PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS

AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

(REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS AND
CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS
CONTROL)
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit will serve as guide for

the learners. It will aid them as they learn new
ideas and enrich their existing knowledge. To
study General Biology, one requires a sense of
discipline. The learners will gain knowledge on
the different organ systems in both plants and
animals as well as how these organs respond
to the environment.
In this learning kit, the learners will be able
to compare and contrast the organ systems in
both plants and animals in terms of regulation
of body fluids and chemical and nervous
control.

2
 Lesson
1 REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:

K: explain the concept of osmoregulation
S: compare and contrast the regulation of body fluids in both
plants and animals
A: recognize the important role of osmoregulation in carrying
out essential life processes

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and

animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange,
transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and
nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

I.WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITY

Directions: Read and understand each item carefully. Then, write the letter of
your answer in your notebook.

1. When faced with a sudden drop in environmental temperature, an

endothermic animal will .
A. experience a drop in its body temperature
B.wait to see if it goes lower
C. increase muscle activity to generate heat
D. add fur or fat to increase insulation
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 2. How are wastes carried to the kidney for removal?
A. in cells
B.the urine
C. in blood
D. in interstitial fluid

3. What is the cause of a fever of 38.3 °C (101 °F)?

A. too much heat produced by the body
B.upward adjustment of the body temperature set point
C. inadequate cooling mechanisms in the body
D. the heat caused by a viral or bacterial infection

4. Which refers to movement of solvent molecules through a

semipermeable membrane into an area that has a higher solute
concentration?
A. osmosis
B.diffusion
C. active transport
D. passive transport

5. Which of the following organ systems is utilized by animals to control

the amount of water that is lost to the environment and maintain osmotic
pressure?
A. Circulatory system
B. Digestive system
C. Reproductive system
D. Excretory system

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION

Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable state inside the body of

an animal. Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal
and external changes in order to maintain this steady state. Examples of
internal conditions maintained homeostatically are the level of blood
glucose, body temperature, blood calcium level. These conditions remain
stable because of physiologic processes that result in negative feedback
relationships.
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 The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a
specific value of some aspect of the body or its cells called a set point.
While there are normal fluctuations from the set point, the body’s systems
will usually attempt to go back to this point. A change in the internal or
external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor;
the response of the system is to adjust the activities of the system so the
value moves back toward the set point. For instance, if the body becomes
too warm, adjustments are made to cool the animal. If glucose levels in
the blood rise after a meal, adjustments are made to lower them and to
get the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use.

Osmoregulation is the active regulation of osmotic pressure to

maintain the balance of water and electrolytes in an organism. Control of
osmotic pressure is needed to perform biochemical reactions and preserve
homeostasis.

How Osmoregulation Works

Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a

semipermeable membrane into an area that has a higher solute
concentration. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure needed to
prevent the solvent from crossing the membrane. Osmotic pressure
depends on the concentration of solute particles. In an organism, the
solvent is water and the solute particles are mainly dissolved salts and
other ions, since larger molecules (proteins and polysaccharides) and
nonpolar or hydrophobic molecules (dissolved gases, lipids) don't cross a
semipermeable membrane. To maintain the water and electrolyte balance,
organisms excrete excess water, solute molecules, and wastes.

Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-GB/definitions/osmosis/

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Regulators and Conformers

Two major types of osmoregulation are osmoconformers and

osmoregulators.

Osmoconformers use active or passive processes to match their

internal osmolarity to that of the environment. This is commonly seen
in marine invertebrates, which have the same internal osmotic
pressure inside their cells as the outside water, even though the
chemical composition of the solutes may be different.

Osmoregulators control internal osmotic pressure so that conditions

are maintained within a tightly-regulated range. Many animals are
osmoregulators, including vertebrates (like humans).

Osmoregulation Strategies of Different Organisms

Bacteria - When osmolarity increases around bacteria, they may use

transport mechanisms to absorb electrolytes or small organic molecules.
The osmotic stress activates genes in certain bacteria that lead to the
synthesis of osmoprotectant molecules.

Protozoa - Protists use contractile vacuoles to transport ammonia and

other excretory wastes from the cytoplasm to the cell membrane, where
the vacuole opens to the environment. Osmotic pressure forces water into
the cytoplasm, while diffusion and active transport control the flow of
water and electrolytes.

Source: https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/zoology/item/261-osmoregulation-or-homeostasis-in-protozoa

Plants - Higher plants use the stomata on the underside of leaves to

control water loss. Plant cells rely on vacuoles to regulate cytoplasm
osmolarity. Plants that live in hydrated soil (mesophytes) easily compensate
for water lost from by absorbing more water. The leaves and stem of the
plants may be protected from excessive water loss by a waxy outer
coating called the
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cuticle. Plants that live in dry habitats (xerophytes) store water in
vacuoles, have thick cuticles, and may have structural modifications (i.e.,
needle- shaped leaves, protected stomata) to protect against water loss.
Plants that live in salty environments (halophytes) have to regulate not
only water intake/loss but also the effect on osmotic pressure by salt. Some
species store salts in their roots so the low water potential will draw the
solvent in via osmosis. Salt may be excreted onto leaves to trap water
molecules for absorption by leaf cells. Plants that live in water or damp
environments (hydrophytes) can absorb water across their entire surface.

Source: https://www.quora.com/In-plants-what-is-osmoregulation

Animals - Animals utilize an excretory system to control the amount of

water that is lost to the environment and maintain osmotic pressure.
Protein metabolism also generates waste molecules which could disrupt
osmotic pressure. The organs that are responsible for osmoregulation
depend on the species.

Source: https://philschatz.com/biology-concepts-book/contents/m45534.html

In human, the primary organ that regulates water is the kidney.

Water, glucose, and amino acids may be reabsorbed from the glomerular
filtrate in the kidneys or it may continue through the ureters to the
bladder for excretion in urine. In this way, the kidneys maintain the
electrolyte balance of
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the blood and also regulate blood pressure. Absorption is controlled by
the hormones aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and angiotensin
II. Humans also lose water and electrolytes via perspiration.

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain monitor changes in

water potential, controlling thirst and secreting ADH. ADH is stored in the
pituitary gland. When it is released, it targets the endothelial cells in the
nephrons of the kidneys. These cells are unique because they have
aquaporins. Water can pass through aquaporins directly rather than
having to navigate through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. ADH
opens the water channels of the aquaporins, allowing water to flow. The
kidneys continue to absorb water, returning it to the bloodstream, until
the pituitary gland stops releasing ADH.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY

VENN DIAGRAM. Compare and contrast the regulation of body fluids in both
plants and animals. (10 points)

PLANTS ANIMALS

8
III.WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

POST-TEST

Directions. Cite at least two important roles of osmoregulation in carrying out

essential life processes. Write your answers in your notebook. (5 points each)
1.
2.

9
 REFERENCES

Charles Molnar, Homeostasis and Osmoregulation, accessed on

January 27, 2021, https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/11-1-
homeostasis-and-osmoregulation/

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "Osmoregulation Definition and

Explanation." ThoughtCo, Aug. 26, 2020, accessed on January
27,
2021, thoughtco.com/osmoregulation-definition-and-explanation-
4125135.,

Images:

https://senecalearning.com/en-GB/definitions/osmosis/

https://www.quora.com/In-plants-what-is-osmoregulation

https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/zoology/item/261-osmoregulation-or-
homeostasis-in-protozoa

https://philschatz.com/biology-concepts-book/contents/m45534.html

https://www.thoughtco.com/osmoregulation-definition-and-
explanation4125135#:~:text=Plant%20cells%20rely%20on%20vacuol es%20to
%20regulate%20cytoplasm%20osmolarity.&text=Plants%20t hat%20live%20in
%20water,environment%20and%20maintain%20os motic%20pressure.

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11
 CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
K: compare and contrast the chemical and nervous
control in both plants and animals
S: list down the systems in animals and responses in plants
responsible for chemical and nervous control
A: recognize the importance of chemical and nervous
control in plants and animals

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and

animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange,
transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and
nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

I.WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITY

Directions: Choose from the pool of words inside the box to complete the
diagram. Draw the diagram with your answers in your notebook.

Central nervous Brain Motor Somatic Sympathetic

system neurons nervous division
system
Peripheral nervous Spinal cord Sensory Autonomic Parasympathetic
system neurons nervous division
system

12
 Source: http://www.imagequiz.co.uk/quizzes/301469019

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION:

In animals:

The nervous system

The nervous system uses electrical impulses to collect, process and
respond to information about the environment.

Nervous system cells

The unique structure of neurons makes them specialized for
receiving and transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body.
Neurons are supported by glial cells, which surround, protect, and insulate
them.

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 All neurons have several features in common, including a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon. These structures are important for transmitting neural
impulses, electrical signals that allow neurons to communicate with one another.

Neurons are specialized, depending on their required functions:

- Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense organs, such as the eyes
or ears.

- Motor neurons carry impulses to muscles and glands.

Interneurons transfer signals between sensory and motor neurons, as well as in
between other interneurons.

- In a resting neuron, there is a separation of ions in the cell regulated

by sodium-potassium pumps. If a neuron receives a large enough
signal, the resting potential changes, producing an electrical impulse
called an action potential. Once an impulse begins, it moves down the
axon until it reaches the axon terminal.

Parts of the nervous system

The nervous system is made up of two parts: the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

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 The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal
cord. Commands to the body originate in the brain and the spinal cord connects
the brain with the rest of the nerves in the body.

The PNS can be broken down into two parts:

 The somatic nervous system (SNS) regulates voluntary activities such

as muscular movement. It also controls reflexes, such as pulling your
hand away from the hot surface of a stove.
 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates activities that are
not under conscious control and has two divisions that are opposite
of one another: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for
“fight-or-flight” responses, while the parasympathetic nervous
system is active during restful periods.

The endocrine system

Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is a regulatory
system. However, instead of using electrical impulses for signaling, it
produces and uses chemical signals called hormones, which travel through
the bloodstream and control the actions of cells and organs.

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Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-
nervous-and-endocrine-systems/a/hs-the-nervous-and-endocrine-systems- review#:~:text=For%20one
%2C%20the%20endocrine%20system,functions%20are%20more%20short%2Dli ved.
Regulation of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is regulated by negative feedback

mechanisms that work to maintain homeostasis. The concentration of
hormones, and how they affect other body systems, is controlled in this
manner. For example, blood glucose regulation is controlled by insulin and
glucagon, hormones
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 produced by the pancreas. When blood glucose increases, the pancreas
releases insulin, which stimulates the uptake of glucose from the blood.
This prevents blood glucose from getting too high. When blood glucose
concentration drops, the pancreas releases glucagon, which stimulates
the breakdown of glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. This
raises blood glucose back to normal levels.

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-
nervous-and-endocrine-systems/a/hs-the-nervous-and-endocrine-systems- review#:~:text=For%20one
%2C%20the%20endocrine%20system,functions%20are%20more%20short%2Dli ved.

In Plants:

Plant Hormones and Sensory Systems

A plant’s sensory response to external stimuli relies on chemical

messengers (hormones). Plant hormones affect all aspects of plant life,
from flowering to fruit setting and maturation, and from phototropism to
leaf fall. Just as in animals, hormones are signaling molecules which are
present in very small amounts, transported throughout the plant body, and
only elicit in responses in cells which have the appropriate hormone
receptors. In plants, hormones travel large throughout the body via the
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata.

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 Source: https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plants/plasmodesmata.html

Potentially every cell in a plant can produce plant hormones. In contrast,

many animal hormones are produced only in specific glands. Plants do not have
specialized hormone-producing glands.

Hormones regulate a variety of plant behaviors in response to different

stimuli or environmental conditions. This page is divided into two parts:

Part 1 - describes some of the hormones that initiate and regulate plant
behaviors.

Part 2 - describes the stimuli that provoke these responses and the pathways
that regulate the responses.

PART 1

Auxins: the master growth regulator

The term auxin is derived from the Greek word auxein, which means
“to grow.” Auxins are the main hormones responsible for cell elongation in
phototropism (movement in response to light) and gravitropism (movement
in response to gravity). Apical dominance (inhibition of lateral bud
formation) is triggered by auxins produced in the apical meristem.
Flowering, fruit ripening, and inhibition of abscission (leaf falling) are other
plant responses under the direct or indirect control of auxins.

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Cytokinins: cell division
Cytokinins promote cytokinesis (cell division). Cytokinins are most
abundant in growing tissues, such as roots, embryos, and fruits, where
cell division is occurring. Cytokinins also delay senescence (aging) in leaf
tissues, promote mitosis (cell division), and stimulate differentiation of the
meristem in shoots and roots.

Gibberellins: stem, fruit, and seed growth

Gibberellins (GAs) are a group of about 125 closely related plant
hormones that stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and fruit
and flower maturation. Maturing grapes are routinely treated with GA to
promote larger fruit size. GAs are synthesized in the root and stem apical
meristems, young leaves, and seed embryos.

Abscisic Acid (ABA): dormancy

Abscisic acid (ABA) causes the abscission (dropping) leaves. ABA
accumulates as a response to stressful environmental conditions, such as
dehydration, cold temperatures, or shortened day lengths. Its activity
counteracts many of the growth-promoting effects of GAs and auxins.

Ethylene: aging
Ethylene promotes fruit ripening, flower wilting, and leaf fall. Ethylene
is unusual as a hormone because it is a volatile gas (C2H4). Aging tissues
(especially older leaves) and nodes of stems produce ethylene. The best-
known effect of the hormone is the promotion of fruit ripening: ethylene
stimulates the conversion of starch and acids into simple sugars. Ethylene
also triggers leaf and fruit abscission, flower fading and dropping.

Systemin: anti-herbivory
Systemin, named for the fact that it is distributed systemically
(everywhere) in the plant body upon production, activates plant
responses to wounds from herbivores. Systemin initiates production of
compounds, like jasmonic acid, which taste bad and inhibit digestion by
herbivores (causing a stomach ache!) to deter them from continuing to
eat the plant.

Methyl Salicylate (MeSa): immune response

Methyl salicylate (MeSa) helps regulate responses to infection by
parasites or pathogens. When a parasite or pathogen infects a cell, there is
a specific, localized response called the hypersensitive response (HR).
Following this very localized response, the plant initiates a systemic
(whole body) response called the systemic acquired response (SAR). MeSA
is responsible for inducing the SAR in response to the HR.

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PART 2

Plant Responses to Stimuli

Plant Responses to Light: Phototropism and Germination

Plants are generally capable of detecting and responding to at least

three wavelengths of light: blue light, red light, and far-red light. The
different wavelengths are detected by different photoreceptors, which are
comprised of a protein covalently bonded to a light-absorbing pigment
called a chromophore. Together, the two are called a chromoprotein. The
behaviors regulated by light stimuli include:

 phototropism (movement toward light)

 stem elongation (growth)
 germination (seed sprouting)
 photoperiodism (flowering in response to length of day)

Plant Growth Responses

Other plant responses to different growth-related stimuli include:

 Apical dominance
- Many plants grow primarily at a single apical meristem and
have limited lateral branches (which would result in multiple
meristems).
 Leaf abscission
- Some plants drop leaves in response to changing seasons
(based on temperatures, photoperiod, water, or other
environmental conditions).
 Fruit growth
- Growth of fruits in size is promoted by gibberellins.
 Fruit ripening
- Once fruits have grown to the appropriate size, they begin
ripening; this process is stimulated by ethylene.

Plant Responses to Water or Water Stress (Drought)

 Germination
- Though we previously discussed germination controlled by
the phytochrome system, the seeds of some plant species
instead rely on the imbibition (intake) of water to initiate
germination.

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  Stomatal closing
- As briefly noted above, activation of phot1 and phot2 by
blue light cause stomata to open to permit gas exchange so
that photosynthesis can occur.

 Local cell death

- In drought conditions, the immediate response is closing
stomata, as noted above. However, because closed stomata
prevent gas exchange, plants will die if the stomata remain
closed for too long.

Plant Responses to Touch: Thigmotropism

Thigmotropism is movement in response to touch. Different plant

species have different types of responses to touch, including slow
thigmotropism and fast thigmotropism.
 Slow thigmotropism
- describes a plant response to a touch stimulus that affects
direction of growth, such as vines that wrap around or grow
along structures
 Fast thigmotropism
- only occurs in a few plant species, and describes a rapid
plant response to touch such the way the Venus flytrap snaps
shut to trap an insect, or the way mimosa plants clamp their
leaves closed in response to touch

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 Source: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/how-venus-flytraps-evolved-their-taste-meat

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

A. Compare and contrast the chemical and nervous control in both

plants and animals. Do this in your notebook.

PLANTS ANIMALS

B.List down at least three systems in animals and three responses in

plants responsible for chemical and nervous control. Write your answers
in your notebook.

Animals: 1. Plants: 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

C. Cite at least two importance of chemical and nervous control in

plants and animals. Write your answers in your notebook.
1.
2.

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 III. WHAT I HAVE

LEARNED POST-

TEST

Directions: Read each item carefully. Then, write the letter of your answer on
your answer sheet
.
1. It is a system that uses electrical impulses to collect, process and
respond to information about the environment.
A. Nervous C. Respiratory E. All of the above
B. Digestive D. Immune

2. It is a type of neuron that carry impulses to muscles and glands.

A. Sensory C. Interneurons E. None of the above
B. Motor D. Entraneurons

3. It is a movement toward or away from light.

A. Phototropism C. Photoreceptors E. None of the above
B. Photoperiodism D. Phototropins

4. The chromoproteins responsible for mediating the phototropic response

is called .
A. Phototropism C. Photoreceptors E. None of the above
B.Photoperiodism D. Phototropins

5. It is also known as statoliths which are specialized cellular

compartments containing starch granules that move in response to
gravity.
A. Apical dominance C. Leaf abscission E. Fruit ripening
B.Amyloplasts D. Fruit growth

6. Some plants drop leaves in response to changing seasons (based on

temperatures, photoperiod, water, or other environmental conditions).
This process is called .
A. Apical dominance C. Leaf abscission E. Fruit ripening
B.Amyloplasts D. Fruit growth

7. It is a phenomenon wherein many plants grow primarily at a single

apical meristem and have limited lateral branches (which would result in
multiple meristems).
A. Apical dominance C. Leaf abscission E. Fruit ripening
B.Amyloplasts D. Fruit growth

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8. In animals, is called the regulatory system.
A. Nervous System C. Endocrine System E. All of the above
B.Digestive System D. Immune System

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9. It transfers signals between sensory and motor neurons as well as
in between other interneurons.
A. Sensory C. Interneurons E. None of the above
B.Motor D. Entraneurons

10.The neurons that carry impulses from sense organs, such as the eyes
or ears are called .
A. Sensory C. Interneurons E. None of the above
B.Motor D. Entraneurons

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