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Outline Cont’d.
Electromagnetic Induction
PHY 106 – Physics for •
•
Induced Emfs – Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws.
Generators and back Emf.
Biological Science Students II • Transformers and Power Transmission.
• Electromagnetic Waves.
AC Circuits
Prof. Babaniyi Babatope, APRIL 2024. • Resistance in an AC Circuit.
LECTURE 1 • Capacitance Reactance.
• Inductive Reactance.
• Impedance – RLC Circuits
• Circuit Resonance.

TEXTBOOK Introduction
• What first comes to mind when you think of
• Raymond A. Serway and Chris Vuille. COLLEGE magnetism?
PHYSICS. Cengage Learning, 11th Edition. Boston.
MA. USA. 2018. • Is it ATTRACTION? YES it is!
• We have all encountered magnetic latches on our
• CHAPTERS 19 - 21: cabinet doors shut, sticking papers on our
Magnetism refrigerators.
Induced Voltages and Inductance
Electromagnetism • Hardly would you think of REPULSION.
Alternating –Current (AC) Circuits and • However, wherever there is ATTRACTION there
Electromagnetic Waves. must also be REPULSION.

• This is known as
Outline Example: ‘The High- “Magnetically-Levitated
Speed Train’ train.
• It does not touch the
Magnetism “Rail”.
• It “floats” above the rail:
• Magnets, Magnetic Poles and Magnetic Field
Supported by repulsive
Direction. forces produced by
• Magnetic Field Strength and Magnetic Force. powerful magnets.
• No wheels meaning that
• Electromagnetism No Rolling Friction; No
• Magnetic Materials Bearing to Lubricate;
Very Few Parts of any
• Magnetic Force in Current-carrying wires. kind; Magnetic Forces
are used to accelerate
and decelerate the train

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Where do Magnetic Forces Come From?
• For centuries, the attractive properties of magnets
were attributed to supernatural forces.
• However magnetism is associated with electricity
(electromagnetism).
• These are aspects of a simple fundamental force
interaction (the electromagnetic force).
• Electromagnetism is put to use in motors, generators,
radios, telephones, high-speed levitated trains etc.
propelled by magnetic fields.
• Electricity and magnetism are manifestations of the
same fundamental force but we first need to consider
them individually before we put them together.
Magnets, Magnetic Poles and Magnetic
Field Directions
• When a common bar magnet is examined, it has two “centres” of
force called “Poles”, one at or near each end of the magnet.
• These poles are called north (N) and south (S).
• These designations come from the early use of magnetic
compass.
• The north pole is the end that tends to point north on earth.
• With 2 bar magnets, a pattern of attraction and repulsion
between their ends is noticed.
• The N-S poles attract each other while N-N and S-S repel each
other.
• Magnetic poles have always occurred in pairs, never singly.
• Two opposite poles form what is called Magnetic Dipole.
• If a bar magnet is broken into two, two sets of bar magnets will
come up with 2 poles each.
Illustration of Magnetic Poles
The iron filings indicate the poles or centres of force of a
common bar magnet. The compass direction designates
the poles as North (N) and South (S).
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The Magnetic Field
• Magnetism appears to have many things in
common with electricity. There are however
many differences between the two which
include the fact that
• The source of magnetism i.e electric charges
in motion as electric currents and orbiting
atomic electrons.
• Stationary electric charges only produces
electric fields, not magnetic fields.
The Magnetic Field Direction
• The electric field can be described as force/unit
charge:
E = Fe/qo.
• Similarly, a magnetic field is a vector quantity
represented by B which surrounds every magnet.
• The pattern of the magnetic field lines surrounding
any magnet can be demonstrated by spraying iron
filings over the magnet covered with a piece of paper
or glass. (Illustration)
• The iron filings file up after becoming magnetised.
• The direction of a magnetic field B is defined as that
for the direction of the earth’s field.
• This is done by placing a small compass near the
magnet.
Illustration of Magnetic Poles
The iron filings indicate the poles or centres of force of a
common bar magnet. The compass direction designates
the poles as North (N) and South (S).
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Magnetic Field Strength and EM Interaction Cont’d

Magnetic Force
• Experiments have indicated that one of the
important quantities in determining the magnetic
force on a particle is the electric charge of that
particle.
• This means there is a connection between the
electrical properties of objects and how they
respond to magnetic fields.
• The study of interaction between electrically
charged particles and magnetic fields is called
ELECTROMAGNETISM.
• The magnetic field strength is sometimes given in
Webers/m2 (Wb/m2) when magnetic flux is relevant
(next chapter).
• Once the magnetic field strength in a location has been
determined from equation (1), then the force on any
charged particle moving at any speed can be found by
solving for F.
F = q.v.B (2)
• (force on a charged particle for v perpendicular to B)
• If the direction of the charged particle velocity is not
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnitude of
the magnetic force on the particle is not given by
equation (2).

Examples of Electromagnetic Interaction The Right-Hand Force Rule

• A particle of charge (q) moving with a constant velocity
enters a region with a uniform magnetic field in a path • In this case it depends on the angle θ between v
such that the velocity and the magnetic field are at right
angles. and B.
• An electrically charged particle moving in a magnetic field • The force is zero when parallel and maximum
may experience a magnetic force.
when perpendicular.
• The deflecting magnetic force is directly proportional to
the particle’s charge and speed. • In general, the magnitude of the force is
B = F/q.v (only for v perpendicular to B) (1) • F = q. v. B sin θ (magnetic force on a charged particle).
• v – velocity vector; B – magnetic field vector. The
magnitude of this vector defined the magnetic field • The direction of the magnetic force on a positively
strength. charged particle is determined by considering the
• UNIT (SI): Newtons/A.m; N/(A.m) or Tesla (T). Magnetic
Field Strength – N/(C.m/s) or N/(A.m) (T). velocity and magnetic field vectors.
• Nikola Tesla (1856-1945) was a famous early researcher in
magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic
The Right-Hand Force Rule
Interaction

(a)A charged particle enters a

magnetic field, experiences
a force, as it becomes
deflected.
(b) Electron beam in a CRT
which is normally
horizontal between the
electrodes but deflected by
the magnet (magnetic
field).

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The Right-Hand Force Rule Cont’D
• When the fingers of the right hand are pointed in
the direction of v and then curled towards that of
B, the extended thumb points in the direction of
the force F on a positive charge. (a)
• The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
plane of B and v thus perpendicular to the
direction of the particles motion (b)
• If you point your fore-finger in the direction of v,
the middle finger in B direction and extended
thumb in F.
• The direction is reversed for negative charges.
END OF LECTURE 1
PHY 106 – 2024 Cont’D
LECTURE 2
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Further Introduction on Magnetism
• No matter how many times a permanent magnet is cut,
each piece always has a north pole and a south pole.
• An unmagnetized piece of iron can be magnetized by
stroking it with a magnet.
• Magnetism can also be induced in iron (and other
materials) by other means. For example, if a piece of
unmagnetized iron is placed near a strong permanent
magnet, the piece of iron eventually becomes
magnetized.
• Naturally occurring magnetic materials such as magnetite
are magnetized in this way because they have been
subjected to Earth’s magnetic field for long periods of
time.
Soft & Hard Magnets
• The extent to which a piece of material retains its
magnetism depends on whether it is classified as
magnetically hard or soft.
• Soft magnetic materials, such as iron, are easily
magnetized but tend to lose their magnetization
easily. These materials are used in the cores of
transformers, generators, and motors. Iron is the
most common choice because it’s inexpensive.
• Other magnetically soft materials include nickel,
nickel-iron alloys, and ferrites.
• Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent
magnets. Such magnets provide magnetic fields
without the use of electricity.
Magnets Cont’d
• Permanent magnets are used in many devices,
including loudspeakers, permanent-magnet
motors, and the read/write heads of computer
hard drives.
• There are a large number of different materials
used in permanent magnets. Alnico is a
generic name for various alloys of iron, cobalt,
and nickel, together with smaller amounts of
aluminum, copper, or other elements.
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Electromagnetism – The Source of

Magnetism Cont’d
• Experiments show that a stationary charged
particle doesn’t interact with a static magnetic
field.
• When a charged particle is moving through a
magnetic field, however, a magnetic force acts
on it. This force has its maximum value when the
charge moves in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic field lines, decreases in value at other
angles, and becomes zero when the particle
moves along the field lines
Magnetic Fields
• As earlier indicated, the electric and magnetic
phenomena, though clearly different, are closely and
fundamentally related.
• In fact, magnetic fields are produced by electric
currents (moving charges) and can in turn exert
force on moving electric charges.
• The fact that magnetic fields are produced by
current was discovered by the Danish Physicist,
Christian Oersted in 1820.
• He discovered that an electric current produced
deflection of a compass needle .
• With no current in the wire, the compass needle
points north.

Electric Current and With a current in the

Example Magnetic Field
wire, the compass needle
is deflected, including the
presence of an additional
• A particle with a charge of -5.0 x 10-4 C moves magnetic field
at a speed of 1.0 x 103 m/s in the direction superimposed on the
towards a uniform magnetic field of 0.20 T in Earth. The strength of the
the positive direction. additional field is thus
roughly equal in
• A) What is the force on the particle just as it
magnitude to that of the
enters the magnetic field? Earth. Magnitude of B for
• B) Describe the path of the particle while it is several arrangement
in the field. used in practical
applications are as
follows:

Solution Magnetic Field at the Centre of a Circular

• We expect circular trajectory since the magnetic force is
I-Carrying Loop.
always perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. The particle
is negatively charged. • At the centre of a circular loop of wire of radius r
• Given Data: q = -5.0 x 10-4 C carrying a current I, the magnitude of B is
• v = 1.0 x 103 m/s (+x) • B = μo.I/2.r (centre of circular loop)
• B = 0.20 T (+y)
• Direction of B is given by the RHFR and is
• We Find: (a) F on the particle; (b) path in the field.
perpendicular to the plane of the loop at the
• (a) F = q.v.B.sin θ = (-5.0 x 10-4 C)(1.0 x 103 m/s)(0.20T)sin
90 = 0.1N. centre. (b)
• The direction just as the particle enters the magnetic field is • The overall field of the loop (c) is geometrically
in the –z-direction. By the RHFR, the force on the positive similar to that of a bar magnet (magnetic dipole)
charge would be in the +z-direction. But since the charge is
–ve, the force is in the opposite direction. (a)

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Magnetic Fields at the Centre of a
circular I-Carrying Wire Loop.
Magnetic Field in a I-Carrying Solenoid.
• A solenoid is a long wire wound straight coil or
helix (many circular loops.
• If the radius of the loop is small compared to the
length (L) of the coil, B is parallel to the solenoid’s
longitudinal axis.
• If the solenoid has N turns (loops) and carries a
current I, the magnitude of the magnetic field at
the centre is given by
B = μo.N.I/L (@the centre of a solenoid) (*)
• The direction of B is again given by the RHFR as
applied to any coil loop .
Magnetic Field In a Solenoid
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Magnetic Field in a I-Carrying Solenoid Cont’d
• The expression n = N/L or number of turns per
meter is called the linear density.
• We can then write equation (*) as
• B = μo.n.I (at the centre of a solenoid)
• The longer the solenoid, the more uniform the
magnetic field across the cross-sectional area
within the coil.
• Note the pattern of magnetic field of a
permanent bar magnet. (the above figure.
Example
• The maximum household current in a wire is about 15A.
Assume that it carries a dc-current (even though it is not),
assume also that this current is in a W-E direction Fig.).
• What are the magnitudes and direction of the magnetic
field produced 1.0 cm directly below the wire?
• Solution:
• This is an application of the equation B = μo.I/2π.d for a
long, straight wire with maximum current.
• I = 15A, d = 1.0cm = 0.010 m. Find B. (3.0 x 10-4T)
• By the RHFR, it can be demonstrated that the magnetic
field vector B points northward.
Example
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Magnetic Materials
• Why are some materials magnetic or easily
magnetised whereas others are not?
• How can a bar magnet create a magnetic field when
there is no obvious current in it?
• You already know that current produces a magnetic END OF LECTURE 2
field if you compare the magnetic field of a bar
magnet and a I-carrying lop, you may begin to think
that the magnetic field of the bar magnet is in some
ways due to internal currents or moving charges.
• From the simplistic solar system model of the atom,
the net magnetic effect due to orbiting electrons for
most materials is either zero or very small.

Source of Magnetism of a Material

• Electron spin is a quantum-effect with no direct
natural equivalence that it can be compared to. It is
not like the Earth rotating on its axis.
• In atoms with 2 or more electrons, the electrons are PHY 106 – 2024 Cont’D
arranged in pairs with their spins oppositely aligned.
• The magnetic field then cancel each other and the
material is not magnetic. Al is an example. LECTURE 3
• In certain strongly magnetic materials known as
ferromagnetic materials, electron spins are not
aligned or canceled completely.
• This results in a strong coupling between neighboring
atoms leading to formation of large group of atoms
called magnetic domains.

Magnetic Domains Magnetic Domains Cont’d

• In a given domain, many of the electron spins are aligned
thus producing a net magnetic field.
• There are not many naturally-occurring ferromagnetic
materials.
• The most common are Fe, Ni, and Co. Certain
manufactured alloys are ferromagnetic.
• In an unmagnetised ferromagnetic material, the domains
are randomly oriented and there is no net magnetisation.
• When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an external
magnetic field, two things can happen.
• i) Domain boundaries change and the domains with
magnetic orientations in d direction of the external field
grow at the expense of the other domains.
• ii) the magnetic orientation of the domains may change
slightly so as to be more aligned with the field.
• In atoms containing many electrons, the electrons usually
pair up with their spins opposite each other so that their
fields cancel each other. That is why most substances are
not magnets.
• In certain strongly magnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt,
and nickel, however, the magnetic fields produced by the
electron spins don’t cancel completely. Such materials are
said to be ferromagnetic. In ferromagnetic materials strong
coupling occurs between neighboring atoms, forming large
groups of atoms with spins that are aligned. Called
domains,
• In what are called hard magnetic materials, domains remain
aligned even after the external field is removed; the result is
a permanent magnet.
• The alignment of domains explains why the strength of an
electromagnet is increased dramatically by the insertion of
an iron core into the magnet’s center.

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Magnetic Domains. Induced emf and Magnetic Flux

• In 1819 Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric
current exerted a force on a magnetic compass.
• Experiments conducted by Michael Faraday in England and
independently by Joseph Henry in the United States in 1831
showed that a changing magnetic field could induce an
electric current in a circuit.
• Faraday’s Experiment: The apparatus (Illustration) consists of
a coil connected to a switch and a battery - primary coil and
the corresponding circuit the primary circuit.
• The coil is wrapped around an iron ring to intensify the
magnetic field produced by the current in the coil.
• A second coil, called the secondary coil, at the right, is
wrapped around the iron ring and is connected to an
ammeter. The corresponding circuit is called the secondary
circuit. There is no battery in the secondary circuit.

Classification of Magnetic Materials Faraday’s Experiment

• Magnetic materials can be classified according to
how they react to the application of a magnetic field.
• In ferromagnetic materials the atoms have
permanent magnetic moments that align readily with
an externally applied magnetic field.
• Examples of ferromagnetic materials are iron, cobalt,
and nickel. They can retain some of their
magnetization even after the applied magnetic field
is removed.
• Paramagnetic materials also have magnetic
moments that tend to align with an externally
applied magnetic field, but the response is extremely
weak compared with that of ferromagnetic materials.

Classification Cont’d Magnetic Flux

• Examples of paramagnetic substances are aluminum,
• The physical quantity associated with magnetism
calcium, and platinum.
that creates an electric field is a changing magnetic
• A ferromagnetic material can become paramagnetic flux. Magnetic flux is defined in the same way as
when warmed to a certain critical temperature, the electric flux and is proportional to both the strength
Curie temperature, that depends on the material. of the magnetic field passing through the plane of a
• In diamagnetic materials, an externally applied loop of wire and the area of the loop.
magnetic field induces a very weak magnetization that
is opposite the applied field. Ordinarily diamagnetism
• The Magnetic Flux Φ through a loop of wire with
isn’t observed because paramagnetic and area A is defined by Φ = B┴A= BA cos θ.
ferromagnetic effects are far stronger. where B┴ is the component of a uniform magnetic
field B perpendicular to the plane of the loop,

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FARADAY’S LAW OF MAGNETIC INDUCTION
• When the magnetic flux through the circuit changes
with time, an emf is induced in a circuit. The
instantaneous emf induced in the circuit equals the
negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux with
respect to time through the circuit.
• This is Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction.
Generators, Motors and Back emf
• Generators and motors are important practical
devices that operate on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
• Let us first consider the alternating-current (AC)
generator, a device that converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy. In its simplest form, the AC
generator consists of a wire loop rotated in a
magnetic field by some external means.
• In the direct-current (DC) generator design, the
output voltage always has the same polarity and the
current is a pulsating direct current.
• At the same time, the polarity of the induced emf
reverses.
Motors and Back emf Cont’d
• Motors are devices that convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy. Essentially, a motor is a generator
run in reverse:
• Instead of a current being generated by a rotating loop,
a current is supplied to the loop by a source of emf,
and the magnetic torque on the current-carrying loop
causes it to rotate.
• As the coil in the motor rotates, however, the changing
magnetic flux through it induces an emf that acts to
reduce the current in the coil.
• Back emf is used for an emf that tends to reduce the
applied current. The back emf increases in magnitude
as the rotational speed of the coil increases.
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Example Problem
• The goal of this problem is to calculate the magnetic
flux and a change in flux.
• A conducting circular loop of radius 0.250 m is placed
in the xy-plane in a uniform magnetic field of 0.360 T
that points in the positive z-direction, the same
direction as the normal to the plane.
– (a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
– (b) Suppose the loop is rotated clockwise around the x-
axis, so the normal direction now points at a 45.0° angle
with respect to the z-axis. Recalculate the magnetic flux
through the loop.
– (c) What is the change in flux due to the rotation of the
loop?
Solution Strategy
• After finding the area, substitute values into
the equation for magnetic flux for each part.
• Because the normal direction was chosen to
be the same direction as the magnetic field,
the angle between the magnetic field and the
normal is initially 0°.
• After the rotation, that angle becomes 45°.
Solution
a) First calculate the area of the loop:
• A = pr2 = p(0.250 m)2 = 0.196 m2
• Substitute A, B and θ in ΦB = AB cos θ = (0.196 m2)(0.360
T) cos (0°)
• = 0.070 6 T . m2 = 0.070 6 Wb
b) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop after it has
rotated 45.0° around the x-axis.
Make the same substitution for A, B and θ in ΦB = AB cos
θ = (0.196 m2)(0.360 T) cos (45°)
= 0.049 9 T . m2 = 0.049 9 Wb
(c) Find the change in the magnetic flux due to the rotation
of the loop. Just subtract the result of part (a) from the
result of part (b):
ΔΦB = 0.049 9 Wb - 0.070 6 Wb = -0.020 7 Wb
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Electromagnets & Magnetic Permeability
• Electromagnetic Materials are used to make
electromagnets usually by wrapping a wire around
an iron core.
• The current in the coil creates a magnetic field in
the Fe which in turn creates its own field many
times larger than that in the coil.
• By putting the current ON and OFF, we can turn
the magnet ON and OFF at will. This Fe is called a
soft iron.
• When an electromagnet is ON, the Fe core
becomes magnetised and adds to the field of the
solenoid. The total field is expressed as:
Electromagnets
Electromagnets Cont’d
B = μnI
(at the centre if the Fe core solenoid)
• It is μ here and not μo which is permeability in
free space. μ is magnetic permeability of the
material.
• For magnetic Materials
μ = Km. μo
• Where Km called relative permeability, is the
magnetic analogue of dielectric constant, K.
• Both K and Km are equal to 1.0 in a vacuum.
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Magnetic Forces on I-Carrying Wires
• As already emphasised, an electric charge moving
in a magnetic field experiences a force unless it is
moving parallel to the magnetic field lines.
• A I-carrying wire in a magnetic field should also
experience a force because a current is made to
of moving charges. (Fig., following)
• i.e the magnetic forces on the moving charge
should have a resultant force on the wire
conducting them.
• The magnitude of the total force on a length of
wire is Fmax = (Σi.qi)v.B
Magnetic Forces on I-Carrying Wire
Magnetic Forces Cont’d
where (Σi.qi) are all the moving charges.
• Substituting L/t for v, we have
Fmax = (Σi.qi)(L/t).B = (Σi.qi)/t.L.B
(Σi.qi)/t is the current. Therefore
Fmax = I.L.B
• As the maximum force on a wire because the
current is at 90° to B.
• In general,
F = I.L.B Sin θ
(magnetic force in a I-carrying wire)
10

Example of I-Carrying Wires.
Attraction or repulsion: Magnetic force between two
parallel wires.
• Two parallel long wires are separated by a distance d
and carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same direction.
a) derive an expression for the magnetic force per
unit length on one of the wires due to the other
and show that in keeping with the Newton’s third
law, the forces on the 2 wires are equal in
magnitude.
b) Show that for these current directions, the forces
are mutually attractive, in keeping with the
Newton’s third law that forces of an action-
reaction pair must be opposite in direction.
Magnetic Forces Between 2 Parallel Wires
Solution
• Information to note:
• Each wire experiences a force due to the
magnetic field of the other.
• We expect the answer to depend on the current
in each wire and the distance between them.
• We can get the field magnitude from the
equation B = μ.v.I/2πd (for a long straight wire)
• We can calculate the force from the expression
for the force for a I-carrying wire (F = I.L.B)
• To find the force per unit length, just divide by
the length of the wire.
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Solution Cont’d
• By the RHFR, the magnetic field due to I1 at wire 2 is in the
direction shown on the figure and the magnitude is
B1 = μoI/2πd
• The direction of B1 is perpendicular to the wire carrying I2 so the
magnetic force on wire 2 is
F2 = I2.L.B1
• Therefore, the magnitude of the force per unit length
F2/L = I2.B1 = μo.I1I2/2 π d.
F1/L = I2.B2 = μo.I1I2/2 π d.
• Due to I2. This is the same as the force on wire 2.
• Each force is towards the other wire. They are equal &
opposite.
• The 2 parallel wires carrying current in the same direction
are attracted to each other (mutually attracted).
Applications of Electromagnetism
• Let us briefly explain the operation of some
selected instruments whose functions depend on
electromagnetic interaction. These include
• Galvanometer
• The dc Motor
• The CRT
• Mass Spectrometer (‘mass Spec’)
• The Electronic balance
• The earth’s Magnetic Field.
Galvanometer
• A galvanometer consists of a coil of wire lops on an
iron core that pivots between the pole faces of a
permanent magnet.
• When a current exists in the coil, the coil experiences
a torque. A small spring supplies a counter (restoring)
torque and in equilibrium. A pointer indicates a
deflection Phi proportional to current I.
• The torque on a single I-carrying wire loop in a
magnetic field is given by τ = IAB Sin θ
• A properly calibrated galvanometer can measure very
small currents (in the milliampere range)
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Galvanometer The CRT

• The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) is a vacuum tube that
is used in an oscilloscope such as those used in
some laboratories.
• Electrons, negatively charged, are ‘boiled off’ a
hot filament in an electron gun and accelerated
by a voltage applied between the cathode (-) and
anode (+).
• The picture tube of most TV set and complete
monitor is a CRT.

The dc Motor
• In general, an electrical motor is a device that
converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The CRT
• This conversion also occurs with a
galvanometer.
• A current causes the coil to rotate mechanically.
• A galvanometer is not considered a motor
because a practical motor must have continuous
rotation for continuous energy output.

DC Motor

A split ring
commutator
reverses the END OF LECTURE 3
polarity and
current each
half-cycle, so
the coil rotates
continuously.

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