Industrial Processes Control

for
Mechatronics Engineering

Lecture Notes Prepared by

Dr. Abdelhamid Samy
 Industrial Processes Control
for
Mechatronics Engineering

Course out line

Page
Lecture ( No. ) Subject No.
Lecture ( 1 ) Introduction to Control Systems 1
& (2) Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control Systems
Lecture ( 3 ) State-Space Models 25
Lecture ( 4 ) Input-Output Models 36
Lecture ( 5 ) Industrial control system (ICS) 45
Programmable logic controllers
Lecture ( 6 ) Block Diagram Manipulation 57
&(7)
Lecture ( 8 ) Industrial temperature measurement 69
& (9) Temperature Sensors & Pressure sensor
Lecture ( 10 ) Sensors 100
Lecture ( 11 ) Simple Process Models. PID Control 135
Lecture ( 12 ) Speed Control of DC Motors 148
Lecture ( 13 ) Flow-Control Valves 164
Lecture ( 14 ) Mechatronics Examples of control systems 181
References 195
 Lecture (1 & 2)
Introduction to Control Systems
Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control
Systems

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Control Systems
What is a Control System?
A control system is defined as a system of devices that manages,
commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems
to achieve a desired result. A control system achieves this through
control loops, which are a process designed to maintain a process
variable at a desired set point.

In other words, the definition of a control system can be simplified as a

system, which controls other systems. As human civilization is being
modernized day by day the demand for automation has increased
alongside it. Automation requires control over systems of interacting
devices.

In recent years, control systems have played a central role in the

development and advancement of modern technology and civilization.
Practically every aspect of our day-to-day life is affected more or less by
some type of control system.

Examples of control systems in your day-to-day life include an air

conditioner, a refrigerator, an air conditioner, a bathroom toilet tank, an
automatic iron, and many processes within a car – such as cruise control.

In industrial settings, we find control systems in the quality control of

products, weapons system, transportation systems, power systems, space
technology, robotics, and much more.

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Features of a Control System

The main feature of a control system is that there should be a clear

mathematical relationship between the input and output of the system.
When the relation between input and output of the system can be
represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called a linear
control system.

Again when the relationship between input and output cannot be

represented by single linear proportionality, rather the input and output
are related by some non-linear relation, the system is referred to as a
non-linear control system.

Requirements of a Good Control System

Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and

defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in
normal operating conditions. Accuracy can be improved by using
feedback elements. To increase the accuracy of any control system error
detector should be present in the control system.

Sensitivity: The parameters of a control system are always changing

with the change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance, or any
other parameters.
This change can be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any control system
should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input signals
only.

Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control

system should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.

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Stability: It is an important characteristic of the control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if the input is zero
then the output must be zero then such a control system is said to be a
stable system.

Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of the

control system. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for the
frequency response of a good control system.

Speed: It is the time taken by the control system to achieve its stable
output. A good control system possesses high speed. The transient
period for such a system is very small.

Oscillation: A small number of oscillations or constant oscillations of

output tends to indicate the system to be stable.

Types of Control Systems

There are various types of control systems, but all of them are created to
control outputs. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage, and current, etc. are
examples of control systems.
Let us take an example of the simple temperature controller of the room,
to clear the concept. Suppose there is a simple heating element, which is
heated up as long as the electric power supply is switched on.

As long as the power supply switch of the heater is on the temperature of

the room rises and after achieving the desired temperature of the room,
the power supply is switched off.

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Again due to ambient temperature, the room temperature falls, and then
manually the heater element is switched on to achieve the desired room
temperature again. In this way, one can manually control the room
temperature at the desired level. This is an example of a manual control
system. This system can further be improved by using a timer switching
arrangement of the power supply where the supply to the heating
element is switched on and off in a predetermined interval to achieve the
desired temperature level of the room.
There is another improved way of controlling the temperature of the
room. Here one sensor measures the difference between the actual
temperature and desired temperature.
If there are any differences between them, the heating element functions
to reduce the difference and when the difference becomes lower than a
predetermined level, the heating elements stop functioning.

Both forms of the system are automatic control system. In the former
one, the input of the system is entirely independent of the output of the
system. The temperature of the room (output) increases as long as the
power supply switch is kept on.
That means the heating element produces heat as long as the power
supply is kept on and the final room temperature does not have any
control over the input power supply of the system. This system is
referred to as an open-loop control system.
But in the latter case, the heating elements of the system function,
depending upon the difference between, actual temperature and desired
temperature. This difference is called the error of the system.

This error signal is fed back to the system to control the input. As the
input to the output path and the error feedback path create a closed-loop,

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this type of control system is referred to as a closed-loop control
system.

Hence, there are two main types of control systems. They are as follow
1. Open-loop control systems
2. Closed-loop control systems

Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of the
output of the system then it is called an open-loop control system. A
manual control system is also an open-loop control system.
The Next Figure shows a control system block diagram of an open-loop
control system in which process output is totally independent of the
controller action.

Practical Examples of Open Loop Control Systems

Examples of open-loop control systems in daily life include:

1. Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you
keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your
hand is dried.
2. Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the
pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time
irrespective of toasting is completed or not.

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 4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for
pre-adjusted time only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for
pre-adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are
dried.
6. Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever the light switch is on
irrespective of light is required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually
irrespective of output volume level.

Advantages of Open Loop Control Systems

Advantages of open-loop control systems include:

1. Simple in construction and design.

2. Economical.
3. Easy to maintain.
4. Generally stable.
5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

Disadvantages of open-loop control systems include:

1. They are inaccurate.

2. They are unreliable.
3. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.

Closed Loop Control System

Control systems in which the output has an effect on the input quantity
in such a manner that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the
output generated is called a closed-loop control system.

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An open-loop control system can be converted into a closed loop
control system by providing feedback. This feedback automatically
makes suitable changes in the output due to external disturbance.
In this way, a closed loop control system is called an automatic control
system. The figure below shows the block diagram of the closed loop
control system in which feedback is taken from the output and fed into
the input.

Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System

Examples of open-loop control systems in daily life include:

1. Automatic Electric Iron – Heating elements are controlled by the

output temperature of the iron.
2. Servo Voltage Stabilizer – Voltage controller operates depending
upon the output voltage of the system.
3. Water Level Controller – Input water is controlled by the water
level of the reservoir.
4. Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar – The direction of
the missile is controlled by comparing the target and position of
the missile.

8
 5. An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions depending upon
the temperature of the room.
6. Cooling System in Car – It operates depending upon the
temperature which it controls.
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
Advantages of closed-loop control systems include:

1. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the

presence of non-linearity.
2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to the
presence of a feedback signal.
3. The bandwidth range is large.
4. Facilitates automation.
5. The sensitivity of the system may be made small to make the
system more stable.
6. This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System

Disadvantages of a closed-loop control systems include:

1. They are costlier.

2. They are complicated to design.
3. Required more maintenance.
4. Feedback leads to an oscillatory response.
5. Overall gain is reduced due to the presence of feedback.
6. Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a
stable closed loop system.

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Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control Systems
The table below compares open loop and closed loop control systems.

Sr.
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
No.

The feedback element is The feedback element is always

1
absent. present.

An error detector is not

2 An error detector is always present.
present.

3 It is a stable one. It may become unstable.

4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.

5 It is economical. It is costly.

6 Having a small bandwidth. Having a large bandwidth.

7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.

8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.

9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.

Examples: Hand drier, tea Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer,

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maker perspiration

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Feedback Loop in a Closed Loop Control System
Feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control
system. The feedback loop is the tool that takes the system output into
consideration and enables the system to adjust its performance to meet
the desired result of the system.
In any control system, the output is affected due to a change in
environmental conditions or any kind of disturbance. So one signal is
taken from the output and is fed back to the input.

This signal is compared with a reference input and the error signal is
generated. This error signal is applied to the controller and the output is
corrected. Such a system is called a feedback system. The figure below
shows the block diagram of a feedback system.

When the feedback signal is positive then the system called a positive
feedback system. For a positive feedback system, the error signal is the
addition of a reference input signal and a feedback signal.

When the feedback signal is negative then the system is called a

negative feedback system. For the negative feedback system, the error
signal is given by the difference between the reference input signal and
the feedback signal.

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 Effect of Feedback in a Control System
The following labels apply to the Next figure :

R = Input signal
E = Error signal
G = Forward path gain
H = Feedback
C = Output signal
B = Feedback signal

Feedback has the following effects on a control system:

1. The error between system input and system output is reduced.

2. System gain is reduced by a factor 1/(1±GH).
3. Improved insensitivity (i.e. less reactive to change).
4. Stability is improved.
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12
Linear and Non Linear Control System
A control system is a system of devices that manages, commands,
directs or regulates the behavior of other devices to achieve a desired
result. In other words, the definition of a control system can be
simplified as a system which controls other systems to achieve a desired
state. There are various types of control systems, which can be broadly
categorized as linear control systems or non-linear control systems.
These types of control systems are discussed in detail below.

Linear Control Systems

In order to understand the linear control system, we should first
understand the principle of superposition. The principle of superposition
theorem includes two the important properties and they are explained
below:

Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous, if we multiply input

with some constant A then the output will also be multiplied by the same
value of constant (i.e. A).

Additivity: Suppose we have a system S and we are giving the input to

this system as a1 for the first time and we are getting the output as b1
corresponding to input a1. On the second time we are giving input a2 and
correspond to this we are getting the output as b2.

Now suppose this time we are giving input as a summation of the

previous inputs (i.e. a1 + a2) and corresponding to this input suppose we
are getting the output as (b1 + b2) then we can say that system S is
following the property of additivity. Now we are able to define the

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linear control systems as those types of control systems which follow
the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

Examples of Linear Control System

Consider a purely resistive network with a constant DC source. This

circuit follows the principle of homogeneity and additivity. All the
undesired effects are neglected and assuming ideal behavior of each
element in the network, we say that we will get linear voltage and
current characteristic. This is the example of a linear control system.
Non-linear Control Systems
We can simply define a nonlinear control system as a control system
which does not follow the principle of homogeneity. In real life, all
control systems are non-linear systems (linear control systems only exist
in theory). The describing function is an approximate procedure for
analyzing certain nonlinear control problems.
Examples of Non-linear System

A well-known example of a non-linear system is a magnetization curve

or no load curve of a DC machine. We will discuss briefly no-load curve
of DC machines here: No load curve gives us the relationship between
the air gap flux and the field winding mmf. It is very clear from the
curve given below that in the beginning, there is a linear relationship
between winding mmf and the air gap flux but after this, saturation has
come which shows the nonlinear behavior of the curve or characteristics
of the nonlinear control system.

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Analog or Continuous System
In these types of control systems, we have a continuous signal as the
input to the system. These signals are the continuous function of time.
We may have various sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal
type signal input source, square type of signal input source; the signal
may be in the form of continuous triangle etc.

Digital or Discrete System

In these types of control systems, we have a discrete signal (or signal
may be in the form of pulse) as the input to the system. These signals
have a discrete interval of time. We can convert various sources of
continuous input signal like sinusoidal type signal input source, square
type of signal input source etc into a discrete form using the switch.
Now there are various advantages of discrete or digital system over the
analog system and these advantages are written below:

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 1. Digital systems can handle nonlinear control systems more
effectively than the analog type of systems.
2. Power requirement in case of a discrete or digital system is less as
compared to analog systems.
3. Digital system has a higher rate of accuracy and can perform
various complex computations easily as compared to analog
systems.
4. Reliability of the digital system is more as compared to an analog
system. They also have a small and compact size.
5. Digital system works on the logical operations which increases
their accuracy many times.
6. Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared to analog
systems in general.

Single Input Single Output Systems

These are also known as SISO type of system. In this, the system has
single input for a single output. Various example of this kind of system
may include temperature control, position control system, etc.

Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems

These are also known as MIMO type of system. In this, the system has
multiple outputs for multiple inputs. Various example of this kind of
system may include PLC type system etc.

Lumped Parameter System

In these types of control systems, the various active and passive
components are assumed to be concentrated at a point and that’s why
these are called lumped parameter type of system. Analysis of such type
of system is very easy which includes differential equations.

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Distributed Parameter System
In these types of control systems, the various active (like inductors and
capacitors) and passive parameters (resistor) are assumed to be
distributed uniformly along the length and that’s why these are called
distributed parameter type of system. Analysis of such type of system is
slightly difficult which includes partial differential equations.

What are Active and Passive Circuit Elements

(Components)?
Active and passive components form the two main types of electronic
circuit elements. An active component supplies energy to an electric
circuit, and hence has the ability to electrically control the flow of
charge. A passive component can only receive energy, which it can
either dissipate or absorb.

Types of Electronic Components

Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by
conductors to form a complete circuit. If these connecting conductors are
ideal conductors (i.e. they have no resistance) then all parts of the circuit
can be classified into two main categories depending on whether they
deliver or absorb energy from the circuit:
 Active components

 Passive components

Electrical symbols are used to represent both active and passive

components. An example of a basic circuit made up of two electronic
elements has been illustrated below:

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Active Components
An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy
to a circuit. Active elements have the ability to electrically control
electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All electronic circuits must
contain at least one active component.
Common examples of active components include:
 Voltage sources

 Current sources (e.g. DC current source)

 Generators (such as alternators and DC generators)

 All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction

transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET)

 Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes,

and LEDs)

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Voltage Sources
A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit.
When current leaves from the positive terminal of the voltage source,
energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an active
element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it
continuously delivers energy to the circuit during discharging.

Current Sources
A current source is also considered an active component. The current
supplied to the circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit
voltage. As a current source is controlling the flow of charge in a circuit,
it is classified as an active element.

Transistors
Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are
also an active circuit component. This is because transistors are able to
amplify the power of a signal (see our article on transistors as an
amplifier if you want to know exactly how).

As this amplification is essentially controlling the flow of charge – transistors

are hence classified as an active component.

Passive Components
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive
energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a
magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to
operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or
amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an
electrical signal.

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Common examples of passive components include:
- Resistors - Inductors - Capacitors - Transformers
Resistors
A resistor is taken as a passive element since it can not deliver any
energy to a circuit. Instead resistors can only receive energy which they
can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through it.

Inductors
An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it
can store energy in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to
the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy absorbing and
delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That
is why an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.

Capacitors
A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store
energy in it as electric field. The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor
is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying energy, it is storing
it for later use.
As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is
being supplied or amplified.

Transformers
A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can
seem surprising since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels
– remember that power is kept constant.
When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy
remain the same on the primary and secondary side. As energy is not
actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive
element.

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A control system is a system of integrated elements whose function is to
maintain a process variable at a desired value or within a desired range
of values. The control system monitors a process variable or variables,
then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired system
parameter. In the example of the central heating unit, the system
monitors the temperature of the house using a thermostat. When the
temperature of the house drops to a preset value, the furnace turns on,
providing a heat source. The temperature of the house increases until a
switch in the thermostat causes the furnace to turn off.

Two terms which help define a control system are input and output.

Control system input is the stimulus applied to a control system from an

external source to produce a specified response from the control system.
In the case of the central heating unit, the control system input is the
temperature of the house as monitored by the thermostat.

Control system output is the actual response obtained from a control

system. In the example above, the temperature dropping to a preset value
on the thermostat causes the furnace to turn on, providing heat to raise
the temperature of the house. In the case of nuclear facilities, the input
and output are defined by the purpose of the control system. A
knowledge of the input and output of the control system enables the
components of the system to be identified. A control system may have
more than one input or output.

Control systems are classified by the control action, which is the

quantity responsible for activating the control system to produce the
output. The two general classifications are open-loop and closed-loop
control systems.

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An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output. An example of an open-loop control system is
a chemical addition pump with a variable speed control (Figure 1). The
feed rate of chemicals that maintain proper chemistry of a system is
determined by an operator, who is not part of the control system. If the
chemistry of the system changes, the pump cannot respond by adjusting
its feed rate (speed) without operator action. Next Figure Open-Loop
Control System

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A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is dependent
on the output. Next Figure shows an example of a closed-loop control
system. The control system maintains water level in a storage tank. The
system performs this task by continuously sensing the level in the tank
and adjusting a supply valve to add more or less water to the tank. The
desired level is preset by an operator, who is not part of the system.

Feedback
Feedback is information in a closed-loop Next Figure Feedback in a
Closed-Loop Control System control system about the condition of a
process variable. This variable is compared with a desired condition to
produce the proper control action on the process. Information is
continually "fed back" to the control circuit in response to control action.

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In the previous example, the actual storage tank water level, sensed by
the level transmitter, is feedback to the level controller. This feedback is
compared with a desired level to produce the required control action that
will position the level control as needed to maintain the desired level.
Next Figure shows this relationship.

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 Lecture (3)
State-Space Models

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 Lecture (4)
Input-Output Models

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 Lecture ( 5 )
Industrial control system (ICS)
Programmable logic controllers

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Industrial control system (ICS)
Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that encompasses
several types of control systems and associated instrumentation used
for industrial process control. Control systems can range in size from a
few modular panel-mounted controllers to large interconnected and
interactive distributed control systems (DCSs) with many thousands of
field connections. Control systems receive data from remote sensors
measuring process variables (PVs), compare the collected data with
desired setpoints (SPs), and derive command functions that are used to
control a process through the final control elements (FCEs), such
as control valves.
Larger systems are usually implemented by supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems, or DCSs, and programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), though SCADA and PLC systems are scalable down
to small systems with few control loops.[1] Such systems are extensively
used in industries such as chemical processing, pulp and paper
manufacture, power generation, oil and gas processing, and
telecommunications.

Discrete controllers

Panel mounted controllers with integral displays. The process value

(PV), and setvalue (SV) or setpoint are on the same scale for easy
46
comparison. The controller output is shown as MV (manipulated
variable) with range 0-100%.

A control loop using a discrete controller. Field signals are flow rate
measurement from the sensor, and control output to the valve. A valve
positioner ensures correct valve operation.
The simplest control systems are based around small discrete controllers
with a single control loop each. These are usually panel mounted which
allows direct viewing of the front panel and provides means of manual
intervention by the operator, either to manually control the process or to
change control setpoints. Originally these would be pneumatic

47
controllers, a few of which are still in use, but nearly all are now
electronic.

Quite complex systems can be created with networks of these controllers

communicating using industry-standard protocols. Networking allow the
use of local or remote SCADA operator interfaces, and enables the
cascading and interlocking of controllers. However, as the number of
control loops increase for a system design there is a point where the use
of a programmable logic controller (PLC) or distributed control
system (DCS) is more manageable or cost-effective.

Distributed control systems

Functional manufacturing control levels. DCS (including PLCs or

RTUs) operate on level 1. Level 2 contains the SCADA software and
computing platform.
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Main article: Distributed control system
A distributed control system (DCS) is a digital process control system
(PCS) for a process or plant, wherein controller functions and field
connection modules are distributed throughout the system. As the
number of control loops grows, DCS becomes more cost effective than
discrete controllers. Additionally, a DCS provides supervisory viewing
and management over large industrial processes. In a DCS, a hierarchy
of controllers is connected by communication networks, allowing
centralised control rooms and local on-plant monitoring and control.
A DCS enables easy configuration of plant controls such as cascaded
loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other computer systems
such as production control. It also enables more sophisticated alarm
handling, introduces automatic event logging, removes the need for
physical records such as chart recorders and allows the control
equipment to be networked and thereby located locally to the equipment
being controlled to reduce cabling.
A DCS typically uses custom-designed processors as controllers and
uses either proprietary interconnections or standard protocols for
communication. Input and output modules form the peripheral
components of the system.
The processors receive information from input modules, process the
information and decide control actions to be performed by the output
modules. The input modules receive information from sensing
instruments in the process (or field) and the output modules transmit
instructions to the final control elements, such as control valves.

49
The field inputs and outputs can either be continuously changing analog
signals e.g. current loop or 2 state signals that switch either on or off,
such as relay contacts or a semiconductor switch.
Distributed control systems can normally also support Foundation
Fieldbus, PROFIBUS, HART, Modbus and other digital communication
buses that carry not only input and output signals but also advanced
messages such as error diagnostics and status signals.

SCADA systems
Main article: SCADA
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a control
system architecture that uses computers, networked data
communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process
supervisory management. The operator interfaces which enable
monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controller
setpoint changes, are handled through the SCADA supervisory computer
system. However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations
are performed by networked modules which connect to other peripheral
devices such as programmable logic controllers and discrete PID
controllers which interface to the process plant or machinery.
The SCADA concept was developed as a universal means of remote
access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from
different manufacturers allowing access through standard automation
protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become
very similar to distributed control systems in function, but using multiple
means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale
processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large
distances.[2] This is a commonly-used architecture industrial control
systems, however there are concerns about SCADA systems being
vulnerable to cyberwarfare or cyberterrorism attacks.[3]
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The SCADA software operates on a supervisory level as control actions
are performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control
functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level
intervention. A feedback control loop is directly controlled by the RTU
or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors the overall performance of
the loop. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water
through part of an industrial process to a set point level, but the SCADA
system software will allow operators to change the set points for the
flow. The SCADA also enables alarm conditions, such as loss of flow or
high temperature, to be displayed and recorded.

Programmable logic controllers

Main article: Programmable logic controller

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Siemens Simatic S7-400 system in a rack, left-to-right: power supply
unit (PSU), CPU, interface module (IM) and communication processor
(CP).
PLCs can range from small modular devices with tens of inputs and
outputs (I/O) in a housing integral with the processor, to large rack-
mounted modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O, and which
are often networked to other PLC and SCADA systems. They can be
designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analog inputs and
outputs, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine
operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile
memory.

History

A pre-DCS era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised
in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.

52
A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed
on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated as they can view
and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a
plant overview.

Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many

stages. Initially, control was from panels local to the process plant.
However this required personnel to attend to these dispersed panels, and
there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development
was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently-
manned central control room. Often the controllers were behind the
control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were
individually transmitted back to plant in the form of pneumatic or
electrical signals. Effectively this was the centralisation of all the
localised panels, with the advantages of reduced manpower requirements
and consolidated overview of the process.
However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was
inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware so system
changes required reconfiguration of signals by re-piping or re-wiring. It
also required continual operator movement within a large control room
in order to monitor the whole process. With the coming of electronic
processors, high-speed electronic signalling networks and electronic
53
graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers
with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output
racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed
around the plant and would communicate with the graphic displays in
the control room. The concept of distributed control was realised.
The introduction of distributed control allowed flexible interconnection
and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and
interlocks, and interfacing with other production computer systems. It
enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event
logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders,
allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to
plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high-level overviews of plant
status and production levels. For large control systems, the general
commercial name distributed control system (DCS) was coined to refer
to proprietary modular systems from many manufacturers which
integrated high-speed networking and a full suite of displays and control
racks.
While the DCS was tailored to meet the needs of large continuous
industrial processes, in industries where combinatorial and sequential
logic was the primary requirement, the PLC evolved out of a need to
replace racks of relays and timers used for event-driven control. The old
controls were difficult to re-configure and debug, and PLC control
enabled networking of signals to a central control area with electronic
displays. PLCs were first developed for the automotive industry on
vehicle production lines, where sequential logic was becoming very
complex.[4] It was soon adopted in a large number of other event-driven
applications as varied as printing presses and water treatment plants.

54
SCADA's history is rooted in distribution applications, such as power,
natural gas, and water pipelines, where there is a need to gather remote
data through potentially unreliable or intermittent low-bandwidth and
high-latency links. SCADA systems use open-loop control with sites
that are widely separated geographically. A SCADA system uses remote
terminal units (RTUs) to send supervisory data back to a control centre.
Most RTU systems always had some capacity to handle local control
while the master station is not available. However, over the years RTU
systems have grown more and more capable of handling local control.
The boundaries between DCS and SCADA/PLC systems are blurring as
time goes on. The technical limits that drove the designs of these various
systems are no longer as much of an issue. Many PLC platforms can
now perform quite well as a small DCS, using remote I/O and are
sufficiently reliable that some SCADA systems actually manage closed-
loop control over long distances. With the increasing speed of today's
processors, many DCS products have a full line of PLC-like subsystems
that weren't offered when they were initially developed.
In 1993, with the release of IEC-1131, later to become IEC-61131-3, the
industry moved towards increased code standardization with reusable,
hardware-independent control software. For the first time, object-
oriented programming (OOP) became possible within industrial control
systems. This led to the development of both programmable automation
controllers (PAC) and industrial PCs (IPC). These are platforms
programmed in the five standardized IEC languages: ladder logic,
structured text, function block, instruction list and sequential function
chart. They can also be programmed in modern high-level languages
such as C or C++. Additionally, they accept models developed in
analytical tools such as MATLAB and Simulink. Unlike traditional
PLCs, which use proprietary operating systems, IPCs utilize Windows
IoT. IPC's have the advantage of powerful multi-core processors with
55
much lower hardware costs than traditional PLCs and fit well into
multiple form factors such as DIN rail mount, combined with a touch-
screen as a panel PC, or as an embedded PC. New hardware platforms
and technology have contributed significantly to the evolution of DCS
and SCADA systems, further blurring the boundaries and changing
definitions.

Security
SCADA and PLCs are vulnerable to cyber attack. The U.S. Government
Joint Capability Technology Demonstration (JCTD) known as
MOSAICS (More Situational Awareness for Industrial Control Systems)
is the initial demonstration of cybersecurity defensive capability for
critical infrastructure control systems. MOSAICS addresses the
Department of Defense (DOD) operational need for cyber defense
capabilities to defend critical infrastructure control systems from cyber
attack, such as power, water and wastewater, and safety controls, affect
the physical environment. The MOSAICS JCTD prototype will be
shared with commercial industry through Industry Days for further
research and development, an approach intended to lead to an
innovative, game-changing capabilities for cybersecurity for critical
infrastructure control systems.

56
 Lecture (6 & 7 )
Block Diagram Manipulation

57
A block diagram is a pictorial representation of the cause and effect
relationship between the
input and output of a physical system. A block diagram provides a
means to easily identify the
functional relationships among the various components of a control
system.
The simplest form of a block diagram is the block and arrows diagram.
It consists of a single
block with one input and one output (Figure 5A). The block normally
contains the name of the
element (Figure 5B) or the symbol of a mathematical operation (Figure
5C) to be performed on
the input to obtain the desired output. Arrows identify the direction of
information or signal
flow.
Rev.

58
Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical
operations, operations of
addition and subtraction are represented by a circle, called a summing
point. As shown in Figure
6, a summing point may have one or several inputs. Each input has its
own appropriate plus or
minus sign. A summing point has only one output and is equal to the
algebraic sum of the
inputs.

A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used by more than one

block or summing point

59
Block Diagram Manipulation
We often represent control systems using block diagrams. A block
diagram consists of blocks that represent transfer functions of the
different variables of interest. If a block diagram has many blocks, not
all of which are in cascade, then it is useful to have rules for rearranging
the diagram such that you end up with only one block. For example, we
would want to transform the following diagram

How do we get H(s) from H1(s ),H2 (s ), H3(s ),H4 (s )?

Manipulating and Reducing Block Diagrams
Since each transfer function represents a linear system, their product is
commutative, i.e., for the diagram below

60
So that the above block diagram can be redrawn as

Now, let’s consider a simple feedback loop:

If we write equations for the above diagram we get

E(s) = R(s) - B(s) (1)

B(s) = H(s) .Y(s) (2)
Y(s) = G(s). E(s) (3)
Substitute (2) into (1) to get

E(s) = R(s) - H(s). Y(s) (4)

+
Substitute (4) into (3) to get

Y(s) = G(s). (R(s) - H(s).Y(s))

61
i.e., Y(s) (1 + G(s). H(s) = G(s).R(s))

The transfer function is called the closed-loop transfer

function. From the above equation, we can see that the feedback loop
can be redrawn as

We have just shown two cases (cascade and feedback) of block diagram
reduction. These and other transformations are given in Next Table.

62
Table. Block Diagram Transformations

63
Example [Using the equivalence transformations of previous Table]
Consider the following feedback control system:

64
Now, eliminate the inner loop using Rule 6 of Table again:

65
66
67
Cramer’s Rule
If Ax B is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns such
that det A 0, then

Where A j is the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the j th

column of A by the entries in the matrix

68
 Lecture ( 8 & 9)
Industrial temperature measurement
Temperature Sensors & Pressure sensor

69
Industrial temperature measurement
Basics and practice
Introduction
Automation is a growing, worldwide fundamental technology. The
driving force for its growth are the variety of distinct economical and
environmental requirements of the basic food and energy supply for an
efficient, low emission utilization of natural resources and energy and
the increased productivity in all manufacturing and distribution
processes.
As a result of the enormous growth of the markets in certain regions of
the world and the increasing integration between them, new
requirements and unexpected opportunities have arisen.
The interaction between the actual measurement technology and the
processes is continually becoming tighter. The transfer of information
and quality evaluations have traditionally been a key requirement and a
fundamental strength of the ABB-Engineers for worldwide optimization
through automation.
Temperature, for many processes in the most varied applications, is the
primary measurement value. The wide spectrum of applications in which
the measurement locations are usually directly in the fluid medium,
often pose difficult requirements on the process technician.
With this Handbook for industrial temperature measurements we are
attempting to provide the technician with solutions to his wide variety of
responsibilities. At the same time, it provides for those new to the field,
insight into the basics of the most important measurement principles and
their application limits in a clear and descriptive manner.
The basic themes include material science and measurement technology,
applications, signal processing and fieldbus communication. A practice
oriented selection of appropriate temperature sensor designs for the
process field is presented as well as the required communication
capability of the meter locations.

70
The factory at Alzenau, Germany, a part of ABB, is the Global Center of
Competence for Temperature, with numerous local experts on hand in
the most important industrial sectors, is responsible for activities
worldwide in this sector. 125 years of temperature measurement
technology equates to experience and competence. At the same time, it
forms an important basis for continued innovation. In close cooperation
with our customers and users, our application engineers create concepts
to meet the measurement requirements. Our Sector-Teams support the
customer, planner and user in the preparation of professional solutions.

The most modern developments, supported by a network of globally

organized ABB Research Centers, assure innovative products and
solutions. Efficient factories and committed employees manufacture the
products using the latest methods and production techniques. Competent
and friendly technical advice from Sales and Service round out the ABB
offering.
We wish you much pleasure when reading this Handbook and that you
may find success when applying the principles to practical applications.
Thanks also the all the authors who have contributed to the creation of
this book. We also look forward to your suggestions and comments,
which are appreciated and can be incorporated in new technological
solutions. “Power and Productivity for a better world

Basics of Temperature Measurement

The Physical Concept of Temperature

Temperature can be viewed as a measure of the statistically determined
average velocity of the molecules in a body and thereby it is kinetic
energy. In order to warm a body from temperature T1 to T2, energy
must be added. How much depends to some degree on the number of
molecules (the amount of material) and their size. In order to describe
the thermodynamic energy level of the body by its temperature, the
velocity distribution of its molecules must be determined based on

71
statistical principles. Thus the laws of Thermodynamics only apply
when a sufficiently large number of molecules are present.
In modern Thermodynamics the temperature of a body is described as a
type of heat potential, with the property to add or remove heat (heat
sources and heat sinks). So the temperature gradient (the direction of the
greatest temperature difference) defines the direction of the greatest heat
effect within a body. The direction of the heat effect is always from the
higher to the lower temperature.
Although this statement may appear trivial, it is of fundamental
importance when using contacting thermometers.

The Technical Significance of Temperature

Temperature is one of seven basic values in the current SI-System of
Units and at the same time, probably the most important parameter in
measurement technology.
Temperature measurements can be roughly divided in three application
categories:
• Precision temperature measurements for scientific and basic research
• Technical temperature measurements for measurement and control
technology
• Temperature monitoring using temperature indicators.

The goal of the technical temperature measurement is to strive for a

practical solution for every application requirement, which should be an
optimum for the required measurement accuracy at acceptable costs.
Of the many methods used for temperature measurements, and of those
described in detail, the electrical temperature sensors have a dominant
position in the measurement and control technology. They convert the
measured value into an electrical signal.

2.2.3 The Thermoelectric Effect

72
The Seebeck-Effect together with the Peltier and Thomson Effect
belongs to a group
of thermoelectrical effects. Its discovery has been attributed to T. J.
Seebeck. In the year 1822 he published the observation that a current can
be recognized in an electrical circuit comprising two dissimilar metal
conductors, when each of the two connection points of the conductors is
at a different temperature level. The cause of this thermal current is the
generation of a thermal voltage (thermal force) whose magnitude is
proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends
and additionally is a function of the applied material combination.
As early as 1826 A. Becquerel recommended a Platinum-Palladium
thermocouple for temperature measurement.
Theory of the Thermoelectric Effect
The temperature dependence of the electron potentials, which cause a
charge shift in an electrical conductor when it is placed in a
nonhomogeneous temperature field, is considered today as the origin of
the thermoelectrical effects.
Simply stated: the free charge carriers (electrons) in a one side warmed
conductor distribute themselves in a nonhomogeneous manner so that a
potential difference (thermal voltage) is generated. At the cold end more
electrons accumulate while at the hot end, the electron quantity is
decreasing. Therefore it is plausible that even in a single electrical
conductor in a temperature field a thermal voltage is generated.
This thermal voltage can only be measured if a second conductor is
added (thermocouple), provided that the temperature dependence of this
effect is different in the second conductor from that in the first conductor
(see Next Figure).

73
 Generation of a thermal voltage

If the thermal voltage effects in both conductors are the same (e.g. for
identical conductor materials), then the effects cancel each other and no
thermal voltage can be measured. It is important that this thermal
voltage effect is the result of a volume diffusion effect of the charge
carriers and not a contact voltage phenomenon between the two
materials. Therefore it is understandable that the thermal voltage is

74
produced along the entire length of the thermocouple and not only at the
“hot“ connection between the two legs.

Principles
The Law of Linear Superposition (Superposition Principle) applies to
thermocouples, if one visualizes a thermocouple as a series circuit
consisting of a (infinite) number of individual elements. The thermal
voltage generated in the thermocouple is the same as the sum of the
thermal voltages generated in the individual elements. An additional hot
zone added between the hot and the cold end therefore has no effect on
the resultant thermal voltage, since the additional added thermal voltages
cancel each other.

75
The Law of Homogeneous Temperature states that the thermal voltage
in a conductor in a homogeneous temperature field is equal to zero.
Therefore the thermal voltages in a thermal circuit (series circuit) made
up of any number of different material combinations is also equal to
zero, if all the components are at the same temperature. For practical
application this means that even nonhomogeneous thermocouple wires
or plug connections of different materials have no effect as long as no
temperature difference exists at that location. Therefore design care must
be exercised, especially in the area of plug connections. E.g. a massive
thermal insulation (isothermal block) may be used to achieve a
homogeneous temperature.

The Law of a Homogeneous Circuit states, that the temperature of

homogeneous conductors between two measurement locations does not
have any effect on the resultant thermal voltage. Of greater importance
is the reverse conclusion: if the resultant thermal voltage changes
through regions of nonhomogeneous temperatures (with constant hot
and cold ends) then the conductor material in not homogeneous.
Nonhomogeneous conditions can occur during production, or already
during use (mechanical or thermal overstressing) of thermocouples. Of
course, the nonhomogeneous conditions will have no effect if they are in
a homogeneous temperature field.

76
Derived Fundamental Conclusions for the Use of Thermocouples:
• In a homogeneous temperature field no thermal voltage is generated.
• In a homogeneous conductor the magnitude of the thermal voltage is
only a function of the temperature difference between the ends of the
conductor.
• The junction of a thermocouple does not generate any thermal
voltages.

2.2.4 The Temperature Dependent Ohmic Resistance

The electrical conductivity of all metals increases greatly with
decreasing temperatures. The electrical conductivity of a metal is based
on the movement of its conduction electrons, the so called electron gas.
It consists of the outer electrons of the metal atoms. The atoms of the
metal form a dense ion lattice structure. The lattice atoms oscillate. As
the temperature increases the oscillation amplitude increases. This
impedes the motion of the conduction electrons, resulting in a
temperature dependent increase of the electrical resistance.

This effect is described as a positive temperature coefficient (Tc) of the

electrical resistance. It is utilized as the measurement effect.
Additionally, flaws in the crystalline structure of the metal interfere with
the electron flow. These flaws include foreign or missing lattice
electrons, lattice faults at the particle boundaries and atoms in the lattice
interstices. Since these interference effects are temperature independent,
they result in an additional constant resistance value.
Therefore the relationship between temperature and electrical resistance
is no longer linear, but can be approximated by a polynomial. Metals,
which are suitable for use as resistance thermometers, should have a
77
high Tc, so that the temperature dependent resistance changes are
pronounced. There are additional requirements for the materials
including high chemical resistance, easy workability, availability in a
very pure state and excellent reproducibility of the electrical properties.
Also the resistance materials may not change their physical and
chemical properties in the temperature range in which they are to be
used. Freedom from hysteresis effects and a high degree of pressure
insensitivity are further requirements.
Platinum, in spite of its high price, has become dominant as the
resistance material for industrial applications . Alternative materials such
as Nickel, Molybdenum and Copper are also used, but play a
subordinate role at this time.

Platinum Resistance Thermometer Curves

For Platinum the resistance to temperature relationships are especially
easy to describe. A polynomial of this form suffices:

Rt = R0 (1 + At + Bt2) for t ≥ 0 °C (1)

Rt = R0 (1 + At +Bt2 +C(t-100)t3) for t < 0 °C (2)
The value R0 is the resistance of the thermometer at 0 °C. The
coefficients A, B and C, as well as all the other important properties
which the Platinum resistance thermometers must satisfy are contained
in Standard EN 60751.

Callendar in 1886 had already formulated the relationship as a quadratic

equation for temperature ranges > 0 °C. He first defined by using a
strictly linear approach similar to that for gas thermometers, a so called
Platinum temperature tp using the expression:

78
If one substitutes for α the average temperature coefficient between 0 °C
and 100 °C, the equation gives a linear relationship between the
resistance Rt and the temperature tp, in which tp not only agrees at 0 °C
but also at 100 °C with the actual temperature t. For all other
temperatures the calculated value of tp differs from the true temperature
t. By introducing a second constant δ, the differences between the true
temperature t and the Platinum temperature tp are taken into account:

This gives the “historical“ form as:

This equation is known as the Callendar-Equation. The basic Callendar-

Equation however, leads quickly to appreciably large errors for
temperatures < 0 °C. The equation was improved by van Dusen in 1925
by the introduction of an additional correction factor with a constant
value β (β is equal to zero for temperatures ≥ 0 °C). This modified
equation is known as the Callendar-van Dusen-Equation.

From a mathematical standpoint, there are no differences between the

curves in the DIN EN standards and Callendar-van Dusen-Equation. In
both cases the curves are defined by three or four (at t < 0 °C)

79
coefficients. It is relatively simple to convert the constants A, B, C into
a, d and b.
For years the formulation of Callendar-van Dusen enjoyed great
popularity because of the simplicity by which the constants can be
determined directly by calibrating at different temperatures (0 °C, 100

be considered to be material properties. -value

provides information -
value about the actual
mechanical construction of the thermometer (voltage freeness).
Since the introduction of ITS-90, the boiling point of water (100 °C) is
no longer a defined point in the temperature scale, and since that
temperature is essential for -value in the Callendar-
van Dusen equation, this formulation has lost its significance in recent
times. Typically, the curves today are defined by equations (1) and (2),
with the coefficients published in the Standard EN 60751:

2.3 The Principles of Temperature Measurement

The development of temperature measurement has and is occurring in
parallel with the technological developments. Thereby only a portion of
the new measurement methods have replaced the older ones. They have
actually expanded their scope allowing temperature measurement to be
made in areas where in the past none or only very restricted ones were
possible.
In the following table a number of measurement methods will be
presented in condensed form together with their application ranges and
significance. The table below is based on the temperature measurement
methods described in VDI/VDE 3511 Sheet1)

80
Temperature Sensors – Types,
Working & Operation
Temperature is the most often-measured environmental quantity. This might
be expected since most physical, electronic, chemical, mechanical, and
biological systems are affected by temperature. Certain chemical reactions,
biological processes, and even electronic circuits perform best within limited
temperature ranges. Temperature is one of the most commonly measured
variables and it is therefore not surprising that there are many ways of sensing
it. Temperature sensing can be done either through direct contact with the
heating source or remotely, without direct contact with the source using
radiated energy instead. There are a wide variety of temperature sensors on
the market today, including Thermocouples, Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs), Thermistors, Infrared, and Semiconductor Sensors.

5 Types of Temperature Sensors

 Thermocouple: It is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining
two dissimilar metals at one end. The joined end is referred to as the HOT
JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the
COLD END or COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is formed at the last
point of thermocouple material. If there is a difference in temperature
between the hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is created. This
voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and can be
measured and in turn used to indicate temperature.

81
 Thermocouple
 The RTD is a temperature-sensing device whose resistance changes with
temperature. Typically built from platinum, though devices made from nickel
or copper are not uncommon, RTDs can take many different shapes like
wire wound, thin film. To measure the resistance across an RTD, apply a
constant current, measure the resulting voltage, and determine the RTD
resistance. RTDs exhibit fairly linear resistance to temperature curves over their
operating regions and any nonlinearity is highly predictable and repeatable.
The PT100 RTD evaluation board uses surface mount RTD to measure
temperature. An external 2, 3, or 4-wire PT100 can also be associated with
measure temperature in remote areas. The RTDs are biased using a
constant current source. To reduce self-heat due to power dissipation, the
current magnitude is moderately low. The circuit shown in the figure is the
constant current source uses a reference voltage, one amplifier, and a PNP
transistor.

 Thermistors: Similar to the RTD, the thermistor is a temperature-sensing

device whose resistance changes with temperature. Thermistors, however,

82
 are made from semiconductor materials. Resistance is determined in the
same manner as the RTD, but thermistors exhibit a highly nonlinear
resistance vs. temperature curve. Thus, in the thermistors operating range,
we can see a large resistance change for a very small temperature change.
This makes for a highly sensitive device, ideal for set-point applications.
 Semiconductor sensors: They are classified into different types like
Voltage output, Current output, Digital output, Resistance output silicon,
and Diode temperature sensors. Modern semiconductor temperature
sensors offer high accuracy and high linearity over an operating range of
about 55°C to +150°C. Internal amplifiers can scale the output to
convenient values, such as 10mV/°C. They are also useful in cold-junction
compensation circuits for wide temperature range thermocouples. Brief
details about this type of temperature sensor are given below.
Sensor ICs
There is a wide variety of temperature sensor ICs that are available to simplify
the broadest possible range of temperature monitoring challenges. These
silicon temperature sensors differ significantly from the above-mentioned
types in a couple of important ways. The first is the operating temperature
range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal IC temperature
range of -55°C to +150°C. The second major difference is functionality.

A silicon temperature sensor is an integrated circuit, and can, therefore,

include extensive signal processing circuitry within the same package as the
sensor. There is no need to add compensation circuits for temperature sensor
ICS. Some of these are analog circuits with either voltage or current output.
Others combine analog-sensing circuits with voltage comparators to provide
alert functions. Some other sensor ICs combine analog-sensing circuitry with
digital input/output and control registers, making them an ideal solution for
microprocessor-based systems.
The digital output sensor usually contains a temperature sensor, analog-to-
digital converter (ADC), a two-wire digital interface, and registers for
controlling the IC’s operation. Temperature is continuously measured and can
be read at any time. If desired, the host processor can instruct the sensor to
monitor temperature and take an output pin high (or low) if the temperature
exceeds a programmed limit. Lower threshold temperature can also be
programmed and the host can be
notified when the temperature has
dropped below this threshold. Thus,
the digital output sensor can be
used for reliable temperature

83
monitoring in microprocessor-based systems.

Temperature Sensor
The above temperature sensor has three terminals and required Maximum of
5.5 V supply. This type of sensor consists of a material that operates
according to temperature to vary the resistance. This change of resistance is
sensed by the circuit and it calculates the temperature. When the voltage
increases then the temperature also rises. We can see this operation by using
a diode.

Temperature sensors directly connected to microprocessor input and thus

capable of direct and reliable communication with microprocessors. The
sensor unit can communicate effectively with low-cost processors without the
need for A/D converters.

An example of a temperature sensor is LM35. The LM35 series are precision

integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly
proportional to the Celsius temperature. The LM35 operates at -55˚ to +120˚C.

The basic centigrade temperature sensor (+2˚C to +150˚C) is shown in the

figure below.

Features of LM35 Temperature Sensor:

 Calibrated directly in ˚ Celsius (Centigrade)

84
 Rated for full l −55˚ to +150˚C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Low self-heating,
 ±1/4˚C of typical nonlinearity
Operation of LM35:
 The LM35 can be connected easily in the same way as other integrated-
circuit temperature sensors. It can be stuck or established to a surface
and its temperature will be within around the range of 0.01˚C of the surface
temperature.
 This presumes that the ambient air temperature is just about the same as
the surface temperature; if the air temperature were much higher or lower
than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the LM35 die would
be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and
the air temperature.

The temperature sensors have well-known applications in environmental and

process control and also in the test, measurement, and communications. A
digital temperature is a sensor, which provides 9-bit temperature readings.
85
Digital temperature sensors offer excellent precise accuracy, these are
designed to read from 0°C to 70°C and it is possible to achieve ±0.5°C
accuracy. These sensors completely aligned with digital temperature readings
in degrees Celsius.

 Digital Temperature Sensors: Digital temperature sensors eliminate the

necessity for extra components, such as an A/D converter, within the
application and there is no need to calibrate components or the system at
specific reference temperatures as needed when utilizing thermistors.
Digital temperature sensors deal with everything, empowering the basic
system temperature monitoring function to be simplified.
The advantages of a digital temperature sensor are principal with its precision
output in degrees Celsius. The sensor output is a balanced digital reading.
This intends no other components, such as an analog to digital converter and
much simpler to use than, a simple thermistor that provides a non-linear
resistance with temperature variation.

An example of a digital temperature sensor is DS1621, which provides a 9-bit

temperature reading.

Features DS1621:
1. No external components are required.
2. The temperature range of -55⁰C to +125⁰C in 0.5⁰ intervals is measured.
3. Gives temperature value as a 9-bit reading.
4. Wide power supply range (2.7V to 5.5V).
5. Converts temperature to digital word in less than one second.
6. Thermostatic settings are user-definable and Nonvolatile.
7. It is an 8-pin DIP.

86
Pin Description:
 SDA – 2-Wire Serial Data Input/ Output.
 SCL – 2-Wire Serial Clock.
 GND – Ground.
 TOUT – Thermostat Output Signal.
 A0 – Chip Address Input.
 A1 – Chip Address Input.
 A2 – Chip Address Input.
 VDD – Power Supply Voltage.

Working of DS1621:
 When the temperature of the device exceeds a user-defined temperature
HIGH then the output TOUT is active. The output will remain active until the
temperature drops below the user-defined temperature LOW.
 User-defined temperature settings are saved in non-volatile memory so it
may be programmed before insertion in a system.
 The temperature reading is provided in a 9-bit, two’s complement reading
by issuing the READ TEMPERATURE command in the programming.
 A 2 wire serial interface is used for input to the DS16121 for the
temperature settings and output of temperature reading from the DS1621

87
88
Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of

everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly
measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level,
and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.
Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design,
performance, application suitability and cost. A conservative estimate
would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300
companies making pressure sensors worldwide.
89
There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure
in a dynamic mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure.
Example applications for this type of sensor would be in the measuring
of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These
sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such
as quartz.
Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a
particular pressure. For example, a water pump can be controlled by a
pressure switch so that it starts when water is released from the system,
reducing the pressure in a reservoir.

Types of pressure measurements

Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they
measure, temperature ranges of operation, and most importantly the type
of pressure they measure. Pressure sensors are variously named
according to their purpose, but the same technology may be used under
different names.

 Absolute pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum. Absolute
pressure sensors are used in applications where a constant reference is
required, like for example, high-performance industrial applications such
as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure measurement, industrial
packaging, industrial process control and aviation inspection. [1]

 Gauge pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A
tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure measurement; when
it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring is the same as the
ambient pressure. Most sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are

90
manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure
fluctuation (weather) is reflected as an error in the measurement result.

 Vacuum pressure sensor

This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that
measures pressures below atmospheric pressure, showing the difference
between that low pressure and atmospheric pressure, but it may also be
used to describe a sensor that measures absolute pressure relative to a
vacuum.

 Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one
connected to each side of the sensor. Differential pressure sensors are
used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across oil
filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and
below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure
across a restriction). Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are
really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor
is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is open to the
ambient atmosphere.

 Sealed pressure sensor

This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures
pressure relative to some fixed pressure rather than the ambient
atmospheric pressure (which varies according to the location and the
weather).

91
Pressure-sensing technology
There are two basic categories of analog pressure sensors, Force
collector types These types of electronic pressure sensors generally use
a force collector (such a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or bellows) to
measure strain (or deflection) due to applied force over an area
(pressure).

 Piezoresistive strain gauge

Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to
detect strain due to applied pressure, resistance increasing as pressure
deforms the material. Common technology types are Silicon
(Monocrystalline), Polysilicon Thin Film, Bonded Metal Foil, Thick
Film, Silicon-on-Sapphire and Sputtered Thin Film. Generally, the strain
gauges are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize
the output of the sensor and to reduce sensitivity to errors. This is the
most commonly employed sensing technology for general purpose
pressure measurement.

 Capacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to
detect strain due to applied pressure, capacitance decreasing as pressure
deforms the diaphragm. Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and
silicon diaphragms.

 Electromagnetic

92
Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes
in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy
current principle.

 Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to
measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure. This
technology is commonly employed for the measurement of highly
dynamic pressures. As the basic principle is dynamic no static pressures
can be measured with piezoelectric sensors.

 Strain-Gauge
Strain gauge based pressure sensors also use a pressure sensitive element
where metal strain gauges are glued on or thin film gauges are applied
on by sputtering. This measuring element can either be a diaphragm or
for metal foil gauges measuring bodies in can-type can also be used. The
big advantages of this monolithic can-type design are an improved
rigidity and the capability to measure highest pressures of up to 15,000
bar. The electrical connection is normally done via a Wheatstone bridge
which allows for a good amplification of the signal and precise and
constant measuring results.[2]

 Optical
Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to
detect strain due to applied pressure. A common example of this type
utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is employed in
challenging applications where the measurement may be highly remote,
under high temperature, or may benefit from technologies inherently
immune to electromagnetic interference. Another analogous technique

93
utilizes an elastic film constructed in layers that can change reflected
wavelengths according to the applied pressure (strain).

 Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the
strain caused by applied pressure.

 Force balancing
Force-balanced fused quartz bourdon tubes use a spiral bourdon tube to
exert force on a pivoting armature containing a mirror, the reflection of a
beam of light from the mirror senses the angular displacement and
current is applied to electromagnets on the armature to balance the force
from the tube and bring the angular displacement to zero, the current that
is applied to the coils is used as the measurement. Due to the extremely
stable and repeatable mechanical and thermal properties of fused quartz
and the force balancing which eliminates most non-linear effects these
sensors can be accurate to around 1PPM of full scale. Due to the
extremely fine fused quartz structures which are made by hand and
require expert skill to construct these sensors are generally limited to
scientific and calibration purposes. Non force-balancing sensors have
lower accuracy and reading the angular displacement cannot be done
with the same precision as a force-balancing measurement, although
easier to construct due to the larger size these are no longer used.
Other types
These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as
density) to infer pressure of a gas, or liquid.

 Resonant
94
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to
measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.
This technology may be used in conjunction with a force collector, such
as those in the category above. Alternatively, resonant technology may
be employed by exposing the resonating element itself to the media,
whereby the resonant frequency is dependent upon the density of the
media. Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire, vibrating
cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS. Generally, this technology is
considered to provide very stable readings over time.
A pressure sensor, a resonant quartz crystal strain gauge with a bourdon
tube force collector is the critical sensor of DART. DART
detects tsunami waves from the bottom of the open ocean. It has a
pressure resolution of approximately 1mm of water when measuring
pressure at a depth of several kilometers.[6]

 Thermal
Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes
to measure pressure. A common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.

 Ionization
Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to
density changes to measure pressure. Common examples are the Hot and
Cold Cathode gauges.

Applications
There are many applications for pressure sensors:

 Pressure sensing
This is where the measurement of interest is pressure, expressed as
a force per unit area. This is useful in weather instrumentation, aircraft,

95
automobiles, and any other machinery that has pressure functionality
implemented.

 Altitude sensing
This is useful in aircraft, rockets, satellites, weather balloons, and many
other applications. All these applications make use of the relationship
between changes in pressure relative to the altitude. This relationship is
governed by the following equation:

This equation is calibrated for an altimeter, up to 36,090 feet (11,000 m).

Outside that range, an error will be introduced which can be calculated
differently for each different pressure sensor. These error calculations
will factor in the error introduced by the change in temperature as we go
up.
Barometric pressure sensors can have an altitude resolution of less than
1 meter, which is significantly better than GPS systems (about 20 meters
altitude resolution). In navigation applications altimeters are used to
distinguish between stacked road levels for car navigation and floor
levels in buildings for pedestrian navigation.

 Flow sensing
This is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction with the venturi
effect to measure flow. Differential pressure is measured between two
segments of a venturi tube that have a different aperture. The pressure

96
difference between the two segments is directly proportional to the flow
rate through the venturi tube. A low pressure sensor is almost always
required as the pressure difference is relatively small.

 Level / depth sensing

Further information: Level sensor § Pressure, and Depth gauge
A pressure sensor may also be used to calculate the level of a fluid. This
technique is commonly employed to measure the depth of a submerged
body (such as a diver or submarine), or level of contents in a tank (such
as in a water tower). For most practical purposes, fluid level is directly
proportional to pressure. In the case of fresh water where the contents
are under atmospheric pressure, 1psi = 27.7 inH20 / 1Pa = 9.81 mmH20.
The basic equation for such a measurement is

P = ρgh
where P = pressure, ρ = density of the fluid, g = standard gravity,
h = height of fluid column above pressure sensor

 Leak testing
A pressure sensor may be used to sense the decay of pressure due to a
system leak. This is commonly done by either comparison to a known
leak using differential pressure, or by means of utilizing the pressure
sensor to measure pressure change over time.

Ratiometric correction of transducer output

Piezoresistive transducers configured as Wheatstone bridges often
exhibit ratiometric behavior with respect not only to the measured
pressure, but also the transducer supply voltage.
97
where:
Vout is the output voltage of the transducer.
P is the actual measured pressure.
K is the nominal transducer scale factor (given an ideal transducer
supply voltage) in units of voltage per pressure.
Vsactual is the actual transducer supply voltage.
Vsideal is the ideal transducer supply voltage.
Correcting measurements from transducers exhibiting this behavior
requires measuring the actual transducer supply voltage as well as the
output voltage and applying the inverse transform of this behavior to the
output signal:

Pressure Control Equipment

Definition - What does Pressure Control Equipment mean?
Pressure Control Equipment are those equipment that helps in
maintaining the optimal pressure levels inside a wellbore when any well
intervention operations are performed by an operator in any easy or
arduous conditions. All such equipment are manufactured with the intent

98
that they can withstand arduous conditions and thus use stringent quality
standards.

Bracetool explains Pressure Control Equipment

There are various pressure control equipment used during well
intervention and workover operations such as:

 Wireline Pressure Control Equipment

 Coiled Tubing Pressure Control Equipment
 Manual wireline valve
 Hydraulic wireline valve
 Dual wireline valve
 Control head
 Wellhead Flange
 Flow Tee (High & Low Pressure)
 Fluid Chamber
 Hand Unions
 Stuffing Box
 Tool Catcher
 Wellhead Swedges

99
Lecture ( 10 & 11 )
Sensors

100
 What is a Sensor? Different Types of Sensors and their Applications

We live in a World of Sensors. You can find different types of Sensors

in our homes, offices, cars etc. working to make our lives easier by
turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room
temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee, open garage
doors as soon as our car is near the door and many other tasks.

All these and many other automation tasks are possible because of
Sensors. Before going in to the details of What is a Sensor, What are the
Different Types of Sensors and Applications of these different types of
Sensors, we will first take a look at a simple example of an automated
system, which is possible because of Sensors (and many other
components as well).

 What is a Sensor?
 Classification of Sensors
 Different Types of Sensors
o Temperature Sensor

o Proximity Sensors

o Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

o Ultrasonic Sensor

o Light Sensor

o Smoke and Gas Sensors

o Alcohol Sensor

o Touch Sensor

o Color Sensor

o Humidity Sensor

o Tilt Sensor

Real Time Application of Sensors

101
The example we are talking about here is the Autopilot System in
aircrafts. Almost all civilian and military aircrafts have the feature of
Automatic Flight Control system or sometimes called as Autopilot.

An Automatic Flight Control System consists of several sensors for

various tasks like speed control, height monitoring, position tracking,
status of doors, obstacle detection, fuel level, maneuvering and many
more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and processes them
by comparing them with pre-designed values.

The computer then provides control signals to different parts like

engines, flaps, rudders, motors etc. that help in a smooth flight. The
combination of Sensors, Computers and Mechanics makes it possible to
run the plane in Autopilot Mode.

102
All the parameters i.e., the Sensors (which give inputs to the
Computers), the Computers (the brains of the system) and the mechanics
(the outputs of the system like engines and motors) are equally important
in building a successful automated system.

This is an extremely simplified version of Flight Control System. In fact,

there are hundreds of individual control systems which preform unique
tasks for a safe and smooth journey.

But in this tutorial, we will be concentrating on the Sensors part of a

system and look at different concepts associated with Sensors (like
types, characteristics, classification etc.).

What is a Sensor?

There are numerous definitions as to what a sensor is but I would like to

define a Sensor as an input device which provides an output (signal)
with respect to a specific physical quantity (input).

The term “input device” in the definition of a Sensor means that it is part
of a bigger system which provides input to a main control system (like a
Processor or a Microcontroller).

Another unique definition of a Sensor is as follows: It is a device that

converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain. The
definition of the Sensor can be better understood if we take an example
in to consideration.

Another unique definition of a Sensor is as follows: It is a device that

converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain. The
definition of the Sensor can be better understood if we take an example
in to consideration.
103
The simplest example of a sensor is an LDR or a Light Dependent
Resistor. It is a device, whose resistance varies according to intensity of
light it is subjected to. When the light falling on an LDR is more, its
resistance becomes very less and when the light is less, well, the
resistance of the LDR becomes very high.

We can connect this LDR in a voltage divider (along with other resistor)
and check the voltage drop across the LDR. This voltage can be
calibrated to the amount of light falling on the LDR. Hence, a Light
Sensor.

Now that we have seen what a sensor is, we will proceed further with the
classification of Sensors.

Classification of Sensors

There are several classifications of sensors made by different authors

and experts. Some are very simple and some are very complex. The
following classification of sensors may already be used by an expert in
the subject but this is a very simple classification of sensors.

104
In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and
Passive. Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation
signal or a power signal.

Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power
signal and directly generates output response.

The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used

in the sensor. Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological,
Chemical, Radioactive etc.

The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the

input and the output. Some of the common conversion phenomena are
Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical, Electromagnetic,
Thermooptic, etc.

The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors.
Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal
(usually voltage but sometimes other quantities like Resistance etc.) with
respect to the quantity being measured.

Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or

digital data. The data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and
transmission, is digital in nature.

Different Types of Sensors

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly

used in various applications. All these sensors are used for measuring
one of the physical properties like Temperature, Resistance,
Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.

105
 1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. Accelerometer
4. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
5. Pressure Sensor
6. Light Sensor
7. Ultrasonic Sensor
8. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
9. Touch Sensor
10. Color Sensor
11. Humidity Sensor
12. Position Sensor
13. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
14. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
15. Tilt Sensor
16. Flow and Level Sensor
17. PIR Sensor
18. Touch Sensor
19. Strain and Weight Sensor
20. We will see about few of the above-mentioned sensors in
brief. More information about the sensors will be added
subsequently. A list of projects using the above sensors is given at
the end of the page.

21. .

Temperature Sensor
One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature
Sensor. A Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the
temperature i.e., it measures the changes in the temperature.

106
There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature
Sensor ICs (like LM35, DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD
(Resistive Temperature Devices), etc.

Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature

Sensor, the changes in the Temperature correspond to change in its
physical property like resistance or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog
Temperature Sensor.

Coming to the Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete

digital value (usually, some numerical data after converting analog value
to digital value). DS18B20 is a simple Digital Temperature Sensor.

Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, mobile

phones, automobiles, air conditioning systems, industries etc.
107
A simple project using LM35 (Celsius Scale Temperature Sensor) is
implemented in this project: TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED
SYSTEM.

Proximity Sensors
A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the
presence of an object. Proximity Sensors can be implemented using
different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or Laser), Sound
(Ultrasonic), Magnetic (Hall Effect), Capacitive, etc.

Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars

(Parking Sensors), industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in
Aircrafts, etc.

Proximity Sensor in Reverse Parking is implemented in this

Project: REVERSE PARKING SENSOR CIRCUIT.

108
Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)
IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in
various applications like Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are
used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile phones.

There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors: Transmissive Type and

Reflective Type. In Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter
(usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector (usually a Photo Diode) are
positioned facing each other so that when an object passes between
them, the sensor detects the object.

109
The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the
transmitter and the detector are positioned adjacent to each other facing
the object. When an object comes in front of the sensor, the infrared
light from the IR Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected
by the IR Receiver and thus the sensor detects the object.

Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile

Phones, Robots, Industrial assembly, automobiles etc.

A small project, where IR Sensors are used to turn on street

lights: STREET LIGHTS USING IR SENSORS.

Ultrasonic Sensor
An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to
measure distance as well as velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor
works based on the properties of the sound waves with frequency greater
than that of the human audible range

110
Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can
measure the distance of the object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler
Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the velocity of an
object.

Arduino based Range Finder is a simple project using Ultrasonic

Sensor: PORTABLE ULTRASONIC RANGE METER.

Light Sensor

Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the
important sensors. A simple Light Sensor available today is the Light
Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of LDR is that its resistance is
inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when the
intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.

By using LDR is a circuit, we can calibrate the changes in its resistance

to measure the intensity of Light. There are two other Light Sensors (or
Photo Sensors) which are often used in complex electronic system
design. They are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are Analog
Sensors.

111
There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which
can calculate intensity of light and provide a digital equivalent value.

Check out this simple LIGHT DETECTOR USING LDR project.

Smoke and Gas Sensors

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke
and Gas Sensors. Almost all offices and industries are equipped with
several smoke detectors, which detect any smoke (due to fire) and sound
an alarm.

Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and
industries. They can detect different gases like LPG, Propane,

Butane, Methane (CH4), etc.

Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas)
are also installed in most homes as a safety measure.

112
The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting
CO, CO2, CH4, Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these
sensors to build your own Smoke Sensor Application.

Check out this SMOKE DETECTOR ALARM CIRCUIT without using

Arduino.

Alcohol Sensor

As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually,

alcohol sensors are used in breathalyzer devices, which determine
whether a person is drunk or not. Law enforcement personnel uses
breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.

113
Touch Sensor
We do not give much importance to touch sensors but they became an
integral part of our life. Whether you know or not, all touch screen
devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have touch sensors in
them. Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our
laptops.

Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus.

Often touch sensors are classified into Resistive and Capacitive type.
Almost all modern touch sensors are of Capacitive Types as they are
more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

If you want to build an application with Touch Sensor, then there are
low-cost modules available and using those touch sensors, you can
build TOUCH DIMMER SWITCH CIRCUIT USING ARDUINO.

Color Sensor
A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications
in the field of image processing, color identification, industrial object

114
tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple Color Sensor, which can detect
any color and output a square wave proportional to the wavelength of
the detected color.

If you are interested in building a Color Sensor Application, checkout

this ARDUINO BASED COLOR DETECTOR project.

Humidity Sensor
If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature
as well as humidity data. So, measuring humidity is an important task in
many applications and Humidity Sensors help us in achieving this.

Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water

content in air to maximum potential of air to hold water). Since relative
humidity is dependent on temperature of air, almost all Humidity
Sensors can also measure Temperature.

115
Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type
and Thermal Conductive Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the
frequently used Humidity Sensors in DIY Community (the former is a
resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).

Checkout this tutorial with DHT11 HUMIDITY SENSOR ON

ARDUINO.

116
Tilt Sensor
Often used to detect inclination or orientation, Tilt Sensors are one of the
simplest and inexpensive sensors out there. Previously, tilt sensors are
made up of Mercury (and hence they are sometimes called as Mercury
Switches) but most modern tilt sensors contain a roller ball.

A simple Arduino based title switch using tilt sensor is implemented

here HOW TO MAKE A TILT SENSOR WITH ARDUINO?

In this article, we have seen about What is a Sensor, what are the
classification of sensors and Different Types of Sensors along with their
practical applications. In the future, I will update this article with more
sensors and their applications.

117
Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of

everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly
measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level,
and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.

Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design,

performance, application suitability and cost. A conservative estimate
would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300
companies making pressure sensors worldwide.

There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure

in a dynamic mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure.
Example applications for this type of sensor would be in the measuring
of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These
sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such
as quartz.

Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a

particular pressure. For example, a water pump can be controlled by a
pressure switch so that it starts when water is released from the system,
reducing the pressure in a reservoir.
118
Pressure Control Equipment

Definition - What does Pressure Control Equipment mean?

Pressure Control Equipment are those equipment that helps in

maintaining the optimal pressure levels inside a wellbore when any well
intervention operations are performed by an operator in any easy or
arduous conditions. All such equipment are manufactured with the intent
that they can withstand arduous conditions and thus use stringent quality
standards.

Brace tool explains Pressure Control Equipment

There are various pressure control equipment used during well

intervention and workover operations such as:

 Wireline Pressure Control Equipment

 Coiled Tubing Pressure Control Equipment
 Manual wireline valve
 Hydraulic wireline valve
 Dual wireline valve
 Control head
 Wellhead Flange
 Flow Tee (High & Low Pressure)
 Fluid Chamber
 Hand Unions
 Stuffing Box
 Tool Catcher
 Wellhead Swedges

119
Sensors
• Displacement Measurement
• Resistive Sensors
• Whetstone Bridge Circuits
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• Temperature Measurement
• Temperature Sensors
• Optical Measurements

• Solid-State Sensors
• MEMS Sensors
• Sensor Calibration

Transducers
 a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
• take form of a sensor or an actuator

• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)

• a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
• acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
• a device that generates a signal or stimulus

120
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
 convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal

General Electronic Sensor

• primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical
signal
• secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital
Values

• Typical Electronic Sensor “System”

121
 Example Electronic Sensor Systems
Components vary with application
• digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller
• signal timing
• data storage

analog sensor analyzed by a PC

• multiple sensors displayed over internet

122
Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
• thermocouple: temperature difference
• compass (magnetic): direction
•Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
• photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
• piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
• microaccelerometers: vibration, Δ-velocity (car crash)
• chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
• DNA arrays: match DNA sequences

Direct vs. Indirect Measurement

• Direct Measurement:
• When sensor directly measures parameter of interest
• Example, displacement sensor measuring diameter of blood vessel
• Example, ??
• Indirect Measurement:
• When sensor measures a parameter that can be translated into the
parameter of interest
• Example, displacement sensor measuring movement of a microphone
diaphragm to quantify liquid movement through the heart
• Example, ??

Displacement Measurements
• Many biomedical parameters rely on measurements of size, shape, and
position of organs, tissue, etc.

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• require displacement sensors
• Examples
• (direct) diameter of blood vessel

through the heart

• Primary Transducer Types
• Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• Secondary Transducers
• Wheatstone Bridge
Amplifiers (next chapter)

Potentiometer
• Potentiometers produce output potential (voltage) change in
response to input (e.g., displacement) changes
• typically formed with resistive elements e.g. carbon/metal film
• V=I R
• produce linear output in response to displacement
• Example potentiometric displacement sensors
• Translational: small (~mm) linear displacements
• vo increases as xi increases
• Single-Turn: small (10-50º) rotational displacements
• vo increases as i increases

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Strain Gage: Basics
• Consider: strain (stretch) a thin wire (~25 m)
• its length increases and its diameter decreases
• results in increasing resistance of the wire
• Can be used to measure extremely small displacements, on
the order of nanometers
• For a rectangular wire

Strain Gage: Gage Factor

• Remember: for a strained thin wire

• Poisson’s ratio, µ : relates change in diameter D to change in

D length L

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 Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

Strain Gage: Materials

Note:
• G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals
• due to stronger piezoresistive effect
• semiconductors have much higher TCR
• requires temperature compensation in strain gage

Strain Gage
• Unbonded strain gage: end points are anchored but material
between end points is unbonded
• Bonded strain gage: material is cemented to strained surface

• Unbonded strain gage

• diaphragm pressure • strain @ B & C • strain @ A & D

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• Bonded strain gage
(a) resistive wire (b) foil type (c) helical wire
• temperature compensation
• unbonded ‘dummy’ strain gage
• direction of max sensitivity ?

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• Wheatstone bridge is a configuration variable and fixed
elements used to monitor small variations in the elements (and
optionally compensate for temperature effects)
• Consider first: resistive voltage divider
• Vout varies as RT changes
• readout method for 1 element sensor
1 variable/sensor element bridge configuration
• R3 is sensor element
• R4 set to match nominal value of R3
• If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
• Vout varies as R3 changes

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Wheatstone Bridge

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Semiconductor Strain Gage

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Inductive Displacement Sensors

Capacitive Sensors

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Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric Sensors: step response

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Temperature Sensor Options

Comparison of common temperature sensors

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 Lecture ( 11 )
Simple Process Models. PID Control

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Introduction to control system Engineering

System:
A system is a collection of components which interact with each other
and with the environment (by information or energy links) from which
the system is separated by a notational boundary.

Systems include physical, biological, organizational, and other entities,

and combinations thereof, which can be represented through a common
mathematical symbolism. The study of feedback control systems is
essentially a study of an important aspect of systems engineering and its
application.

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Input:
• The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control
system.
• Typically from external energy source, usually in order to produce a
specified response from the control system.
Output:
• The output is the actual response obtained from a control system.
• It may or may not be equal to specified response implied by the input.
Control Engineering:
Control engineering or Control systems engineering is based on the
foundations of feedback theory and linear system analysis, and it
integrates the concepts of network theory and communication theory.
It is the engineering discipline that applies control theory to design
systems with predictable behaviors. The practice uses sensors to
measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a
vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the
input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance.
When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs
for correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for
regulating a car's speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems
engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems
mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

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Why control is important (for production process / in
plant)?
(1) Safety:
Prevent injury to plant personnel, protect the environment by
preventing emission and minimizing waste and prevent damage
to the process equipment.
(2) Maintain product quality (composition, purity, color, etc.) on a
continuous basis and with minimum cost.
(3) Maintain plant production rate at minimum cost.
So, we can say that the reasons for automation of process plants are to
provide safety and at same time maintain desired product quality, high
plant throughput, and reduce demand on human labor.

Control system:
A control system is a system capable of monitoring and regulating the
operation of a process or a plant. The study of control system is
essentially a study of an important aspect of systems engineering and its
applications.
A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants)
assembled for the purpose of controlling the outputs of the process. For
example, a furnace produces heat as a result of the flow of fuel. In this
process, flow of fuel in the input, and heat to be controlled is the output.

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There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations
and combinations: logic or sequential controls, and feedback or linear
controls. There is also fuzzy logic, which attempts to combine some of
the design simplicity of logic with the utility of linear control. Some
devices or systems are inherently not controllable.
Controls are classified with respect to:
• technique involved to perform control (i.e. human/machines):
manual/automatic control
• Time dependence of output variable (i.e. constant/changing):
regulator/servo, (also known as regulating/tracking control)
• fundamental structure of the control (i.e. the information used for
computing the control): Open-loop/feedback control, (also known as
open-loop/closed-loop control)
Manual/Automatic Controls - Examples
A system that involves:
• a person controlling a machine is called manual control. Ex: Driving a car
• machines only is called a automatic control. Ex: Central AC

Servo/Regulator Controls – Examples

An automatic control system designed to:
• follow a changing reference is called tracking control or a servo. Ex: Remote
control car
• maintain an output fixed (regardless of the disturbances present) is called a
regulating control or a regulator. Ex: Cruise control

Open-Loop Control /Feedback control

The structures are fundamentally different:
• In an open-loop control, the system does NOT measure the actual output and
there is no correction to make that output conform to the desired output.

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In a closed loop control the system includes a sensor to measure the output and
uses feedback of the sensed value to influence the control input variable.
Examples of Open-Loop & Feedback Controls

Advantage of Control system

We build control systems for four primary reasons
1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input form
4. Compensation of the disturbances

Block Diagram
• It represents the structure of a control system.
• It helps to organize the variables and equations representing the control system.
• It is composed of:
– boxes, that represents the components of the system including their causality;
– Lines with arrows that represents the actual dynamic variables, such as speed,
pressure, velocity, etc.

Simplest Open-Loop Control Example & Associated Block Diagrams

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Generic Component

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Block Diagram of an Elementary FEEDBACK Control •

Generic Component Block Diagram of an Elementary FEEDBACK Control

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• Control input = external variable (signal/action) applied to the plant
• Controller = computes the desired control input variable
• Sensor = measures the actual output variable

• Comparator (or Σ) = computes the difference between the desired and

actual output variables to give the controller a measure of the system
error
• Our general system also includes: Disturbance & Sensor noise
• Typically, the sensor converts the measured output into an electric
signal for use by the controller. An input filter is then required.
• Input filter = converts the desired output variable to electric form for

later manipulation by the controller

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System configurations - open and closed loop systems

Open-loop control: An open-loop control is applied to achieve desired

system response using a controller or an actuator without feedback.

Features of open loop control:

Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration.
To calibrate means to establish or reestablish the input-output
relation to obtain desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability

Closed-loop/feedback control:
A closed-loop control is used to achieve desired system response using a
controller with the output measurement as a feedback signal. The use of
feedback enables us to improve system performance at the cost of
introducing the measurement noise and stability problem.

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Computer Controlled Systems
In modern systems, the controller (or compensator) is a digital
computer. The advantage of using a computer is that many loops can
be controlled or compensated by the same computer through time
sharing. Furthermore, any adjustments of the compensator parameters
required to yield a desired response can be made by changes in
software rather than hardware.

Analysis and Design objectives of a control system

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Some definitions related to control systems:

Command input:
The motivating input signal to the system, which is independent of the
output of the system and exercises complete control over it (if the
system is completely controllable).

Reference selector (reference input element).

The unit that establishes the value of the reference input. The
reference selector is calibrated in terms of the desired value of the
system output.

Reference input.
The reference signal produced by the reference selector, i.e., the
command expressed in a form directly usable by the system. It is the
actual signal input to the control system.

Disturbance input.
An external disturbance input signal to the system that has an unwanted
effect on the system output.

Forward element (system dynamics):

The unit that reacts to an actuating signal to produce a desired output.
This unit does the work of controlling the output and thus may be a
power amplifier. Feedback element: The unit that provides the means for
feeding back the output quantity, or a function of the output, in order to
compare it with the reference input.

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Output (controlled variable).
The quantity that must be maintained at a prescribed value, i.e.,
following the command input without respond-ing the disturbance
inputs.

Actuating signal. = Reference input – feedback signal.

It is the input to the control unit that causes the output to have the
desired value.

The fundamental difference between the open-and closed-loop systems

is the feedback action, which may be continuous or discontinuous. In
one form of discontinuous control the input and output quantities are
periodically sampled and discontinuous. Continuous control implies that
the output is continuously fed back and compared with the reference
input compared; i.e., the control action is discontinuous in time. This is
commonly called a digital, discrete-data or sampled-data feedback
control system.

Servomechanism (often abbreviated as servo). The term is often used to

refer to a mechanical system in which the steady-state error is zero for a
constant input signal. Sometimes, by generalization, it is used to refer to
any feedback control system.

Regulator. This term is used to refer to systems in which there is a

constant steady-state output for a constant signal. The name is derived
from the early speed and voltage controls, called speed and voltage
regulators.

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 Lecture ( 12 )
Speed Control of DC Motors

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 Lecture (13 )
FLOW-CONTROL VALVES

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FLOW-CONTROL VALVES

1.1 Introduction
Flow-control valves, as the name suggests, control the rate of flow of a fluid
through a hydraulic circuit. Flow-control valves accurately limit the fluid
volume rate from fixed displacement pump to or from branch circuits. Their
function is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed control of
rotary actuators. Typical application include regulating cutting tool speeds,
spindle speeds, surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically
supported loads moved upward and downward by forklifts, and dump lifts.
Flow-control valves also allow one fixed displacement pump to supply two or
more branch circuits fluid at different flow rates on a priority basis. Typically,
fixed displacement pumps are sized to supply maximum system volume flow
rate demands. For industrial applications feeding two or more branch circuits
from one pressurized manifold source, an oversupply of fluid in any circuit
operated by itself is virtually assured. Mobile applications that supply branch
circuits, such as the power steering and front end loader from one pump pose
a similar situation. If left unrestricted, branch circuits receiving an oversupply
of fluid would operate at greater than specified velocity, increasing the
likelihood of damage to work, hydraulic system and operator.

1.1.1 Functions of Flow-Control Valves

Flow-control valves have several functions, some of which are listed
below:

1. Regulate the speed of linear and rotary actuators:

They control the speed of piston that is dependent on the flow rate and
area of the piston:

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2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the
flow to them:

3. Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to various

branches of the circuit:
It transfers the power developed by the main pump to different sectors of
the circuit to manage multiple tasks, if necessary.

A partially closed orifice or flow-control valve in a hydraulic pressure line

causes resistance to pump flow. This resistance raises the pressure upstream of
the orifice to the level of the relief-valve setting and any excess pump flow
passes via the relief valve to the tank (Next Figure).

In order to understand the function and operation of flow-control devices, one

must comprehend the various factors that determine the flow rate(Q) across an
orifice or a restrictor. These are given as follows:
1. Cross-sectional area of orifice.
2. Shape of the orifice (round, square or triangular).
3. Length of the restriction.
4. Pressure difference across the orifice (Δp).
5. Viscosity of the fluid.

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Thus, the law that governs the flow rate across a given orifice can be
approximately defined as:

This implies that any variation in the pressure upstream or downstream

of the orifice changes the pressure differential Δp and thus the flow rate
through the orifice (Next Figure).

1.1.2 Classification of Flow-Control Valves

Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:
1. Non-pressure compensated.
2. Pressure compensated.

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1.1.2.1 Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system
pressure is relatively constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The
operating principle behind these valves is that the flow through an orifice
remains constant if the pressure drop across it remains the same. In other
words, the rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure drop across
it.
The disadvantage of these valves is discussed below. The inlet pressure is the
pressure from the pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in
pressure occurs at the outlet that is defined by the work load. This implies that
the flow rate depends on the work load. Hence, the speed of the piston cannot
be defined accurately using non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves
when the working load varies. This is an extremely important problem to be
addressed in hydraulic circuits where the load and pressure vary constantly.
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control
valve is shown in Next Figure. It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It
consists of a screw (and needle) inside a tube-like structure. It has an
adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit. The size of
the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the
needle. For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice.

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Usually, charts are available that allow quick determination of the controlled
flow rate for given valve settings and pressure drops.
Sometimes needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling
the flow in one direction only.

The check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction without any
restrictions. As shown in Next Figure, only the flow from A to B is controlled
using the needle. In the other direction (B to A), the check valve permits
unrestricted fluid flow.

1.1.2.2Pressure-Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valvesovercome the difficulty causedby
non-pressure-compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in
relation to the changes in the system pressure. This is accomplished through a
spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of the orifice when
pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator acts
to keep the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback
mechanism from the outlet pressure. This keeps the flow through the orifice
nearly constant. Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control
valve is shown in Next Figure,
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and its graphical symbol in Next Figure. A pressure-compensated flow-control
valve consists of a main spool and a compensator spool. The adjustment knob
controls the main spool’s position, which controls the orifice size at the outlet.
The upstream pressure is delivered to the valve by the pilot line A.

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Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to the right side of the
compensator spool through the pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the
spool so that it tends toward the fully open position. If the pressure drop
across the valve increases, that is, the upstream pressure increases relative to
the downstream pressure, the compensator spool moves to the right against the
force of the spring. This reduces the flow that in turn reduces the pressure
drop and tries to attain an equilibrium position as far as the flow is concerned.

In the static condition, the hydraulic forces hold the compensator spool in
balance, but the bias spring forces it to the far right, thus holding the
compensator orifice fully open. In the flow condition, any pressure drop less
than the bias spring force does not affect the fully open compensator orifice,
but any pressure drop greater than the bias spring force reduces the
compensator orifice. Any change in pressure on either side of the control
orifice, without a corresponding pressure change on the opposite side of the
control orifice, moves the compensator spool. Thus, a fixed differential across
the control orifice is maintained at all times. It blocks all flow in excess of the
throttle setting. As a result, flow exceeding the preset amount can be used by
other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via a pressure-relief valve.

Performance of flow-control valve is also affected by temperature changes

which changes the viscosity of the fluid. Therefore, often flow-control valves
have temperature compensation. Graphical symbol for pressure and
temperature compensated flow-control valve is shown in Next Figure.

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 Pressure- and temperature-compensated flow-control valve.

1.2 Speed-Controlling Circuits

In hydraulic operations, it is necessary to control the speed of the actuator so

as to control the force, power, timing and other factors of the operation.
Actuator speed control is achieved by controlling the rate of flow into or out
of the cylinder. Speed control by controlling the rate of flow into the cylinder
is called meter-in control. Speed control by controlling the rate of flow out of
the cylinder is called meter-out control.

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1.2.1 Meter-In Circuit

Next Figure shows a meter-in circuit with control of extend stroke. The inlet
flow into the cylinder is controlled using a flow-control valve. In the return
stroke, however, the fluid can bypass the needle valve and flow through the
check valve and hence the return speed is not controlled. This implies that the
extending speed of the cylinder is controlled whereas the retracing speed is
not.

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 1.2.2 Meter-Out Circuit

Next Figure shows a meter-out circuit for flow control during the extend
stroke. When the cylinder extends, the flow coming from the pump into the
cylinder is not controlled directly. However, the flow out of the cylinder is
controlled using the flow-control valve (metering orifice). On the other hand,
when the cylinder retracts, the flow passes through the check valve
unopposed, bypassing the needle valve. Thus, only the speed during the
extend stroke is controlled.
Both the meter-in and meter-out
circuits mentioned above
perform the same operation
(control the speed of the
extending stroke of the piston),
even though the processes are
exactly opposite to one another.

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1.2.3 Bleed-Off Circuit
Compared to meter-in and meter-out circuits, a bleed-off circuit is less
commonly used. Figure 1.10 shows a bleed-off circuit with extend stroke
control. In this type of flow control, an additional line is run through a flow-
control valve back to the tank. To slow down the actuator, some of the flow is
bledoff through the flow-control valve into the tank before it reaches the
actuator. This reduces the flow into the actuator, thereby reducing the speed of
the extend stroke.
The main difference between a bleed-off circuit and a meter-in/meter-out
circuit is that in a bleed-off circuit, opening the flow-control valve decreases
the speed of the actuator, whereas in the case of a meter-in/meter-out circuit, it
is the other way around.

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Solved Example 1
A 55-mm diameter sharp-edged orifice is placed in a pipeline to measure the
flow rate. If the measured pressure drop is 300 kPa and the fluid specific
gravity is 0.90, find the flow rate in units of . m3 /s
Solution: For a sharp-edged orifice, we can write

where Q is the volume flow rate in LPM, Cv is the capacity coefficient = 0.80
for the sharp-edge orifice, c = 0.6 for a square-edged orifice, A is the area of
orifice opening in mm2, Δp is the pressure drop across the orifice (kPa) and
SG is the specific gravity of the flowing fluid = 0.9. Now,

Using the orifice equation we can find the flow rate as

Solved Example 2
For a given orifice and fluid, a graph can be generated showing Δp versus Q
relationship. For the orifice and fluid in Example 1, plot the curves and check
the answers obtained mathematically. What advantage does the graph have
over the equation? What is the disadvantage of the graph?

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Solution: From Example 1, we have

We can write the general expression as

Using Excel, the graph shown in Next Figure is obtained.

From the graph, corresponding to Δp = 300 kPa, we get Q = 2950 LPM which
is close to 2953.3 LPM. A graph is quicker to use but is not as accurate as the
equation. A pressure gauge can be calibrated (according to this relationship)
to read Q directly rather than Δp

178
Solved Example 3
The system shown in Next Figure has a hydraulic cylinder with a suspended
load W. The cylinder piston and rod diameters are 50.8 and 25.4 mm,
respectively. The pressure-relief valve setting is 5150 kPa.
Determine the pressure p2 for a constant cylinder speed:
(a) W = 8890 N
(b) W = 0 ( load is removed)
(c) Determine the cylinder speeds for parts (a) and (b) if the flow-control
valve has a capacity coefficient of 0.72 LPM√ kPa . The fluid is hydraulic oil
with a specific gravity of 0.090.

Hydraulic cylinder with a suspended weight

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 Lecture ( 14 )
Mechatronics Examples of control systems

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Mechatronics Examples of control systems
Historical Perspective
Attempts to construct automated mechanical systems have a fascinating
history. The term “automation” was not popularized until the 1940s
when it was coined by the Ford Motor Company to denote a process in
which a machine transferred a subassembly item from one station to
another and then positioned the item precisely for additional assembly
operations. But successful development of automated mechanical
systems occurred long before then. For example, early applications of
automatic control systems appeared in Greece from 300 to 1 BC, with
the development of float regulator mechanisms.

Two important examples include the water clock of Ktesibios, which

employed a float regulator, and an oil lamp devised by Philon, which
also used a float regulator to maintain a constant level of fuel oil. Later,
in the first century, Heron of Alexandria published a book entitled
Pneumatica that described different types of wa In Europe and Russia in
the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, many important devices that
would eventually contribute to mechatronics were invented. Cornelis
Drebbel (1572–1633) of Holland devised the temperature regulator
representing one of the first feedback systems of that era. Subsequently,
Dennis Papin (1647–1712) invented a pressure safety regulator for steam
boilers in 1681. Papin’s pressure regulator is similar to a modern-day
pressure-cooker valve. The first mechanical calculating machine was
invented by Pascal in 1642 [9]. The first historical feedback system
claimed by Russia was developed by Polzunov in 1765 [10]. Polzunov’s
water-level float regulator, employs a float that rises and lowers in
relation to the water level, thereby controlling the valve that covers the
water inlet in the boiler.

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Further evolution in automation was enabled by advancements in control
theory traced back to the Watt flyball governor of 1769. The flyball
governor, was used to control the speed of a steam engine . Employing a
measurement of the speed of the output shaft and utilizing the motion of
the flyball to control the valve, the amount of steam entering the engine
is controlled. As the speed of the engine increases, the metal spheres on
the governor apparatus rise and extend away from the shaft axis, thereby
closing the valve. This is an example of a feedback control system where
the feedback signal and the control actuation are completely coupled in
the mechanical hardware.

These early successful automation developments were achieved through

intuition, application of practical skills, and persistence. The next step in
the evolution of automation required a theory of automatic control. The
precursor to the numerically controlled (NC) machines for automated
manufacturing (to be developed in the 1950s and 1960s at MIT)
appeared in the early 1800s, with the invention of feed-forward control
of weaving looms by Joseph Jacquard of France. In the late 1800s, the
subject now known as control theory was initiated by J. C. Maxwell
through analysis of the set of differential equations describing the flyball
governor . Maxwell investigated the effect various system parameters
had on system performance. At about the same time, Vyshnegradskii
formulated a mathematical theory of regulators. In the 1830s, Michael
Faraday described the law of induction that would form the basis of the
electric motor and the electric dynamo. Subsequently, in the late 1880s,
Nikola Tesla invented the alternating-current induction motor. The basic
idea of controlling a mechanical system automatically was firmly
established by the end of the 1800s. The evolution of automation would
accelerate significantly in the latter part of the twentieth century,

183
expanding in capability from automation to increasingly higher levels of
autonomy in the twenty-first century.

The development of pneumatic control elements in the 1930s matured to

a point of finding applications in the process industries. However, before
1940, the design of control systems remained an art generally
characterized by trial-and-error methods. During the 1940s, continuing
advances in mathematical and analytical methods solidified the notion of
control engineering as an independent engineering discipline. In the
United States, the development of the telephone system and electronic
feedback amplifiers spurred the use of feedback by Bode, Nyquist, and
Black at Bell Telephone Laboratories. The operation ter-level
mechanisms using float regulators.

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 References
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David G. Alciatore Copyright c 2019 by McGraw-Hill

2- NUUEE Control System Design, Control Systems Design, 2007

3- Modern Control Engineering, Katsuhiko Ogata, University of

Minnesota Reprint of 4th 2002 cd., UX12Prentiffi Hall, New Jmey

4- System Dynamics, Fourth Edition, Katsuhiko Ogata, University of

Minnesota Pearson Prentice Hall® is a trademark of Pearson
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5- Digital Control, Kannan M. Moudgalya, © 2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Ltd

6- Modern Control Systems, Eleventh Edition, Richard C. Dorf,

University of California, Davis Robert H. Bishop The University of
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8- Vibration and Shock Handbook, Edited by Clarence W. de Silva,

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