Written Report

In

F6FORBAL
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Prepared By:

BINLAYO JAMIL B
MERCADO CLINT ASHLEY G
PARENAS CYRUS NHEL G
HALOBER MA KRISTINA L
LIGUTAN MARINA B
MAGALSO KIMBERLY V
MAGRACIA MARYKNOLL MYLENE Z
RAFOL FRESILIA MAE
SAGARBARRIA MYSTICA H
BS Criminology II

WRITTEN REPORT FOR FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

(For BSCRIMINOLOGY II)

1. COURSE OVERVIEW/PRELIMINARIES
1.1 Course Code : F6FORBAL
1.2 Course Title : Forensic Ballistics
1.3 1.3 Course/Program : BS CRIMINOLOGY
Major :
Year Level : 3RD YEAR
Semester : 2ND SEMESTER
1.4 Course Description : The course involves a scientific study of firearm identification
with the use of laboratory examination. The subject gives emphasis on the study of
ammunitions, projectiles, gunpowder, primer and explosives, including the use of the bullet
comparison microscope. It also deals with the principles in the microscopic and
macroscopic examination of firearm evidences and the preparation of reports for legal
proceedings in the solution of cases involving firearms.
1.5 Course Outline

Rifling At the end of the learning period, the

Making of a rifled barrel
Markings Found on Bullet and Cartridge Case
Two General Characteristics to be considered
regarding ballistics exam
students must be able to:
1) define rifling;
2) realize the importance of rifling;
2) enumerate and discuss marks found on
bullet and cartridge case;
3) discover marks on cartridge case and
bullet using bullet comparison microscope;
 4) demonstrate the proper use of bullet
comparison
microscope.

2. Written Report

LESSON 1 Rifling

A. TARGET LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the learning period, the students must be able to:
1) review the history of
firearm;
2) identify personalities who give contributions to the development of firearm.
2) enumerate and discuss the essential parts of different firearms;
3) classify and discuss the different types of firearm.

LEARNING MANAGEMENT TOOLS

1) Google Meet
2) Google Classroom
3) Facebook messenger
4) Smart Phones
5) Laptop/Computer
6) Reference materials
7) Laboratory rules and regulations
8)Laboratory facilities
9)Scribd
B. Learning Content, Discussions, and Illustrations

SUB-TOPIC 1: RIFLING, MAKING OF A RIFLED BARREL, MARKINGS FOUND ON BULLET

AND CARTRIDGE CASE, TWO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED
REGARDING BALLISTICS EXAM.

RIFLING
Rifling refers to the spiral (helical) grooves that are cut or swaged on the internal surface
(bore) of a gun barrel, which helps impart the spinning motion to a bullet when it’s fired. A
spinning bullet is found to be more stable in its trajectory, and is therefore more accurate
than a bullet that doesn’t spin.

RIFLING IN THE BORE

A bullet fired from a rifle or handgun has a spiral spin that keeps it point-first in flight,
increasing accuracy and distance. This is achieved by the rifling inside the barrel, from
which the rifle got its name. The barrel is thick and has spiraling grooves cut or pressed
into the bore. The ridges of metal between the grooves are called lands. Together, the
grooves and lands make up the “rifling.”
• The distance from the beginning of a groove to the point where the groove
completes a full revolution in the bore determines the rifle’s twist rate. This rate will
stabilize projectiles differently. As the length of the twist gets longer, the twist rate
becomes slower. Slow twist rates tend to stabilize round balls well, and fast twist rates tend
to stabilize conical bullets more effectively. Some muzzle loading firearms have middle-of-
the-road twist rates that will shoot either type of bullet fairly well.
• The diameter of the barrel, measured from land to opposite land, is its caliber.
• Shotguns, which have no rifling, are known as smoothbores.
MAKING OF A RIFLED BARREL

Firearms, more commonly known as guns, are used by outdoor hunting enthusiasts. Some
hunters may choose to make their own guns, rather than buying them, to get a custom
firearm. The most difficult part of building a gun is to create a barrel that will direct the
fired round at the desired target. The barrel also imparts a spin to the round as it travels
down the barrel, which gives the round gyroscopic stabilization as it flies to the target. Use
these tips to learn how to make a gun barrel.
Choose the type of steel to be used for the gun barrel. The steel chosen must have a
strength of 100,000 psi (689476 kPA) to withstand the force of the gasses that propel the
round. The steel should have a hardness of 25 to 32 on the Rockwell scale so that the steel
is strong enough to contain the pressure necessary to propel the round through the barrel,
but not so brittle that it will be harmed by the machining operations to be performed.[1]
Obtain 1.25 inch (31.75 mm) rods from a specialty steel mill. Ask for a quality certification
on the steel. Specify that the steel must be stress relieved at the steel mill.
• Select 4140 chrome moly steel. Chrome moly steel is the least expensive alternative.
It also is easier to chemically blacken, if desired, to give a traditional look to the barrel.
• Decide on 416 stainless steel. Stainless steel is more expensive than chrome moly
Steel. Stainless steel barrels have have a longer service life and are result in a more
accurate firearm than do chrome moly steel barrels.
Cut a piece of steel for the barrel stock. Cut a length of steel around 28 inches (71.1 cm)
to 30 inches (711.2 mm to 762 mm).[2] Ensure that the ends of the barrel stock are true in
parallelism to each other, are faced off and are perfectly round.

Drill the barrel. Drill down the interior lengthwise to a diameter about 5 thousandths of
an inch (0.127 mm) less than the desired finished bore diameter of the barrel. A special
drill, known as a deep hole drill, must be used to drill the barrel. The deep hole drill will
hold the tungsten carbide drill bit still and spin the barrel to perform the drilling.[3]
Drilling will be liquid cooled and will proceed at about 1 inch (25.4 mm) per minute. Total
time to drill the hole will be about 30 minutes.
Ream the barrel. Work a tungsten carbide bore reamer down the finished drill hole of the
barrel, using liquid coolant as the reamer works. The reamer will expand the hole to the
desired finished bore, and smooth the inner drilled surface of the barrel as it creates the
final desired bore.[4]

Rifle the barrel. Rifling consists of spiral grooves in the bore, which will impart a spin to the
fired round as it travels down the barrel. This spin will gyro stabilize the flight of the fired
round. Determine the number of rifling grooves to be placed in the bore and the amount of
twist to be put on the rifling grooves. Consult with experts in the field of gun barrel making
to determine this information. Find these experts at specialty gun barrel making shops.
• Make the first rifling groove. Insert a tube mounted with the rifling hook cutter box
down the bore of the barrel. Draw the rifling hook cutter box through the bore while
rotating the barrel at a rate recommended by the expert to give the desired rifling spin.
• Add more rifling grooves. Index the barrel to the starting position for the next
groove. Draw the rifling hook cutter box through the bore while rotating the barrel at a rate
recommended by the expert to give the desired rifling spin.
• Finish the rifling. Repeat passes through the bore with the rifling hook cutter box as
needed.
Lap the barrel to fine polish the bore.
• Insert the barrel lapping rod into the bore until it is about 4 inches (101.6 mm) from
1 end of the bore. Pour molten lead into the end of the bore and allow it to harden.
• Push the lap out of the barrel. Push the lapping rod forward until the now solidified
lead slug, called the lead lap, is exposed. Cover the lead lap with lapping paste, which is
similar to valve grinding paste.
• Complete the lapping. Run the lead lap up and down the length of the barrel about
50 times, applying more lapping paste as necessary.

MARKINGS FOUND ON BULLET AND CARTRIDGE CASE

Like bullets, cartridge cases can be identified as having been fired by a specific firearm. As
soon as cartridges are loaded into a firearm the potential for the transfer of unique tool
marks exists. However, the cartridge does not have to be fired for these marks to be
transferred. Simply loading a cartridge into a firearm can cause unique identifiable marks
that can be later identified.
Cartridge cases are mostly made of brass but can also be made of other materials such as
steel and plastic. Cartridge cases come in a variety of finishes but all are made of a material
that is softer than the materials found in a firearm. Any surface of the cartridge case that
meets the inner workings of the firearm may be marked.
Tool marks produced on the cartridge cases will be in two basic forms. As the microscopic
striations found on bullets, cartridge cases can pick up striated action marks. These
“scratches” are produced when the cartridge case moves laterally against the tool (inner
surface of the firearm) producing a scrape or striated mark. The other form of marks that
can be left on a cartridge case are impressed action marks. Impressed marks are created
on cartridge cases when it impacts the tool (again, the firearm) with adequate velocity or
pressure to leave an impressed or indented mark.
Cartridge cases are compared to fired standards from a firearm using a comparison
microscope. Standards are first examined to determine what marks, if any, the firearm is
consistently reproducing. Evidence cartridge cases are then directly compared to the
standards to see if they too are also similarly marked.

DIFFERENT MARKS ON CARTRIDGE CASE

Firing pin impressions are indentations created when the firing pin of a firearm strikes the
primer of centerfire cartridge case or the rim of a rimfire cartridge case

Breech Face marks are the impression marks developed when the projectile recoils
rearwards under impact of high pressure of gases produced by ignition of charge and
strikes with the breech face of the firearm.

Chamber marks are the striation marks which are produced from the rough walls of the
chamber during loading and removing of the cartridge case
Extractor marks are the striation marks formed by the extractor of most auto-loading or
repeating firearms.

Ejector marks are the striation marks developed from ejector present as an opposing edge
on the rear end during ejection/ removal of the cartridge case from the chamber.

Manufacturing Irregularities are the random marks or imperfections produced incidentally

during the manufacturing of a firearm by tools and machinery.

Striation marks are the irregularities in the surface of the interior of the barrel produced
due to wear and tear with use, corrosion, or damage.
COMPARISON OF FIREARMS
Comparison of firearms, cartridge cases and bullets can be done by following methods:
q Comparison microscope
q Stereoscopy
Examination:
First an exhibit is compared with a standard or test sample for class
similarities/characteristics
If dissimilarities in class characteristics are found or if a general lack of good class
characteristics are present no further comparisons may be necessary §
But when similar class characteristics are identified the examinations progress to a final
stage where an attempt is made to find a "match" in individual characteristics Comparison
of Firearms Test Exhibit

COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
• It is basically a combination of two compound microscopes into a singular unit
• The distinct feature of this microscope is the bridge that connects the two
microscopes and made the visuals of both the objective lens on a single eyepiece
lens Comparison Microscope Comparison MicroscopeRay Diagram of a comparison
microscope and field of view
 RAY DIAGRAM OF A COMPARISON MICROSCOPE AND FIELD OF VIEW

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS

TWO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING BALLISTICS
EXAM
• To match a bullet to a particular firearm the examiner looks for two criteria using
comparison microscopy: class characteristics and individual characteristics.
Class characteristics are measurable features of a specimen that indicate a restricted
group source. On bullets, the class characteristics are the rifling specifications of the barrel
from which the bullet was fired. These include caliber, number of lands and grooves,
direction of twist of the lands and grooves, and widths of the lands and grooves. If an
evidence bullet and test bullets fired from a suspect firearm have the same class
characteristics, the firearm examiner can conclude that the evidence bullet could have been
fired from the suspect firearm.
Individual characteristics are marks unique to that particular firearm barrel. In a barrel,
the individual characteristics are produced by the random imperfections and irregularities
of the tool or tools used to produce the lands and grooves, and by use, corrosion, or
damage. If an evidence bullet has the same class characteristics and matching individual
characteristics as test bullets fired from a suspect firearm, the firearm examiner can
conclude that the bullet was fired from the suspect firearm.
DEMONSTRATE THE PROPER USE OF BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

Common Bullet Types & Terminology

Full Metal Jacket (FMJ)

This is the most common type of bullet and consists of a soft metal core, such as lead fully
encapsulated by a harder metal, such as copper They are usually pointy, round, or even
flat. Wound channels are typically small and go through a target. Great for the range but not
preferred for defensive rounds.
 Hollow
Point (HP)
Hollow points are made to expand once they hit something. They are the go-to round for
police officers, concealed weapon carriers, and home defense guns because of their
stopping power

Open Tip (OTM)

Open-tip bullets are sometimes also known as Open Tip Match (OTM) since they are
preferred by long-distance shooters. The manufacturing process for open tip bullets
creates a more consistent round than FMJ. Important when you’re shooting hundreds of
yards!
Ballistic Tip
This is a hollow point covered with (usually red) plastic to mimic the profile of an FMJ.
They are mostly used in hunting or precision shooting.This design is called “boat tail” and
produces less drag as the bullet flies through the air. HPBT is short for “hollow point boat
tail.”

Soft Point
part of the lead is exposed at the tip. The softer lead is designed to flatten better when the
bullet hits a target. But for the most part, ballistic tips have surpassed the performance of
soft points.

Shotguns
The most popular sized shotgun round is the 12 gauge. Recoil can vary from moderate to
high based on round. Shotgun ammunition is the most versatile with three main types of
loads.
Birdshot

consists of the top row and is pretty

small pellets numbering in the dozens in
each shell Great for hunting birds and
blasting clay pigeons, but not the best
for home defense.

Buck Shot

The overall best home defense round is buckshot. It’s nine solid lead balls the same
diameter as the 9mm handgun bullet. Much more recoil usually…but you can also find
reduced-recoil buckshot rounds too.

Slugs

Slugs are single projectiles that are around 1 ounce of solid metal that really bring the hurt.
However, they don’t have the spread of birdshot or buckshot. But, in the hands of a solid
shooter, they can be accurate up to 100-yards.
Microscope

A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be
seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and
structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided
by a microscope

Microscope maybe help to determine the different type of bullet may used in a crime

Firearms Evidence that May be Found

 By examining wadding materials, the examiner may be able to determine

 The gauge of the shotgun
 The manufacturer or marketer
 A range of possible shot sizes based on impressions in the shotshell wad
 Individual characteristics (in some cases)

How the Samples are Collected

Firearms evidence can be recovered in a number of ways and areas. Firearms themselves
can be recovered at shooting scenes by crime scene investigators and sent to the
laboratory. Bullets, bullet fragments, cartridge cases, shotshell wadding, etc., are normally
collected individually after proper documentation/photography and sent to the laboratory.
Bullet evidence can also be obtained at autopsy or in an emergency room setting. In these
cases the sample should be marked as a biohazard and then sent to the laboratory. Each
laboratory has written procedures for packaging and submitting evidence.
Who Conducts the Analysis

A well-trained firearms examiner should perform the evaluation and comparison of this
evidence. These examiners will have received extensive training on all matter of firearms
and ammunition manufacturing; evidence detection, recovery, handling and examination
procedures; comparison microscope equipment and procedures; courtroom testimony and
legal issues; and casework.The Association of Firearms & Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE), an
international group of nearly a thousand examiners, has developed an examiner training
course which takes 18 to 24 months to complete

How and Where the Analysis is Performed

Most examinations are performed by crime laboratory employees who are trained to
conduct this type of examination. Actual items of evidence are submitted to either crime
laboratories or private laboratories according to the requesting agency’s policies and
procedures. The laboratory will have certain items of equipment available to conduct the
examinations required. Measuring devices such as calipers and balances are used to weigh
and measure bullet evidence. Stereo microscopes are used to determine basic class
characteristics of fired bullets, bullet fragments and cartridge/shotshell cases

C. ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION
QUESTION: These are produced by the random imperfections and irregularities of the tool or
tools used to produce the lands and grooves, and by use, corrosion, or damage.

ANS: INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTION: easier to chemically blacken, if desired, to give a traditional look to the barrel.

ANS: Chrome moly steel

QUESTION: It is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by
the naked eye.

ANS: MICROSCOPE

QUESTION: These are marks unique to that particular firearm barrel.

ANS: INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTION: These are measurable features of a specimen that indicate a restricted group source.

ANS: CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTION: what is 3 main types of load in shotgun

ANS. BIRDSHOT, BUCK SHOT, SLUGS

QUESTION: it is the most common type of bullet

ANS: FULL METAL JACKET

QUESTION: refers to the spiral (helical) grooves that are cut or swaged on the internal surface
(bore) of a gun barrel, which helps impart the spinning motion to a bullet when it’s fired.

ANS: RIFLING

QUESTION: more expensive than chrome moly Steel.

ANS: STAINLESS STEEL

QUESTION: are the striation marks which are produced from the rough walls of the chamber
during loading and removing of the cartridge case

ANS: CHAMBER MARKS

QUESTION:are the striation marks formed by the extractor of most auto-loading or repeating
firearms.

ANS: EXTRACTOR MARKS

QUESTION:are the striation marks developed from ejector present as an opposing edge on the
rear end during ejection/ removal of the cartridge case from the chamber.

ANS: EJECTOR MARKS