1) 2011 was designated by the UN General Assembly as the “Year of the Forests”, hoping to highlight their key roles in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and boosting biodiversity 2) Acid rain comes back to earth when sulfur dioxide in the air changes into sulfuric acid and nitrogen oxide into nitric acid 3) Acidic is the condition of water or soil that contains a sufficient amount of acid substances to lower the pH below 7.0 4) Acidification is the lowering of soil and water pH due to acid precipit: precipitation 5) Aerosol is a collection of airborne particles dispersed in a gas, smoke or fog 6) Afforestation is converting a bare or agricultural space by planting trees and plants 7) Air pollution happens to the Earth’s atmosphere when there is an addition of harmful chemicals on it 8) Alkalinity is the capacity of bases to neutralize acids 9) Amphibian is an animal with smoath, moist skin which has gills when young and then develops lungs when older 10) An Envisat satellite launched by European space Agency (ESA) on March 1, 2002 helps scientists determine variations in stratospheric ozone, 11) Andre Marie Ampere formulated the Law of Electromagnetism. 12) Angel Alcala is a Filipino biclogist who is behind the invention of artificial coral reefs used for fisheries in Southeast Asia 13) Aquatic ecosystem consists of plants and animals interacting with water or aquatic environment 14) Asbestos is a naturally occurring soft fibrous mineral commonly used in fireproofing materials and considered to be highly carcinogenic in particulate form 15) Atmospheric pressure (barometric pressure) the pressure exerted by atmosphere as a consequence of gravitational attraction exerted upon the “column” of air lying directly above the point in question 16) Biodiversity is the variety of life in an area that is determined by the number of different species in that area. It increases the life of the ecosystem and contributes to the health of the biosphere 17) Biomagnifications is a process in which a harmful chemical enters the food chain and gets concentrated at each level in the food chain 18) Biomass fuel is an organic matter used as fuel such as firewood 19) Biome is a large natural area that is home to-certain types of plants 20) Bioremediation is the use of micraorganism to remove pollutants such as ail spills in the water bodies 21) Biosphere is the portion of the earth and its atmosphere that can support life; refers to all living organism on earth and their surroundings 22) Biotic (living things) and abiotic (nonliving things) are two components of ecosystem 23) Canopy is the top layer of the rain forest formed by dense leaf- covered tree branches 24) Carbon Dioxide- Oxygen Cycle shows the interdependence of plants and animals for gases 25) Carbon footprint is defined as the total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (C02) and deposition usually through 1[Page26) Carnivores are consumers that eat flesh (meat) 27) Carpooling is driving someone to a place that yau are both going ta minimize the amount of greenhouse gases put into the air by acar 28) Catchment is an important water management assemblages technique used to capture and retain rainwater and runoff 29) Chain reaction is the continuous splitting of atoms 30) Charles A. Coulomb helped discover what a current elect 31) Chlorofluorocarbon (chlorine-fluorine-carban) is considered to be the main cause of ozone depletion. It is as stable and inexpensive super coolant used in air conditioning systems, refrigerators, aerosol sprays and cleaning agent. 32) Chrysalis is a pupa (the stage between larva and an adult) enclosed in a firm case or cocoon 33) Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years 34) Climate is the prevalent or characteristic meteorological conditions and their extremes, of any place or region 35) Cloud is a mass of tiny droplets of water that condensed from the air 36) Commensalism is a relationship between two species in which one organism benefits while the other organism is neither benefited norharmed 37) Community successian is the natural process by which a community of organisms inn ecosystem gradually replaces another 38) Composting is the microbiological degradation of organic matter under either aerobic or anaerobic coni 39) Condensation is the change in form water goes through when it turns froma gas to aliquid 40) Conduction is the transfer of heat directly from one matter to another 41) Conserve is to keep and protect from harm, loss or change 42) Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that eat other organisms 43) Continental drift theory, by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener, proposed that all continents have been part of ane supercontinent known as Pangaea, which broke into several plates and drifted apart forming the present continents 44) Contour plowing refers to soil tilling method that follows the shape of the land to discourage erosion 45) Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the molecules of liquids and gases. It is also responsible for the weather pattern in the atmosphere 46) Coral reefs are marine structures formed by underwater living organisms and are made of the mineral aragonite 47) Coriolis Force is an apparent force caused by the rotation of the earth, In the Northern Hemisphere winds are deflected to the right, and in the Southern Hemisphere to the left 48) Corrosive is a chemical agent that reacts with the surface of a material causing it to deteriorate or wear away ns 2|Page49) Decibels is the unit of measure for sound intensity 50) Decamposers (scavengers) or saprotrophs are organisms that feed on decayed organism matter 51) Deforestation is the large: scale removal of plant communities from an area af land. ttis an indiscriminate cutting or overharvesting of trees for various purposes: 52) Denitrification is the conversion of nitrate (NOs) to nitrous oxide (N20) and nitrogen gas (N2); is the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soil 53) Dense fag is a cloud, with its base on the surface, which reduces visibility of 4 of a mile or less 54) Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the primary agency responsible for the conservation, management, development, and proper use of the country's environment and natural resources, 55) Depression is an area of low pressure; a low or trough 56) Desertification is the spread of desert- like conditions in arid or semi- arid areas, due to overgrazing, loss of agriculturally productive soils, or climate change 57) Dew refers to a moisture that has condensed on abjects near the ground, whose temperatures have fallen below the dew point temperature 58) Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (O07) is 3 colorless, odorless, insecticide that has toxic effects on most animals, it was banned in the US in 1972 59] Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) Is the change in frequeney of # wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source. It Is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who proposed it in 1842 in Prague. 60) Dredging is the practice of deepening an existing waterway; also a technique used for collecting bottom- dwelling marine organisms (e.g., shelifish) or harvesting coral, aften causing significant destruction of reef and ocean- floor ecosystems 61) Drift- net- fishing is done with a net, miles in extent that is generally anchored to a boat and left to float with the tide; often results in an aver harvesting and waste of large populations of non- commercial marine species by its effect of "sweeping the ocean clean" 62) Drizzle is fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very clase together 63) Drought refers to a prolonged period of less-than-normal precipitation such as the lack of water causes a serious hydrologic imbalance 64) Dry deposition is the combination of acid rain plus dry deposited acid 65) Earthquake is the sudden movement or vibration of the crust, the earth’s rocky outer layer 66) Ecological/Environmental Sustainability is the maintenance of ecosystem components and functions for future generations 67) Ecology comes from the Greek word aikes which means house, It is the study of the relationship of plants and animais with their physical environment. 68) Ecosystem is. higher level of organization. itis the interaction of living things to their physical environment; Ecosystem is the total sum of all the interactions that exist among organisms and between the organisms and their physical environment 31 Page68) Ecosystem refers to ecological units comprised of complex communities of organisms and their specific environments 70) Effluents refers to waste materials, suchas smoke, sewage, or industrial waste which are released into the environment, subsequently polluting it 71) El Nifio is the change in the atmospheric pressure systems, ocean currents, water temperature and wind patterns that seem to be linked to worldwide changes in the weather 72) El Nifiofta Nifia is a quasi-periodic climate pattern that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean roughly every five years 73) Electric eels are able to generate voltages in their body to serve as @ predatory or defensive weapon. They detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated fram modified muscle cells called electrolytes These organisms that can produce electricity are called as electrogenic 74) Endangered species refers to living organisms threatened with extinction by anthropogenic (man- caused) or other natural changes in their environment 75) Energy conservation is the reduction or elimination of unnecessary energy used and wasted 76) Ethanol is an alternative automotive fuel derived from a grain and corn; usually blended with gasoline to form gasohol 77) Eutrophic lakes refers to shallow, murky bodies of water with concentrations of plant nutrient causing excessive production of algae 78) Extinct refers to when all animals of one kind die; no longer existing as a species 79) Fallow refers to cropland, tilled or untilled, allowed to lie idle during the whole or greater part of the growing season 80) Fault refers to a giant crack in a rock that makes up the Earth’s surface 81) Filtration is a treatment process, under the control of qualified operators, for removing solid mater from water by means of porous media such as sand or a man-made filter; often used to remove particles that contain pathogen 82) Flash flood is a flood that occurs within a few hours (usually less than six) of heavy or excessive rainfall, dam or levee failure 83) Fogging refers to applying a pesticide by rapidly heating the liquid chemical so that it forms very fine droplets that resemble smoke or fog, Itis used to destroy mosquitoes, black flies and similar pests 84) Food chain is a series of steps by which energy is obtained, used and transformed by living things; it is the linear series of organisms illustrating a one-way route of feeding relationship 85) Food pyramid provides a detailed view of energy flow in an ecosystem 86) Food web is composed of interconnected food chains by which energy and material circulate within an ecosystem 87) Forest ecosystem includes plant and animal cammunities, predominantly of trees or other woody vegetation, occupying an extensive area of land 88) Forest is an area not less than one hectare and 60 meters wide consisting of tree, plants and animals 89) Fossil fuel is a fuel derived from ancient organic remains (peat, coal, oil and natural gas)90) Garbage is one of the greatest problems in our country specially in the city 91) Glacial drift is a general term for rack material transported by glaciers o iceberg and deposited directly on land or in the sea 92) Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere. Ithappens when the amount of gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earth's atmosphere, which increases the temperature 93) Greenhouse effect is the natural warming of the earth’s atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane and oxides. It is the process of increasing the temperature of the lower parts of the atmosphere through redirecting 94) Greenhouse gas (GHG) refer to a gas such as carbon dioxide, methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, Which contributes to patential climate change 95) Greenpeace campaigned in industrialized countries to reduce and eventually eliminate environmental pollution and degradation In 1999, Greenpeace led the campaign to push for the passage of Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as "The Philippine Clean Air Act" 96) Ground water basin a general term used to define a ground water flaw-system that has defined boundaries and may include permeable materials that are capable of storing or furnishing a significant water supply 97) Ground water is the supply of fresh water found beneath the Earth's surface, usually in aquifers, which supply springs and wells. 98) Gully erosion refers to severe erasion in which trenches are cut to a depth greater than 30 centimeters 99) Gust is a strong wind 100) Habitat is the place where a population lives and its surroundings, both living and non- living things 101) Hall is the precipitation in the form of lumps of ice associated with thunderstorms 102) Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources, Inc., simply known as Hariban Foundation, is a nature conservation organization in the Philippines. The name "Haribon' ("bird king”) is a reference to the Philippine eagle. The group was founded in 1972 asa bird-watching society. 103) Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky; it often accurs when dust and smoke particles accumulate in relatively dry air 104) Herbivores are consumers that eat only plants 105) Hudson Bay region in Canada is known for its “missing” gravity. The gravity in the Hudson Bay area and surrounding regians us lower than those in ather parts of the world 106) _ Hurricane or typhoon (sometimes simply referred to as tropical cyclone, as opposed toa depression or starm) is a system with sustained winds of at least 34 mps 107) Hypoxia is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environment as dissolved oxygen. 108) In Carbon eycle, carbon is removed from the atmosphere and then transformed into different kinds of carbon- containing compounds before they are finally decomposed 109) In Nitrogen cycle, soil nitrates are transformed into free nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria 110) In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen in the air is changed through nitrogen fixation, nitrification and denitrification 111) incinerator is a furnace: like device used in burning trash to make energy S|Page112) insulators are materials that 0 NOT conduct heat (wood and plastic) 113) Interspecific competition is the type of competition among organisms of different kinds where they compete for food, space and territory 114) Intraspecific competition is the type of competition arnong organisms of the same kind 115) Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) represents the 145,000 Inuit of Russia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland in international environmental issues; it is @ General Assembly convenes every three years to determine the focus of the ICC ~ Ibis the study of the relationships between organisms and their interactions with their natural or developed environment. 116) ITC (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone}- is an area encircling the earth near the equator where winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres come together 117) Kilocatorie is to unit of heat as to Joule is the unit of energy 118) Klaus Lackner, a New York geophysicist who designed a synthetic tree- a construction that mimics the funetion of natural trees, whereby, leaves pull carbon dioxide out of the air as it flows over them 119) La Nifia is the opposite of El Nifio, when a major cooling occurs in the equatorial waters in the Pacific Ocean which is characterized by shifts in “normal” weather patterns 120) Land breeze is a wind that blows from the land towards a body of water. Also known as offshore breeze 121) LASERs an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emissions of Radiation. 122) Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. it may be transformed from one form to another, but the total amount of energy never changes 123) Mitigation are actions taken to avoid, reduce or compensate for the effects of human induced environmental damage 124) Mutualism refers to the relationship of two organisms where both benefit from the association 125) National Greening Program (NGP) is a massive forest rehabilitation program of the government established by virtue of Executive Order No. 26 issued on Feb. 24, 2011 by President Benigno. Aquino II. It seeks to grow 15 billion trees in 1.5 mill 2016. 126) Natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard like flaod, volcanic eruption, earthquake and landslide that affects the environment and leads to financial, environmental and human losses 127) Natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event that will have a negative effect on people or the environment 128) _Nitrateis formed during thunderstorm when lightning fixes nitrogen in the air and will be made available to plants when the rain pours onto it. This process is called atmospheric nitrogen fixation 129) _ Nitrification is the process whereby ammonia in waste water is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate by bacterial chemical reactions 130) _Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia (NHe+) to nitrate (NOs-) 131) Nitrogen fixatian is the process whereby Nitrogen (Nz) is reduced and added to organic compounds 132) _ Nitrogen fixing bacteria are bacteria found in the soil and rots of beans and other legumes n heetares nationwide within a period of six years, from 2011 to133) Nuclear energy is released when the nuclei of atoms are split or fused together 134) Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus of a radioactive elements splits in two followed by a chain reaction that release tremendous energy 135) Nuclear fusion occurs when light nuclear or atoms are joined together to form heavier ones, creating tremendous heat energy 136) Nuclearreactoris.a device designed to convert the energy released by a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction into heat energy which can then be used to generate electr 137) Ocean is the largest biome 138) Omnivores are consumers that eat both plants and flesh (meat) 139) Ozone (O;) is a gas that made up the ozone layer. It is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules (02) react with one another, powered by the ultraviolet radiation 140) Ozone depletion is the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer which shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation harmful to life 141) Ozone hole is a thinning break in stratospheric ozone layer 142) Ozone layer is a region in the atmosphere extending from q9 to 48 km above the earth's surface; itis the protective layer in the atmosphere, about 15 miles above the ground, that absorbs some of the sun’s ultraviolet rays, thereby reducing the amount of potentially harmful radiation that reaches the earth's surface 143) Pacific Ring of Fire is an area circling the Pacific Ocean where earthquakes and volcanic activities occur 144) _Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other is harmed 145) Plankton are tiny plants and animals that live in water 146) Plate tectonic theory proposed that all continents and ocean basins are on top of moving plates 147), Pollutants refers to things that can cause pollution 148) Pollution happen when harmful substance contaminate the environment caused by human acti and natural events; it is the presence of a substance in the environment that because of its chemical composition or quantity prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable environmental and health effects 149) Population refers to the total huma continent, at a given time 150) Producers or autotrophs are organism that make their own food 151) Project NOAH is the Department of Science and Technology's (DOST) response to the call of President Benigno S, Aquino Ill for a more accurate, integrated, and responsive disaster prevention and mitigation system, especially in high-risk areas throughout the Philippines. 152) _ Radiation is the transfer of energy in waves through apace 153) Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves 154) Rain is a precipitation of liquid water particles which, in contrast to drizzle, are widely separated and larger size 155) Reduce, Reuse and Recycle are the three R’s of garbage disposal or solid waste management ies habitants of a specified area, such as city, a country, or a 7[Page156) _ Reforestation involves replanting trees on areas that have been cut or destroyed by fire 157) Rhizobium are bacteria that convert nitrogen gas inta nitrogenous compounds that can be found i the nodules of leguminous piants 158) _Riprap is 2 wall of stones arranged to strengthen a slope to prevent soil erosion 159) Sanctuaries are special areas where our endangered plants, animals and marine life are taken cared of 160) Seamounts are underwater volcanoes 161) Seismic wave is simply energy that is transferred from one area to another within the earth’ 162) Sibuyanons Against Mining (SAM) is an environmental advocacy group organized primarily by Sibuyanons. it has been fighting for mining moratorium in Siauyam Island. it aims to protect the island, which has the world’s densest forest, the Philippine’s cleanest river and the majestic Mount Guiting- Guiting, from future environmental degradation and exploitation.) 163) _Siltation is the deposition oF accumulation of silt Sor small- grained material) in a body of water 164) Slash and burn agriculture or Kaingin System is a rotating cultivation technique in which tress are cut down and burned in order to clear land for temporary agriculture 165) Sliding friction also called dry friction, occurs when two objects are rubbing against each other or against each other 166) Solar cell is a celll that converts the sun's energy into electricity 167) Solar energy collector is a device that collect radiant energy from the sun 168) Solar panel or photovoltaic module is used to collect sunlight 169) Solid Waste Management supervised handling of waste materials from their source through recovery processes to disposal 170) Sonar is an acronym for Sound Navigation Ranging, is a device used to find the depth of the ocean floor and to locate sunken ships, schools of fish, and other objects in the ocean 171) Sound insulators are materials. that absorb most of the energy of sound waves 172) Species are individual organisms that tend to mate and produce offspring 173) Spontaneous combustion is the burning caused by the building up of heat produced by slow oxidation 174) Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, aver and above the predicted astronomical 175) Symbiosis is any relationship that involves two or more species living and interacting together 176) Tectonic plate: is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of both the continental and oceanic lithosphere. These tectonic plates are moving in different directions 177) Terrestrial ecosystem consist of land organisms like plants and animals living and interacting with the land environment 178) Thermodynamics is the study of all forms of energy 179) Tornado appearsas a violent funnel- shaped wind vortex in the lower atmosphere with upward spiraling winds of high speed- spawned by severe thunderstorms 180) Transformation of energy is the change of one form of energy into another form erior181) Tropical depression is a weather candition that exists when winds blowing near the center donot exceed 63 kph 182) Tropical depression is an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms with a defined, closed surface circulation and maximum sustained winds of less than 34 knots (29 mph). It has no eye and does not typically have the organization or the spiral shape of more powerful stos 183) Tropical Rain Forest is a biome that is hot, humid and rainy, it has lush, dense trees, 184) Tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds between 24 knots (39 mph) and 64 knots (74mph). Atthis point, the distinctive cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eyeis not usually present. itisan intense storm, characterized by extremely low pressure and swirling wind roation, that usually develops in the tropics 185) Tropical storm watch is an advisory made when conditions in a speeific area ar right for the development of such storms within 36 hours 186) Tsunami is-a very large ocean wave that is caused by an underwater earthquake or valcanic eruption which cause extreme destruction of lives and properties. 187) Typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develop: between 180° and 100°C 188) Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) is one of the world’s strongest and deadliest typhoons, prompting a rare Public storm signal no, 4 in the Visayas. Typhon Yolanda cased massive devastation that killed 6300 people 189) Ultrasonic waves are waves that have high frequencies with short wavelengths 190) Virga is a streaks or wisps of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the ground 191) Waste is any material that is no longer usable and is thrown away 192) Weather describes the condition of the airor atmosphere around you and it exists fara very short period of time the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean 193) Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and agiven location 194) Weatheringis the process whereby earthy or rocky materials are changed in color, texture, composition or form by exposure to atmospheric agents 195) World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an intemational nan-governmental organization founded on ‘April 29, 1961, working in the field of the biodiversity conservation, and the reduction of humanity's footprint on the environment. Its logo is a panda; it is the world’s largest conservation organization with over § million supporters worldwide; the group's mission is “to stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature. Currently, much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world’s biodiversity: oceans: and coasts, forests, and freshwater ecosystems 196) Zooplanktons are floating animals in rivers or oceans197) Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1992)- aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes 198) Convention on Biological Diversity mains objectives is the (1) conservation of biodiversity; (2) sustainable use of its components; and (3}fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from genetic resources, 199) Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is an international agreement between governments; it aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival 200) Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (BONN Convention)- aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratary species throughout their range (global scale) 201) Kyoto Protocol is a climate change agreement aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere 202) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) consider what can be done to reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable; the commitment to list its developed country emission reduction targets and mitigation action by developing countries by 2020 203) Republic Act No, 7586- National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992- an act providing for the establishment and management of national integrated protected areas system, defining its scope and coverage 204) Republic Act No. 8371- The Indigenous People’s Rights Act of 1997- an act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous people, establishing implementing mechanism 205) Republic Act No. 8485- Animal Welfare Act of 1998 is an act to protect and promote the welfare of all animals in the Philippines by supervising and regulating the establishment and operations of all facilities utilized for breeding 206) Republic Act No. 8550- The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998- provide a new framework for management and development of Philippine fisheries from “open access” and maximum utilization 207) Republic Act No. 8743- Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999- promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while recognizing the primary responsibility af local government units to deal with environmental problems; includes an unprecedented national ban against waste incineration 208) Republic Act No. 9003- Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 is an act providing for an ecological solid waste management program creating the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives declaring certain acts prohibited 209) Republic Act No. 9072- National Caves and Cave Resources Management and Protection Act- is an act to manage and protect caves and cave resource 210) Republic Act No. 9147- Wildlife Resources Conservation and Prote conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats Act~ an act providing for the 10| Pacezu) importation and use of chainsaws Republic Act No. 9175- Chain Saw Act of 2002 is an act regulating the ownership, possession, sale, 212) Republic Act No. 9275: Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 share in the responsibility in managing a designated Water Quality Management Area (WMA) by being a member of the Water Quality Management Area (WOMA) Governing Board 213) Republi¢ Act No, 9512- Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008 is an act to promote environmental awareness through Environmental education and covers the integration of environmental education in the school curricula at all levels, M[Page