bihar, Jharkhand
NH 27 Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, MP, Raja- East-West Corridor
sthan, UP, WB
NH 29 Assam, Manipur, Nagaland
133

NH 30 Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, MP, Telangana, UP, Uttarakhand

 NH 31 Bihar, UP, WB
NH 32 TN, Puducherry
NH 33 Bihar, Jharkhand, WB
NH 34 MP, UP, Uttarakhand Starts from Gangotri Dham
NH 43 MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
NH 44 Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Longest NH (traverses from Srinagar to Kanya-
HP, J&K, Karnataka, MP, Maha- kumari)
rashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tel-
angana, TN, UP
NH 47 Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra
NH 48 Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Golden Quadrilateral
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, TN
NH 49 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa, WB
NH 50 Maharashtra, Karnataka
NH 51 Gujarat
NH 52 Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan
NH 53 Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa
NH 54 Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab
NH 56 Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP
NH 58-68 Gujarat, Rajasthan
NH 60 Maharashtra
NH 61 Maharashtra, Telangana
NH 62 Rajasthan, Punjab
NH 63 Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa
NH 65 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana
NH 66 Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, TN
NH 67-69 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
NH 75 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, TN

National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)

• NHAI was constituted by an Act of Parliament in 1988, but it became operational in 1995. It is under
the administrative control of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
• NHAI is entrusted with the responsibility of developing, maintaining, and operating National Highways.
It is also the apex body for improving the quality of the roads designated as National Highways.
134

National Highways Development Project (NHDP)

• Launched in 1998, NHDP is the largest highway project undertaken by India. Under this project, about
13,150 km of NHs are proposed to be 4/6-laned. NHDP is being implemented by the National Highways
Authority of India (NHAI).
• The phases of NHDP:
 Phase I: Golden Quadrilateral and North-South and East-West Corridors
 Phase II: North-South and East-West Corridors
 Phase III: Four-laning of high-density NHs connecting state capitals and places of economic, com-
mercial, and tourist importance.
 Phase IV: Upgradation of single-lane roads to two-lane standards with paved shoulders.
 Phase V: Six-laning of four-lane highways.
 Phase VI: Construction of expressways connecting major commercial and industrial townships.
 Phase VII: Construction of ring roads, by-passes, underpasses, flyovers, etc.

Golden Quadrilateral
• It comprises the construction of a 5,846-km long 4/6 lane, high-density traffic corridor to connect India’s
four big metro cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. It covers 13 states across the country.
• With the construction of the Golden Quadrilateral, the time, distance, and cost of movement among the
megacities of India will be considerably minimized.

North-South and East-West Corridors

• North-South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanyakumari in Tamil
Nadu (including Kochchi-Salem Spur) with a 4,076-km long road.
• The East-West Corridor has been planned to connect Silchar in Assam with the port town of Porbandar
in Gujarat with 3,640 km of road length.
• The North-South Corridor connects 13 states, and the East-West Corridor covers 7 states. The North-
South and East-West corridors meet at Jhansi, UP.

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:

National Highway Cities connected
1. NH4 Chennai and Hyderabad
2. NH6 Mumbai and Kolkata
3. NH15 Ahmedabad and Jodhpur

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
135

c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Explanation

NH4
• The highway connects Mayabandar Port Blair, Chiriyatapu in Andaman Nicobar Islands.

NH6
• The highway starts from its junction with NH-27 near Jorabat in the State of Assam and terminates at
Zokhawthar in the State of Mizoram.

NH15
• NH15 starts from its junction with NH-27 near Baihata-Charali in Assam and terminates at its junction
with NH-13 near Wakro in Arunachal Pradesh.

Answer: d) None
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following National Highways passes through Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh and Orissa?
a) NH 4
b) NH 5
c) NH 6
d) NH 7

Explanation

• The NH16 (new) has replaced the old NHs 5, 6, 60 and 217. It passes through the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Answer: NH 6
[UPSC 2004] Which among the following National Highway routes is the longest?
a) Agra-Mumbai
b) Chennai-Thane
c) Kolkata-Hajira
d) Pune-Machilipatnam

Answer: c) Kolkata-Hajira (Gujarat)

[UPSC 1995] The National Highway from Amritsar to Calcutta via Delhi is numbered:
a) 1
b) 2
c) 4
d) 8
136

Answer: b) 2 (old naming)

Other Roads
State Highways
• These are constructed and maintained by state governments. They connect the state capitals with dis-
trict headquarters and other important towns and constitute 4% (1,86,908 km) of the total road length
in the country.

District Roads
• These roads connect the District Headquarters with the other important nodes in the district. They ac-
count for 14% of the country's total road length.

Rural Roads
• About 80% of the total road length in India is categorized as rural roads. The density of rural roads varies
regionally because the terrain influences them.
 Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana: Under this scheme, special provisions are made so that
every village in the country is linked to a major town by an all-season motorable road.

Border Roads
• Strategically important roads in the border areas of the country are called border roads.

Border Roads Organisation (BRO)

• BRO is a statutory body under the Ministry of Defence established in 1960. It is a road construction
executive force in India that provides support to the Indian Armed Forces.
• BRO develops and maintains road networks (including snow clearance) in India's border areas and
friendly neighbouring countries.
• To ensure the expeditious execution of projects, the GoI established the Border Roads Development
Board (BRDB), with the Prime Minister as Chairman and the Defence Minister as Deputy Chairman.
• BRO has constructed roads in high-altitude mountainous terrain, connecting Chandigarh with Manali
(Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270 meters above the
mean sea level.
• In addition to constructing and maintaining roads in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO also clears
snow in high-altitude areas.

International Highways
• An International Highway runs through more than one country. They are used as agreed under State
bilateral and multilateral agreements.

Road Density
137
 • The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as the density of roads. The density of roads
varies from only 12.14 km in J&K to 517.77 km in Kerala. The national average density of roads is
142.68 km.

Bharatmala Pariyojana
• It is an umbrella scheme launched to enhance the efficiency of goods and people movement across
India. It emphasises corridor-based National Highway development to ensure infrastructure symmetry
and a consistent road user experience.
• Phase I, approved in October 2017, focuses on bridging critical infrastructure gaps by developing
34,800 km of National Highways. In Phase II, the government will focus on expressways and access-
control highways with a cumulative length of 5,000 kilometres. Setubharatam Pariyojana is for the
construction of about 1500 major bridges and 200 rail over bridges rail under bridges.

138
Multi-Modal Logistics Park
• The Multi-Modal Logistics Parks (MMLPs) are being developed by the Ministry of Road, Transport and
Highways under the Bharatmala Project.
• Objective: To improve the country's logistics sector by lowering overall freight costs, reducing vehicular
pollution and congestion, and cutting warehousing costs.
• The MMLPs will provide direct connectivity to air, road, rail and waterways to the people. Recently,
the foundation stone for India's first multi-modal logistics park was laid in Assam.
• Under Phase I, 35 MMLPs are being developed, six of which are in port cities: Cochin (Kerala), Chennai
(Tamil Nadu), Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Kolkata (West Bengal),
and Kandla (Gujarat).

Green National Highway project

• The Green National Highway Corridor Project (GNHCP) will be implemented in four states: Himachal
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, with the financial assistance of the World
Bank. The project's total length will be 781 km.
• The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) launched the National Green Highways Mis-
sion (NGHM) following the promulgation of the ‘Green Highways Policy’ (2015). The GNHCP sup-
ports the implementation of the NGHM and the provision of green and safe transport.
• The objective of the GNHCP is to demonstrate safe and green highways, considering climate resilience
and the use of green technologies.

[UPSC 1998] What is the correct sequence of the following Indian states in descending
order of their length of surface roads per 100 km2 of their area
1. Haryana
2. Maharashtra
3. Punjab
4. Tamil Nadu

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

a) 4, 3, 2, 1
b) 4, 3,1, 2
c) 3, 4, 1, 2
d) 3, 4, 2, 1

Answer: a) 4, 3, 2, 1
[UPSC 1998] Which one of the following pairs of cities has recently been connected
through a 6-lane express way?
139
 (a) Ahmedabad Vadodara
(b) Dhaka Chittagong
(c) Islamabad Lahore
(d) Mumbai Pune

Answer: a) Ahmedabad - Vadodara

Rail Transport in India

• The Indian Railway was introduced in 1853 when a 34-km line was constructed from Bombay to Thane.
• The length of the Indian Railways network was 67,956 km as of 31 March 2020.
• The railway system has been divided into 16 zones:
Railway Zone Headquarters
Central 1. Mumbai CST
Eastern 2. Kolkata
East Central 3. Hajipur
East Coast 4. Bhubaneswar
Northern 5. New Delhi
North Central 6. Allahabad
North Eastern 7. Gorakhpur
North East Frontier 8. Maligaon (Guwahati)
North Western 9. Jaipur
Southern 10. Chennai
South Central 11. Secunderabad
South Eastern 12. Kolkata
South East Central 13. Bilaspur
South Western 14. Hubli
Western 15. Mumbai [Church Gate)
West Central 16. Jabalpur
• On the basis of the width of the track of the Indian Railways, three categories have been made:
1. Broad gauge: The distance between rails in broad gauge is 1.676 metres. In March 2020, the total
length of broad gauge lines was 62949 km.
2. Metre gauge: The distance between rails is one metre. Its total length was 2402 km in March 2020.
3. Narrow gauge: In this case, the distance between the rails is 0.762 metres or 0.610 metres. The
total length of the narrow gauge was 1604 km in March 2020. It is generally confined to hilly areas.
140

Konkan Railway
• One of the important achievements of the Indian Railways has been the construction of the Konkan
Railway in 1998. It is a 760-km long rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Kar-
nataka. The states of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka are partners in this undertaking.

Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC)

• It involves the construction of six freight corridors spanning the entire country. The initial focus is on
Eastern and Western DFCs, which are currently under construction. Other corridors (North-South, East-
West, East-South, South-South) are in the planning stage. The Government of India (GoI) established
the Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India (DFCCIL) in 2006 to implement the project.
• SRESTHA Initiative: a new R&D organisation to meet future technology needs of Railways.
• Upon completion, the Western and Eastern corridors will increase the railway's freight-carrying capacity
to around 2,300 million tonnes, up from 1,200 million tonnes currently.

Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC)

• The WDFC covers Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. It spans for 1,468 km
from Dadri, UP to Jawaharlal Nehru Port, Mumbai. The Japan International Cooperation Agency is
funding it.

Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC)

• The EDFC route covers Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. It spans 1,760
km from Ludhiana, Punjab, to Dankuni, West Bengal. The World Bank is funding it.
• The connecting link between Dadri and Khurja for the Eastern and Western Arms is under construction.

Diamond Quadrilateral
• Diamond Quadrilateral is a project of the Indian Railways to establish a high-speed rail network in
India launched in 2014. The project is implemented by National High-Speed Rail Corporation Lim-
ited.
• The Diamond Quadrilateral, which will connect the four mega cities of India—Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
and Chennai — similar to the Golden Quadrilateral highway system.

[UPSC 2006] Consider the following statements concerning the Indian Railways.
1. The headquarters of the North Western Railway are located in Jodhpur.
2. "Indrail Pass" – a travel as you please ticket has been created especially for freedom fighters and
sportspersons who have represented India in any games/sport.
3. Fairy Queen is a train using the world's oldest working engine and the Indian Railways conducts
a journey of wildlife and heritage sites on it.
141

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 2 only
 b) 3 only
c) 1 and 2
d) None

Explanation

• Head Quarters of North Western Railway – Jaipur.

• Fairy Queen is the oldest surviving functional steam engine in the world. It was constructed in Eng-
land and reached Calcutta in 1855.

Indrail Pass
• INDRAIL PASS has been specially created for foreign tourists and Indian nationals residing abroad.
This ticket is available for a specified time period from half a day to 90 days. During the validity period,
foreign tourists can travel from anywhere to anywhere on the Indian Railway Network without route
or train restrictions and payment of additional charges.

Answer: b) 3 only
[UPSC 2002] With reference to Indian transport systems, consider the following state-
ments:
1. Indian railway system is the largest in the world
2. National Highways cater to 45 percent of the total and transport demand
3. Among the states, Kerala has the highest density of surface road
4. National Highway No. 7 is the longest in the country

Which of these statements are correct?

a) 1 and 2
b) 1 and 3
c) 2 and 3
d) 2 and 4

Explanation

• Indian Railway System – 4th largest in the world after USA, Russia and China.
• National Highways handles 40-45% of India’s road traffic.
• Highest density of surface roads – Maharashtra.
• NH 7 (currently NH 44) is the longest NH in India.

Answer: d) 2 and 4
[UPSC 1998] The four railway junctions shown by numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 on the rough outline
map of Gujarat are respectively:
142
 a) Palanpur, Mahesana, Ahmedabad and Vadodara
b) Mahesana, Surendranagar, Rajkot and Junagarh
c) Palanpur, Kanda, Bhuj and Okla
d) Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bhavnagar and Broach

Answer: b) Mahesana, Surendranagar, Rajkot and Junagarh

[UPSC 1998] Which one of the following sets of states benefits the most from the Konkan
Railway?
a) Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala
b) Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
c) Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra
d) Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu

Answer: a) Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala

Water Transport

Inland Waterways (IWT)

• It was the chief mode of transport before the advent of railways. It, however, faced tough competition
from road and railway transport. Moreover, the diversion of river water for irrigation purposes made
them non-navigable in large parts of their courses.
• IWT is considered an environmentally friendly and less pollutant mode of transport compared to rail
and road. Bulk cargo such as coal, fly ash, and iron ore was found to be economical and cost-effective
for transportation through IWT.
• India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1% to the country’s transportation.
143

It comprises rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. At present, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable by
mechanised flat-bottom vessels.
• The Inland Waterways Authority (IWA — statutory body; headquarters is in Noida) was established
through the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) Act, 1985, to develop, maintain, and regulate
national waterways in the country.

National Waterways (NWs) of India

• 111 waterways (including 5 existing and 106 new) have been declared as National Waterways (NWs)
under the National Waterways Act, 2016. Out of these, 25 NWs have been found viable for cargo/pas-
senger movement. Out of the 25 viable NWs, only 13 NWs are operational for shipping and navigation.

Operational National Waterways (NW)

144
NW Length (km) National Waterway State/Territory
NW 1 1620 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly UP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
and WB
NW 2 891 Brahmaputra River Assam
NW 3 365 West Coast Canal (Kottapuram-Kollam) and Kerala
Champakara-Udyogmandal Canal
NW 4 2890 Kakinada Canal, Godavari River, Eluru Canal, Andhra Pradesh, Tel-
Krishna River, Commamur Canal, Buckingham Ca- angana, Karnataka, TN,
nal, Marakanam to Puducherry through Kaluvelly and Maharashtra
tank
NW 10 45 Amba River Maharashtra
NW 68 41 Mandovi River Goa
NW 73 227 Narmada River Maharashtra & Gujarat
NW 83 31 Rajpuri Creek Maharashtra
NW 85 31 Revadanda Creek / Kundalika River Maharashtra
NW 91 52 Shastri River / Jaigad Creek Maharashtra
NW 97 654 Sunderbans Waterway, Bidya River, Chhota WB
Kalagachi River, Gomar River, Haribhanga River,
Hogla (Hogal)-Pathankhali River, Kalindi (Kalandi)
River, Katakhali River, Matla River, Muri Ganga
(Baratala) River, Raimangal River, Sahibkhali (Sa-
hebkhali) River, Saptamukhi River, Thakurran River
NW 100 436 Tapi River Maharashtra & Gujarat
NW 111 50 Zuari River Goa

Other Viable NWs Apart from Operational NWs

NW NW Name State/UT
NW 5 East Coast Canal and Matai River Odisha and
Brahmani-Kharsua-Dhamra Rivers WB
Mahanadi delta rivers (includes Hansua, Nunanala, Gobrinala, Kharnasi, and
Mahanadi)
NW 8 Alappuzha-Changanassery Canal Kerala
NW 9 Alappuzha-Kottayam-Athirampuzha Canal Kerala
NW 16 Barak River Assam
145

NW 25 Chapora River Goa

NW 27 Cumberjua River Goa
 NW 28 Dabhol Creek/Vashishti River Maharashtra
NW 37 Gandak River Bihar and UP
NW 40 Ghaghra River Bihar and UP
NW 44 Ichamati River WB
NW 52 Kali River Karnataka
NW 57 Kopili River Assam
NW 86 Rupnarayan River WB
NW 94 Sone River Bihar

Backwaters (Kadal) of Kerala

• They provide cheap means of transport and attract many tourists. The famous Nehru Trophy Boat
Race (Vallamkali) is also held in the backwaters.
NW Stretch Specification
NW 1 Allahabad-Hal- • It is navigable by mechanical boats up to Patna and by ordinary
dia stretch boats up to Haridwar.
(1,620 km) • It is divided into three parts for developmental purposes: (i) Haldia-
Farakka (560 km), (ii) Farakka-Patna (460 km), (iii) Patna-Prayagraj
(600 km).
NW2 Sadiya-Dhubri • Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers up to Dibrugarh (1,384 km),
stretch (891 km) which is shared by India and Bangladesh
NW 3 Kottapuram- • It includes 168 km of the west coast canal along with the Cham-
Kollam stretch pakara Canal (14 km) and the Udyogmandal Canal (23 km).
(205 km) and
West Coast Ca-
nal (160 km)
NW 4 Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry stretch
of canals.
NW 5 Specified stretches of the Brahmani river, along with the Matai river, delta channels of the
Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers, and East Coast canals. Total length: 588 km.

Sonamura-Daudkandi Inland Waterway Route

• Recently, the 90 km Sonamura-Daudkandi inland waterway route on River Gumati was operational-
ised. Daudkandi is in Bangladesh, while Sonamura is in Tripura, India.

Indo-Bangladesh Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade

146

• Under the Indo-Bangladesh Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade, inland vessels of one
country can transit through the specified routes of the other country. The existing protocol routes are:
 1. Kolkata-Pandu-Kolkata
2. Kolkata-Karimganj - Kolkata
3. Rajshahi-Dhulian-Rajshahi
4. Pandu-Karimganj-Pandu

Ports of Call
• For inter-country trade, certain ports of call have been designated in each country. These ports of
call generally act as an intermediate stop for a ship on its scheduled journey for unloading and
loading cargo or taking on supplies or fuel, and maintenance and refurbishing are carried out.
• Indian Ports of Call in the Indo-Bangladesh Region: Haldia (West Bengal), Kolkata (West Ben-
gal), Pandu (the largest river port in Assam; it falls under Dhubri-Sadiya National Waterway-2),
Karimganj (Assam), and Silghat (Assam).

[UPSC 2017] In what way can floods be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation
and all-weather inland navigation in India?
• India has a rich network of rivers, which often experience flooding during the monsoon season. While
floods can have devastating impacts, if managed properly, they can also be harnessed as a sustainable
source of irrigation and inland navigation.

Flood Control and Water Management

• Dams, reservoirs, and embankments along major rivers are constructed to control and regulate the
flow of water during floods, which can be used for irrigation.

Technology and Innovation

• Advanced forecasting techniques, such as remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and
hydrological modelling, can be used to monitor and manage floodwaters effectively for irrigation and
navigation.

Interlinking of Rivers

• Interlinking major rivers and their tributaries through a network of canals and waterways can help
in the transfer of excess water from flood-prone areas to water-scarce regions. This can provide a
reliable source of irrigation water and facilitate inland navigation throughout the year.

Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge

• Promoting rainwater harvesting techniques, such as constructing check dams and percolation
tanks, to capture excess flood water and recharge groundwater aquifers. This can help replenish
groundwater levels and ensure a sustainable supply of water for irrigation and other purposes.
147

River Basin Management

• Adopting an integrated river basin management approach to address flood control, irrigation, navi-
gation, and environmental conservation.

[UPSC 2016] Enumerate the problems and prospects of inland water transport in India.
Problems

 Insufficient development and maintenance of waterways, lack of infrastructure such as terminals

and navigational aids, siltation reducing depth, and seasonal variations affecting navigability.
 Inadequate integration with other modes of transport like rail and road leads to inefficiencies in
multimodal logistics.
 Environmental concerns arise from dredging activities impacting riverine ecosystems.
 Regulatory challenges stem from the involvement of multiple agencies, leading to coordination
issues.
 Decreased water flow due to industrial, agricultural, and habitation impacts.
 Inadequate water channel depth hinders the navigation of large vessels.
 Lack of storage infrastructure and cold storage facilities at ports.
 Inadequate air draft clearance under bridges, restricting vessel passage.
 Shortage of inland water transport (IWT) vessels due to capital-intensive nature and difficulties in
obtaining project finance.
 Excessive siltation caused by deforestation and erosion activities.

Prospects

 Inland water transport is generally more cost-effective than other modes, especially for the move-
ment of bulk commodities over long distances.
 It is a more environmentally friendly mode of transport, with lower carbon emissions and reduced
congestion on roads and railways.
 Untapped potential: India has an extensive network of rivers and canals, offering significant un-
tapped potential for inland water transport if developed and managed effectively.
 Government initiatives: The government has launched initiatives like the Jal Marg Vikas Project
and the National Waterway projects to develop and promote inland water transport.
 Decongestion of other modes: Increased use of inland water transport can help decongest roads
and railways, reducing logistics costs and improving overall transportation efficiency.
 Connectivity to hinterlands: Inland waterways can provide better connectivity to hinterlands and
remote areas, facilitating the movement of goods and people.
 Integration with coastal shipping: Inland water transport can be integrated with coastal shipping,
enabling seamless multimodal logistics and improving trade competitiveness.
148

Air Transportation
• Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a small dis-
tance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini. However, its real development took place in the post-
independent period.
• There were 25 major airports functioning in the country (Annual Report 2016-17). They are Ahmedabad,
Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram, Srinagar,
Jaipur, Calicut, Nagpur, Coimbatore, Cochin, Lucknow, Pune, Chandigarh, Mangaluru, Vishakhapatnam,
Indore, Patna, Bhubaneswar and Kannur.
• There are 149 operational airports in India in 2023, with 33 international airports and 105 domestic
airports. The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aero-
nautical communication services in the Indian Air Space.

Oil and Gas Pipelines

149
• Oil India Limited (OIL), under the administrative setup of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas,
is engaged in the exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil and natural gas. It was incor-
porated in 1959 as a company.
• OIL constructed Asia’s first cross-country pipeline, covering 1,157 km, from the Naharkatiya oilfield
in Assam to the Barauni refinery in Bihar. In 1966, it was further extended to Kanpur.
• An extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of India, of which An-
kleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-Koyali, and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) are the most im-
portant.
• Recently, a 1256 km-long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) was constructed.
It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.
• OIL is constructing a 660 km pipeline from Numaligarh to Siliguri. The Paradip Numaligarh Crude
Pipeline (under construction) and the New Mundra-Panipat Oil Pipeline (proposed) will be among
the longest oil pipelines in the world.
• As of 2020, an approximately 17,000 km-long natural gas pipeline network is operational in the country.
An additional 15,500 km of gas pipelines are planned under the National Gas Grid. The 1375 km Ka-
kinada to Bharuch Pipeline is one of the longest gas pipelines in the country.

150
151
Communication Networks

Radio
• Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay. The government brought
this popular mode of communication under its control in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System.
It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.

Television
152
• Initially, TV services were limited only to the National Capital, where they began in 1959. In 1976, TV was
delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD).
• After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common National Programmes (CNP)
was started for the entire network and its services were extended to the backward and remote rural
areas.

Satellite Communication
• Based on configuration and purposes, satellite systems in India can be grouped into two: the Indian
National Satellite System (INSAT) and the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS).
• Over the last twenty-five years, the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and GSAT systems have brought
about a revolution in various sectors, including telecommunications, TV broadcasting, DTH services,
business communications, and rural area connectivity.
• Established in 1983, the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) is a multi-purpose satellite system for tele-
communication, meteorological observation, and various other data and programs. It is one of the larg-
est domestic communication satellite systems in the Asia-Pacific region. Nine operational communica-
tion satellites are placed in Geostationary orbit.
• The IRS satellite system became operational after the launch of IRS-IA in 1988 in Russia. The National
Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilities for data acquisition and processing.
• The expansion of broadcasting and communication services in the country is done through the GSAT
system, which made India the largest domestic communication satellite system in the world.

Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS)

• The National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) oversees Indian Earth Observation
activities. The Indian Earth Observation (EO) system operates a constellation of remote sensing satellites,
including IRS and INSAT systems. IRS satellites provide data at different spatial, spectral, and temporal
resolutions.
• Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are equipped with sensors that can capture Earth's images and
data from space. These satellites detect various types of radiation emitted or reflected from the Earth's
surface. They serve multiple purposes, including weather monitoring, natural disaster monitoring,
agriculture, forestry, and land-based activities.
• The launch of India’s first civilian IRS-1A spacecraft in March 1988 marked the beginning of the Indian
Space Programme's successful journey.

[UPSC 2015] In which of the following activities are Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites
used?
1. Assessment of crop productivity
153

2. Locating groundwater resources

 3. Mineral exploration
4. Telecommunications
5. Traffic studies
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 4 and 5 only
c) 1 and 2 only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Answer: a) 1, 2 and 3 only

------------ End of Chapter ------------

154
 10. Planning & Sustainable Development In The Indian Context

• Generally, there are two approaches to planning, i.e., sectoral planning and regional planning.
1. Sectoral planning means formulating and implementing schemes or programmes aimed at devel-
oping various economic sectors, such as agriculture, irrigation, services, etc.
2. The uneven pattern of development over space necessitates that planners have a spatial perspective
and draw plans to reduce regional imbalance in development. This type of planning is termed re-
gional planning.
• India adopted centralised planning after Independence, but subsequently, it graduated into decentral-
ised multi-level planning.
• The Planning Commission was responsible for plan formulation at the Centre, State, and District levels.
However, on 1 January 2015, the Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog.

Target Area Planning

• In the 1960s, the Planning Commission introduced the ‘target area’ and ‘target group’ approaches to
planning to arrest the accentuation of regional and social disparities.
• Some examples of programmes directed towards the development of target areas are the Command
Area Development Programme, the Drought Prone Area Development Programme, the Desert
Development Programme, and the Hill Area Development Programme.
• The Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers Development Agency
(MFDA) are examples of target group programmes.
• In the 8th Five-Year Plan, special area programmes were designed to develop infrastructure in hill areas,
northeastern states, tribal areas, and backward areas.

Hill Area Development Programme (HADP)

• Hill Area Development Programmes were initiated during the Fifth Five-Year Plan, covering 15 dis-
tricts comprising all the hilly districts of Uttar Pradesh (present Uttarakhand), Mikir Hill and North
Cachar hills of Assam, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.
• These programmes are aimed at harnessing the indigenous resources of the hill areas through the de-
velopment of horticulture, plantation, agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, forestry, etc.
• In 1981, the National Committee on the Development of Backward Areas recommended that all the
hill areas in the country with heights above 600 m and not covered under the tribal sub-plan be treated
as backward hill areas. It divided the states into two groups: Special Category States and Designated
Hill Areas.
155

Special Category States

• Special Category States include Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, and Utta-
rakhand. These states focus on infrastructure development, social services, and community welfare.

Designated Hill Areas

• They are part of larger states with limited hilly regions. Examples include districts in Assam, Uttarak-
hand, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and talukas in the Western Ghats area.

Implementation
 Special Central Assistance allocation.
 Allocation based on area and population.
 Funds utilisation for core sectors like soil conservation, welfare of SC/ST, forestry, horticulture, etc.

Case Study – Integrated Tribal Development Project in Bharmaur Region

• The Bharmaur tribal area comprises the Bharmaur and Holi tehsils of Chamba district of Himachal Pra-
desh. It has harsh climate conditions, a low resource base, and a fragile environment.
• It is a notified tribal area inhabited by the ‘Gaddi’, a tribal community that practised transhumance and
conversed in the Gaddiali dialect. Historically, the Gaddis have experienced geographical and political
isolation and socio-economic deprivation.
• The development of the tribal area of Bharmaur started in the 1970s when Gaddis was included among
‘scheduled tribes’. Traditionally, the Gaddis had a subsistence agricultural-cum-pastoral economy with
an emphasis on foodgrains and livestock production. However, during the last three decades of the
twentieth century, the cultivation of pulses and other cash crops has increased in the Bharmaur region.

Drought Prone Area Programme

• This programme was initiated during the Fourth Five Year Plan with the objectives of providing em-
ployment to the people in drought-prone areas and creating productive assets.
• Initially, this programme emphasised the construction of labour-intensive civil works. Later on, it em-
phasised irrigation projects, land development programmes, afforestation, grassland development, and
the creation of basic rural infrastructure, such as electricity, roads, markets, credit, and services.
• The National Committee on Development of Backward Areas reviewed the performance of this pro-
gramme. It has been observed that this programme is largely confined to the development of agri-
culture and allied sectors, with a major focus on restoring ecological balance.
• The Planning Commission of India (1967) identified 67 districts (entire or partly) of the country prone
to drought. The Irrigation Commission (1972) introduced the criterion of ‘30 per cent irrigated areas’
and demarcated the drought-prone areas.
• Broadly, the drought-prone area in India spreads over semi-arid and arid tracts of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
156

Western Madhya Pradesh, the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, the Rayalseema (Andhra Pra-
desh) and Telangana plateaus, the Karnataka plateau, and the highlands and interior parts of Tamil
 Nadu. The spread of irrigation in Punjab, Haryana, and north Rajasthan largely protects the drought-
prone areas.
• Focus Areas: Emphasis on irrigation projects, land development, afforestation, grassland development,
rural electrification, and infrastructure development, including roads, markets, servicing, processing, and
credit facilities.

Community Participation and Empowerment

• Inclusivity: Encouragement of participation from weaker sections of society and women.
• Community Involvement: Central themes include community participation and the watershed ap-
proach to program implementation.

Program Enhancement
• Unified Approach: Emphasizes convergence of all developmental programs and effective monitoring
for improved implementation.
• Development Initiatives: Promotes land development, water resource development, afforestation, pas-
ture development, and creation of opportunities for alternate occupations and economic diversification.

Desert Development Programme

• It was established in 1977-78 based on recommendations from the National Commission on Agricul-
ture (1974) to address challenges in desert regions. It targets both cold deserts (e.g., the Ladakh,
Lahaul, and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh) and hot deserts (e.g., western Rajasthan, Gujarat,
and Haryana).

Objectives
• Desertification Control: Focuses on controlling desertification processes and promoting production
through activities like irrigation, afforestation, soil and water conservation, dryland agriculture, ground-
water development, livestock management, and human resources development.
• Watershed Development: This aims to develop degraded land on a watershed basis, considering the
area's land, people, and livelihood.
• Socio-economic Development: This program seeks to promote socio-economic development, miti-
gate the adverse impacts of drought, reduce livelihood loss, manage livestock, and restore ecological
balance through local community participation.

Coverage
• It is implemented in 235 blocks and 40 districts across 7 states, covering an area of 45.8 million hec-
tares, including Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Rajasthan (hot-desert areas), and
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (cold-desert areas).
157

Border Area Development Programme

• It commenced under the Seventh Five-Year Plan with a focus on the balanced development of sensitive
border areas in the western region. It initially covered Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat and later extended
to include Jammu and Kashmir. During the Eighth Plan, it extended coverage to Eastern states bordering
Bangladesh.

Program Elements
• Human Resource Development: The focus has shifted towards education, particularly school educa-
tion and technical and vocational training, in border-adjoining community development blocks.
• Key Components: Included issuance of photo identity cards, education, irrigation, and research studies
on socio-economic development.
• Decentralized Implementation: Implemented on a participatory and decentralised basis through Pan-
chayati Raj Institutions, Autonomous Councils, and local bodies.

Focus Areas
• Border Blocks: Development initiatives concentrated in border blocks located along the international
border to address specific challenges faced by these areas.
• Socio-Economic Development: This is aimed at addressing various socio-economic aspects, such as
education, health, agriculture, and allied sectors, to uplift border communities and enhance their well-
being.

Sustainable Development
• The notion of sustainable development emerged in the late 1960s in the West as a result of a general
rise in awareness of environmental issues. This set the stage for the emergence of new development
models under the broad term ‘sustainable development.’
• In the post-World War II era, the concept of development was synonymous with economic growth.
However, even countries with high economic growth experienced a speedy rise in poverty because of
their unequal distribution. So, in the 1970s, phrases such as redistribution with growth and growth
and equity were incorporated into the definition of development.
• While dealing with questions related to redistribution and equity, it was realised that the concept of
development cannot be restricted to the economic sphere alone. It also includes issues such as
improving people's well-being and living standards, access to health, education, and equality of
opportunity, and ensuring political and civil rights.
• By the 1980s, development emerged as a concept encapsulating widespread improvement in the so-
cial and material well-being of all in a society.
• Concerned with the growing opinion of the world community on environmental issues, the UN estab-
lished a World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). In 1987, the Commission
158

issued its report (also known as the Brundtland Report) entitled ‘Our Common Future.’ The report
 defines sustainable development as a “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

• Launched in 2008, IWMP aims to restore ecological balance by harnessing, conserving, and developing
degraded natural resources like soil, vegetative cover, and water.
• The Department of Rural Development implements it through various initiatives, such as the Inte-
grated Wastelands Development Programme, the Drought Prone Areas Programme, and the De-
sert Development Programme.

Objectives
 Restore ecological balance by harnessing, conserving, and developing degraded natural resources like
soil, vegetative cover, and water.
 Outcomes include preventing soil runoff, regenerating natural vegetation, harvesting rainwater, and re-
charging the groundwater table.
 Enable multi-cropping and introduction of diverse agro-based activities to provide sustainable liveli-
hoods for watershed residents.

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:

Programme/Project Ministry
1. Drought-Prone Area Programme Ministry of Agriculture
2. Desert Development Programme Ministry of Environment and Forests
3. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas Ministry of Rural Development

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None

Answer: d) None
[UPSC 2014] What are the benefits of implementing the ‘Integrated Watershed Develop-
ment Programme?
1. Prevention of soil runoff
2. Linking the country’s perennial rivers with seasonal rivers
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater table
4. Regeneration of natural vegetation
159
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2, 3 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: c) 1, 3 and 4 only

[UPSC 2016] In what way micro-watershed development projects help in water conserva-
tion in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India?
Rainwater Harvesting

 Construction of check dams, farm ponds, and other structures to capture and store rainwater during
monsoon.
 Utilization of stored rainwater for irrigation, groundwater recharge, and domestic purposes during
dry periods. For example, the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) in Maharashtra constructed
over 100,000 farm ponds to increase water availability in drought-prone regions.

Groundwater Recharge

 Creation of artificial recharge structures like percolation tanks and recharge shafts to enhance
groundwater recharge.
 Allowing surface water to infiltrate into the soil, replenishing groundwater aquifers. For example, the
Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) in Rajasthan helped raise the groundwater
table by up to 10 meters in some areas.

Soil and Moisture Conservation

 Promotion of contour bunds, gully plugs, and other conservation structures to slow down surface
runoff, reduce soil erosion, and improve moisture retention. For example, the Drought Mitigation
Project in Andhra Pradesh increased green cover and improved soil moisture levels, leading to en-
hanced agricultural productivity.

Sustainable Land Management

 Encouragement of sustainable practices like agroforestry, mixed cropping, and use of drought-re-
sistant crop varieties to maintain soil fertility and improve water-use efficiency.

Community Engagement

 Active participation of local community in planning, implementation, and maintenance of water con-
servation measures.
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 Fostering a sense of ownership among stakeholders for long-term sustainability.

Case Study – Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command Area
• The Indira Gandhi Canal, previously known as the Rajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canal systems
in India. Kanwar Sain conceptualised the canal project in 1948, and it was launched on 31 March 1958.

• The canal originates at Harike Barrage in Punjab and runs parallel to the Pakistan border at an average
distance of 40 km in the Thar Desert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan. The total planned length of the system
is 9,060 km, catering to the irrigation needs of a total culturable command area of 19.63 lakh hectares.
• Of the total command area, about 70 per cent was envisaged to be irrigated by a flow system and the
rest by a lift system. In the lift canal, the water is lifted up to make it flow against the slope of the land.
• The construction work of the canal system has been carried out through two stages. The command area
of Stage I lies in Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, and the northern part of the Bikaner districts. It has a gently
undulating topography, and its culturable command area is 5.53 lakh hectares.
• Stage II's command area is spread over the districts of Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur,
and Churu, covering a culturable command area of 14.10 lakh ha. It comprises desert land dotted with
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shifting sand dunes and temperatures soaring to 50ºC in summer.

• All the lift canals of the Indira Gandhi Canal system originate at the left bank of the main canal, while all
the canals on the right bank of the main canal are flow channels.
• Irrigation was introduced in the canal's Stage-I command area in the early 1960s, whereas the command
area of Stage-II began receiving irrigation in the mid-1980s.
• The introduction of canal irrigation in this dry land has transformed its ecology, economy, and society.
It has influenced the region's environmental conditions both positively and negatively.
• The longer-term availability of soil moisture and various afforestation and pasture development pro-
grams under the Command Area Development Programme (CAD) have greened the land. This has
also helped in reducing wind erosion and siltation of canal systems.
• The traditional crops sown in the area, gram, bajra, and jowar, have been replaced by wheat, cotton,
groundnut, and rice. This is the result of intensive irrigation. However, intensive irrigation has led to
the emergence of twin environmental problems of waterlogging and soil salinity.

Measures for the Promotion of Sustainable Development

• Attaining sustainable development in the command area requires major thrust upon the measures to
achieve ecological sustainability. Hence, five of the seven measures proposed to promote sustainable
development in the command area are meant to restore ecological balance.
1. The first requirement is the strict implementation of a water management policy. The canal project
envisages protective irrigation in Stage I and extensive irrigation of crops and pasture development
in Stage II.
2. In general, the cropping pattern shall not include water-intensive crops. It shall be adhered to, and
people shall be encouraged to grow plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
3. CAD programs such as lining water courses, land development, and levelling shall be effectively
implemented to reduce water conveyance loss.
4. The areas affected by water logging and soil salinity shall be reclaimed.
5. Eco-development through afforestation, shelterbelt plantation, and pasture development is nec-
essary, particularly in the fragile environment of Stage II.
6. Social sustainability in the region can be achieved only if land allottees with poor economic back-
grounds are provided adequate financial and institutional support for land cultivation.
7. Economic sustainability in the region cannot be attained only through the development of agricul-
ture and animal husbandry.

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