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Part 1b Fluid Mechanics

Bsc. Physics (University of Nairobi)

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INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Statics (Fluid at rest)-“Hydrostatics”

Learn:
- Hydrostatic pressure
- Pascal’s Principle
- Archimedes Principle
- Surface tension

Hydrostatic Pressure

For a liquid the pressure (p) exerted at the base of a container is :

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑔

𝑃= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
and 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, while 𝑝 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒)/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Pascal’s Principle (Forfluids:Gases and liquids)

The pressure applied at one point in enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
part of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

F1 F2

A1 A2
A
C
B
Fluid

Change in pressure at A = Change in pressure at B or C.

The pressure at A = Pressure C

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F1 F2

A1 A2
𝐹 𝐴
𝐹2 = 𝐴2 . (𝐴1 )=(𝐴2 ) . 𝐹1
1 1

Since A1 << A2
F2 can be very large and cause hydraulic lift of say a car

Archimedes Principle

If a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid it experiences an upthrust

(buoyancy) that is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Surface Tension ( )

It is the ratio of the surface force to the length along which it acts.

F
Ring with circumference C

Circumference of ring = C
Total Length = 2C for Top and bottom surface
F
 =
2C
N
Units of  =
m
If both sides are multiplied by m, units become

𝑁𝑚 𝐽
2
= 2
𝑚 𝑚

Or it can be defined as energy per unit area on the surface of a liquid. Liquids take their
surface shapes in order to minimize their surface energy.

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Definitions of cohesive and adhesive forces.

Cohesive forces = Forces between similar molecules in a liquid

Adhesive Forces = Force between dissimilar molecules e.g glass wall and the liquid
contained in it.

Due to cohesive and adhesive forces liquids rise up columns (capillary action) until the
upward forces due to surface tension are equal to the weight of the liquid column

  r  

Component of  in y-axis =  cos  per unit length

Upward force is then, 2  r  cos 
Equating upward and weight of column h
W= mg = 2  r  cos 
W= mg= r2h g =2  r  cos  , where  is density of liquid.

2𝑐𝑜𝑠
ℎ=
𝑟𝑔

Hydrodynamics

Study of liquids in motion

We will be concerned with study of IDEAL fluids.
Assumptions upon which the study of IDEAL fluids is based

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- Steady flow or laminar flow

Velocity of particles at a point in the path of flow is constant.
- Incompressible flow
- Non-Viscous flow - no internal friction between layers of fluid.
- Irrotational flow i.e. flow is linear only.

Equation of Continuity

We have assuming mass flow conversation (mass inflow=mass outflow)

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
This is the equation of continuity.

A1 V1 A2 V2

B
A

Example: A horizontal pipe of 25 cm2 cross section carries water at a velocity of 3m/s.
The pipe feeds a smaller pipe with cross section of 15 cm2.Find velocity of water in the
small pipe.

Use the continuity equation.

Ans.= 5 m/s.

Bernoulli Equation

The sum of the pressure and total energy (p.e + k.e) between two points is constant.

v2
 A2
P2

P1
A1 v1

h2
h1

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The equation is:

1 1
𝑝1 + 𝑝𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑣12 = 𝑝2 + 𝑝𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑣22 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2
In general,
1
𝑝 + 𝑝𝑔ℎ + 𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛t
2

Viscosity and Poiseuille’s Law

Viscosity ()

It is the friction between layers of liquids when the layers slide over each other.
For two points 1 and 2 at pressure PI and P2,

8𝑄𝑙
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 =
𝑟 4
where 𝑙 is the length between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 and Q is the flow rate in 𝑚3 /𝑠.

R P1 P1 R

Example
A horizontal garden hose 15 m long with an interior diameter of 1.25cm is used to deliver
water at the rate of 150 cm3/s. Find the pressure drop from one end of the hose to the
other. (Take water = 1.005×10-3Nm-2 (Ans = 3.8 Kpa)

Stoke’s Law and Terminal Speed

For a sphere moving slowly enough through a fluid (liquid or gas) it experiences a
resistive force (viscous drag) given by

𝐹 = 6𝜋𝑟𝑣
Where = Viscosity, r=Radius of sphere, v = Velocity of sphere
Such a sphere moving slowly in a fluid attains a final steady speed (terminal speed) given
as:

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2𝑟 2 𝑔
𝑣𝑡 = ( − ′ )
9
And  density of sphere, ′ is the density of fluid.

Fd
Fb

vt Fluid
Fg

Fd= Drag force

4
Fb= Buoyant force = 𝑟 3 ′ 𝑔
3
4
Fg= Weight of the sphere= 𝑟 3 𝑔
3

At equilibrium,
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑑

Example
An aluminium sphere of radius 1mm is dropped into a bottle of glycerine at 200 C
Glycerine=1.49 N/m-2, Aluminium= 2.7×103 kg/m3, Glycerine=1.26 ×103 kg/m3, g=9.81m /s2).
Find the terminal speed of the sphere.

Solution,

Use the formula for terminal velocity, vt,=2.1 × 10-3m/s.

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Oscillatory motion is motion that repeats itself .It is also called periodic or vibratory
motion. E.g for simple pendulum:

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𝑙 𝑙

Bob

-x x mgsin
mg mgcos
Centre of oscillation

Fig ‘To’ and ‘Fro’ motion of a simple pendulum

The force mgsin is called restoring force and is negative. Note that the angle  must be
small.
The time for one cycle is called periodic time (T). We saw for a pendulum,

𝑙 𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑘√ = 𝑇 = 2√𝑔
𝑔
It can be shown that k=2.

In the figure above, x is the maximum displacement it is known as the amplitude (A).
Periodic motion also occurs in vibrating springs if a string is stretched and released.

Suppose the original length and stretched length of the spring is x1 and x2 respectively.
The extension x is = x2- x1=x.
By Hook’s law, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Negative sign indicates that the direction of the displacement and restoring force are
different; k is the spring constant.

We know:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 𝑘
Or 𝑎 = = −(𝑚)x
𝑚
i.e ax for periodic motion. It can also be shown that
𝑘
2 =
𝑚
1 𝑘
And 𝑓 = √
2 𝑚
since =2f, f is the frequency of the oscillation (number of cycles per second).
Also note that m is the mass of oscillating object.
For springs usually the mass is attached at the end and spring’s mass is taken as
negligible (small).

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A spring contains potential energy for oscillation when it is compressed or stretched.

Example:

If a 0.35kg mass on the spring with spring constant 9.47 N/m is compressed by 6.0 cm
from rest and released.
(a) Find the initial acceleration
(b) The initial force on the block

Soln

𝑘
(a) 𝑎 = − ( ) . 𝑥
𝑚
Ans=1.6 m.s-2

(c) F=ma=0.57N

WAVES
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another without
imparting net motion to the medium through which it propagates.

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves: The vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave.

e.g For a rob attached at one end.

y


A y0 y=0 B x

-y0

If point A is uniformly moved up and down, a wave that resembles a “sine” function
is produced. The vibrations are in y- direction, the wave moves in x-direction.

Such a regular wave is called a traveling or harmonic wave. Its equation is:

𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( − )
 𝑇
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For a wave moving in +x direction (right) and its

𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( + )
 𝑇
For a wave travelling in the –x direction (left).

𝑦0 -Is the amplitude

 -Wavelength-Distance between two points that are in phase e.g between two crests or
troughs
t-time
T-periodic time-time taken for one cycle.
 1
v-velocity of the wave and 𝑣 = , But = 𝑓(cycles per second-1Hz)
𝑇 𝑇
Then
𝑣 = 𝑓 (m/s)

𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
1𝐻𝑧 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The line 𝑦0 = 0 is called the mean position.
Example

Harmonic waves are sent along a rope at a speed of 10 m/s.What is the frequency of
the wave if successive wave crests are 2.5m apart?
(Ans= 4HZ)

Use 𝑣 = 𝑓

Longitudinal Waves

These are waves whose vibrations are parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
The medium then consists of compressions (high pressure regions) and rarefactions
(low pressure regions). These type of waves need a medium e.g air for their
propagation.

 Air

Compressions Rarefactions

Successive distance between two compressions or rare factions is one wavelength ()
The other definitions of a wave are the same.

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Stationary or Standing Waves.

y A A A A A

y0
A N N y=0 N B x
N N N

-y0

𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( − )
 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( + )
 𝑇

The figure above is not to scale. To create a stationary wave e.g in a robe,
we require two waves say of same amplitude started at each end and moving in different
directions. When the stationary wave is created the whole mass of the rope moves up and
down i.e no movement along x direction.

N= Are Nodes-places with zero displacement

A= Are antinodes- Places with maximum displacement

If the two waves are say.

𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( − )
 𝑇
And
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( + )
 𝑇
𝑡 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝑦0 cos (2. ) . sin(2. )
𝑇 
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑦0 sinkx). cos 𝑡.
This is the wave function (equation) of a travelling wave in two dimensions.
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
Where we have used: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏 = 2 sin ( ) . cos( )
2 2


The distance between two adjacent nodes or antinodes =2 and the distance between a

node and antinode is 4.

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Waves in a taut string

𝑛 𝑇
n=1, 𝑓= √µ
2𝑙
1 𝑇
Thus 𝑓= √
2𝑙 µ
T-Tension in the string
𝑙 = /2 n=1,2,3,4,……n
(a) µ-mass per unit length

2 𝑇
n=2, 𝑓= √µ
2𝑙
1 𝑇
Thus 𝑓= √
𝑙 µ
𝑙=
(b)

3 𝑇
n=3, 𝑓= √
2𝑙 µ
3 𝑇
Thus 𝑓= √µ
2𝑙

𝑙 = 3/2
(c)

(a) Fundamental frequency (first harmonic)

(b) Second harmonic or first overtone
(c) Third harmonic or second overtone

𝑇
Transverse velocity, 𝑣 = √
µ
𝑣 𝑣 3𝑣
Note then that,𝑓 = , ,𝑓 = , and 𝑓 = , for (a), (b) and (c) respectively.
2𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
Position of nodes:

𝑥 = 𝑛 2; n=0,1,2,3,……..n
Position of antinodes:

𝑥 = 𝑛 , n=1,3,5,……..(2n-1)
4

Example
Two waves traveling in opposite directions produce a standing wave. The waves are:

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𝑦1 = 4.0 𝑐𝑚 sin(3.0𝑥 − 2.0𝑡)

𝑦2 = 4.0 𝑐𝑚 sin(3.0𝑥 + 2.0𝑡)

x and y in cm

Find the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of the particle of the medium at x=
2.3cm

Soln
A= 4.0 cm , k = 3.0 rad/cm ,  = 2.0 rad/s

Adding the two waves we get:

𝑦 = (2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8.0sin(3.0 𝑥), for x=2.3 cm, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4.6 𝑐𝑚.

Reference
Edwin Jones and Richard Childers. Contemporary college physics, WCB MacGraw-Hill,
Boston, Third Edition, 1999.

Nyangonda T
University onNairobi
Physics Department
tnyangonda@yahoo.com

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