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Mechatronics Engineering
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Control Systems
What is a Control System?
A control system is defined as a system of devices that manages,
commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems
to achieve a desired result. A control system achieves this through
control loops, which are a process designed to maintain a process
variable at a desired set point.
2
Features of a Control System
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Stability: It is an important characteristic of the control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if the input is zero
then the output must be zero then such a control system is said to be a
stable system.
Speed: It is the time taken by the control system to achieve its stable
output. A good control system possesses high speed. The transient
period for such a system is very small.
There are various types of control systems, but all of them are created to
control outputs. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage, and current, etc. are
examples of control systems.
Let us take an example of the simple temperature controller of the room,
to clear the concept. Suppose there is a simple heating element, which is
heated up as long as the electric power supply is switched on.
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Again due to ambient temperature, the room temperature falls, and then
manually the heater element is switched on to achieve the desired room
temperature again. In this way, one can manually control the room
temperature at the desired level. This is an example of a manual control
system. This system can further be improved by using a timer switching
arrangement of the power supply where the supply to the heating
element is switched on and off in a predetermined interval to achieve the
desired temperature level of the room.
There is another improved way of controlling the temperature of the
room. Here one sensor measures the difference between the actual
temperature and desired temperature.
If there are any differences between them, the heating element functions
to reduce the difference and when the difference becomes lower than a
predetermined level, the heating elements stop functioning.
Both forms of the system are automatic control system. In the former
one, the input of the system is entirely independent of the output of the
system. The temperature of the room (output) increases as long as the
power supply switch is kept on.
That means the heating element produces heat as long as the power
supply is kept on and the final room temperature does not have any
control over the input power supply of the system. This system is
referred to as an open-loop control system.
But in the latter case, the heating elements of the system function,
depending upon the difference between, actual temperature and desired
temperature. This difference is called the error of the system.
This error signal is fed back to the system to control the input. As the
input to the output path and the error feedback path create a closed-loop,
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this type of control system is referred to as a closed-loop control
system.
Hence, there are two main types of control systems. They are as follow
1. Open-loop control systems
2. Closed-loop control systems
1. Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you
keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your
hand is dried.
2. Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the
pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time
irrespective of toasting is completed or not.
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4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for
pre-adjusted time only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for
pre-adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are
dried.
6. Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever the light switch is on
irrespective of light is required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually
irrespective of output volume level.
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An open-loop control system can be converted into a closed loop
control system by providing feedback. This feedback automatically
makes suitable changes in the output due to external disturbance.
In this way, a closed loop control system is called an automatic control
system. The figure below shows the block diagram of the closed loop
control system in which feedback is taken from the output and fed into
the input.
8
5. An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions depending upon
the temperature of the room.
6. Cooling System in Car – It operates depending upon the
temperature which it controls.
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
Advantages of closed-loop control systems include:
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Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control Systems
The table below compares open loop and closed loop control systems.
Sr.
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
No.
5 It is economical. It is costly.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.
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Feedback Loop in a Closed Loop Control System
Feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control
system. The feedback loop is the tool that takes the system output into
consideration and enables the system to adjust its performance to meet
the desired result of the system.
In any control system, the output is affected due to a change in
environmental conditions or any kind of disturbance. So one signal is
taken from the output and is fed back to the input.
This signal is compared with a reference input and the error signal is
generated. This error signal is applied to the controller and the output is
corrected. Such a system is called a feedback system. The figure below
shows the block diagram of a feedback system.
When the feedback signal is positive then the system called a positive
feedback system. For a positive feedback system, the error signal is the
addition of a reference input signal and a feedback signal.
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Effect of Feedback in a Control System
The following labels apply to the Next figure :
R = Input signal
E = Error signal
G = Forward path gain
H = Feedback
C = Output signal
B = Feedback signal
Get el
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Linear and Non Linear Control System
A control system is a system of devices that manages, commands,
directs or regulates the behavior of other devices to achieve a desired
result. In other words, the definition of a control system can be
simplified as a system which controls other systems to achieve a desired
state. There are various types of control systems, which can be broadly
categorized as linear control systems or non-linear control systems.
These types of control systems are discussed in detail below.
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linear control systems as those types of control systems which follow
the principle of homogeneity and additivity.
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Analog or Continuous System
In these types of control systems, we have a continuous signal as the
input to the system. These signals are the continuous function of time.
We may have various sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal
type signal input source, square type of signal input source; the signal
may be in the form of continuous triangle etc.
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1. Digital systems can handle nonlinear control systems more
effectively than the analog type of systems.
2. Power requirement in case of a discrete or digital system is less as
compared to analog systems.
3. Digital system has a higher rate of accuracy and can perform
various complex computations easily as compared to analog
systems.
4. Reliability of the digital system is more as compared to an analog
system. They also have a small and compact size.
5. Digital system works on the logical operations which increases
their accuracy many times.
6. Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared to analog
systems in general.
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Distributed Parameter System
In these types of control systems, the various active (like inductors and
capacitors) and passive parameters (resistor) are assumed to be
distributed uniformly along the length and that’s why these are called
distributed parameter type of system. Analysis of such type of system is
slightly difficult which includes partial differential equations.
Passive components
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Active Components
An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy
to a circuit. Active elements have the ability to electrically control
electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All electronic circuits must
contain at least one active component.
Common examples of active components include:
Voltage sources
and LEDs)
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Voltage Sources
A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit.
When current leaves from the positive terminal of the voltage source,
energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an active
element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it
continuously delivers energy to the circuit during discharging.
Current Sources
A current source is also considered an active component. The current
supplied to the circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit
voltage. As a current source is controlling the flow of charge in a circuit,
it is classified as an active element.
Transistors
Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are
also an active circuit component. This is because transistors are able to
amplify the power of a signal (see our article on transistors as an
amplifier if you want to know exactly how).
Passive Components
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive
energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a
magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to
operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or
amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an
electrical signal.
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Common examples of passive components include:
- Resistors - Inductors - Capacitors - Transformers
Resistors
A resistor is taken as a passive element since it can not deliver any
energy to a circuit. Instead resistors can only receive energy which they
can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through it.
Inductors
An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it
can store energy in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to
the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy absorbing and
delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That
is why an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.
Capacitors
A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store
energy in it as electric field. The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor
is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying energy, it is storing
it for later use.
As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is
being supplied or amplified.
Transformers
A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can
seem surprising since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels
– remember that power is kept constant.
When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy
remain the same on the primary and secondary side. As energy is not
actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive
element.
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A control system is a system of integrated elements whose function is to
maintain a process variable at a desired value or within a desired range
of values. The control system monitors a process variable or variables,
then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired system
parameter. In the example of the central heating unit, the system
monitors the temperature of the house using a thermostat. When the
temperature of the house drops to a preset value, the furnace turns on,
providing a heat source. The temperature of the house increases until a
switch in the thermostat causes the furnace to turn off.
Two terms which help define a control system are input and output.
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An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output. An example of an open-loop control system is
a chemical addition pump with a variable speed control (Figure 1). The
feed rate of chemicals that maintain proper chemistry of a system is
determined by an operator, who is not part of the control system. If the
chemistry of the system changes, the pump cannot respond by adjusting
its feed rate (speed) without operator action. Next Figure Open-Loop
Control System
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A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is dependent
on the output. Next Figure shows an example of a closed-loop control
system. The control system maintains water level in a storage tank. The
system performs this task by continuously sensing the level in the tank
and adjusting a supply valve to add more or less water to the tank. The
desired level is preset by an operator, who is not part of the system.
Feedback
Feedback is information in a closed-loop Next Figure Feedback in a
Closed-Loop Control System control system about the condition of a
process variable. This variable is compared with a desired condition to
produce the proper control action on the process. Information is
continually "fed back" to the control circuit in response to control action.
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In the previous example, the actual storage tank water level, sensed by
the level transmitter, is feedback to the level controller. This feedback is
compared with a desired level to produce the required control action that
will position the level control as needed to maintain the desired level.
Next Figure shows this relationship.
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Lecture (3)
State-Space Models
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Lecture (4)
Input-Output Models
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Lecture ( 5 )
Industrial control system (ICS)
Programmable logic controllers
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Industrial control system (ICS)
Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that encompasses
several types of control systems and associated instrumentation used
for industrial process control. Control systems can range in size from a
few modular panel-mounted controllers to large interconnected and
interactive distributed control systems (DCSs) with many thousands of
field connections. Control systems receive data from remote sensors
measuring process variables (PVs), compare the collected data with
desired setpoints (SPs), and derive command functions that are used to
control a process through the final control elements (FCEs), such
as control valves.
Larger systems are usually implemented by supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems, or DCSs, and programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), though SCADA and PLC systems are scalable down
to small systems with few control loops.[1] Such systems are extensively
used in industries such as chemical processing, pulp and paper
manufacture, power generation, oil and gas processing, and
telecommunications.
Discrete controllers
A control loop using a discrete controller. Field signals are flow rate
measurement from the sensor, and control output to the valve. A valve
positioner ensures correct valve operation.
The simplest control systems are based around small discrete controllers
with a single control loop each. These are usually panel mounted which
allows direct viewing of the front panel and provides means of manual
intervention by the operator, either to manually control the process or to
change control setpoints. Originally these would be pneumatic
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controllers, a few of which are still in use, but nearly all are now
electronic.
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The field inputs and outputs can either be continuously changing analog
signals e.g. current loop or 2 state signals that switch either on or off,
such as relay contacts or a semiconductor switch.
Distributed control systems can normally also support Foundation
Fieldbus, PROFIBUS, HART, Modbus and other digital communication
buses that carry not only input and output signals but also advanced
messages such as error diagnostics and status signals.
SCADA systems
Main article: SCADA
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a control
system architecture that uses computers, networked data
communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process
supervisory management. The operator interfaces which enable
monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controller
setpoint changes, are handled through the SCADA supervisory computer
system. However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations
are performed by networked modules which connect to other peripheral
devices such as programmable logic controllers and discrete PID
controllers which interface to the process plant or machinery.
The SCADA concept was developed as a universal means of remote
access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from
different manufacturers allowing access through standard automation
protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become
very similar to distributed control systems in function, but using multiple
means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale
processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large
distances.[2] This is a commonly-used architecture industrial control
systems, however there are concerns about SCADA systems being
vulnerable to cyberwarfare or cyberterrorism attacks.[3]
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The SCADA software operates on a supervisory level as control actions
are performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control
functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level
intervention. A feedback control loop is directly controlled by the RTU
or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors the overall performance of
the loop. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water
through part of an industrial process to a set point level, but the SCADA
system software will allow operators to change the set points for the
flow. The SCADA also enables alarm conditions, such as loss of flow or
high temperature, to be displayed and recorded.
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Siemens Simatic S7-400 system in a rack, left-to-right: power supply
unit (PSU), CPU, interface module (IM) and communication processor
(CP).
PLCs can range from small modular devices with tens of inputs and
outputs (I/O) in a housing integral with the processor, to large rack-
mounted modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O, and which
are often networked to other PLC and SCADA systems. They can be
designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analog inputs and
outputs, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine
operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile
memory.
History
A pre-DCS era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised
in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.
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A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed
on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated as they can view
and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a
plant overview.
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SCADA's history is rooted in distribution applications, such as power,
natural gas, and water pipelines, where there is a need to gather remote
data through potentially unreliable or intermittent low-bandwidth and
high-latency links. SCADA systems use open-loop control with sites
that are widely separated geographically. A SCADA system uses remote
terminal units (RTUs) to send supervisory data back to a control centre.
Most RTU systems always had some capacity to handle local control
while the master station is not available. However, over the years RTU
systems have grown more and more capable of handling local control.
The boundaries between DCS and SCADA/PLC systems are blurring as
time goes on. The technical limits that drove the designs of these various
systems are no longer as much of an issue. Many PLC platforms can
now perform quite well as a small DCS, using remote I/O and are
sufficiently reliable that some SCADA systems actually manage closed-
loop control over long distances. With the increasing speed of today's
processors, many DCS products have a full line of PLC-like subsystems
that weren't offered when they were initially developed.
In 1993, with the release of IEC-1131, later to become IEC-61131-3, the
industry moved towards increased code standardization with reusable,
hardware-independent control software. For the first time, object-
oriented programming (OOP) became possible within industrial control
systems. This led to the development of both programmable automation
controllers (PAC) and industrial PCs (IPC). These are platforms
programmed in the five standardized IEC languages: ladder logic,
structured text, function block, instruction list and sequential function
chart. They can also be programmed in modern high-level languages
such as C or C++. Additionally, they accept models developed in
analytical tools such as MATLAB and Simulink. Unlike traditional
PLCs, which use proprietary operating systems, IPCs utilize Windows
IoT. IPC's have the advantage of powerful multi-core processors with
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much lower hardware costs than traditional PLCs and fit well into
multiple form factors such as DIN rail mount, combined with a touch-
screen as a panel PC, or as an embedded PC. New hardware platforms
and technology have contributed significantly to the evolution of DCS
and SCADA systems, further blurring the boundaries and changing
definitions.
Security
SCADA and PLCs are vulnerable to cyber attack. The U.S. Government
Joint Capability Technology Demonstration (JCTD) known as
MOSAICS (More Situational Awareness for Industrial Control Systems)
is the initial demonstration of cybersecurity defensive capability for
critical infrastructure control systems. MOSAICS addresses the
Department of Defense (DOD) operational need for cyber defense
capabilities to defend critical infrastructure control systems from cyber
attack, such as power, water and wastewater, and safety controls, affect
the physical environment. The MOSAICS JCTD prototype will be
shared with commercial industry through Industry Days for further
research and development, an approach intended to lead to an
innovative, game-changing capabilities for cybersecurity for critical
infrastructure control systems.
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Lecture (6 & 7 )
Block Diagram Manipulation
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A block diagram is a pictorial representation of the cause and effect
relationship between the
input and output of a physical system. A block diagram provides a
means to easily identify the
functional relationships among the various components of a control
system.
The simplest form of a block diagram is the block and arrows diagram.
It consists of a single
block with one input and one output (Figure 5A). The block normally
contains the name of the
element (Figure 5B) or the symbol of a mathematical operation (Figure
5C) to be performed on
the input to obtain the desired output. Arrows identify the direction of
information or signal
flow.
Rev.
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Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical
operations, operations of
addition and subtraction are represented by a circle, called a summing
point. As shown in Figure
6, a summing point may have one or several inputs. Each input has its
own appropriate plus or
minus sign. A summing point has only one output and is equal to the
algebraic sum of the
inputs.
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Block Diagram Manipulation
We often represent control systems using block diagrams. A block
diagram consists of blocks that represent transfer functions of the
different variables of interest. If a block diagram has many blocks, not
all of which are in cascade, then it is useful to have rules for rearranging
the diagram such that you end up with only one block. For example, we
would want to transform the following diagram
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So that the above block diagram can be redrawn as
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i.e., Y(s) (1 + G(s). H(s) = G(s).R(s))
We have just shown two cases (cascade and feedback) of block diagram
reduction. These and other transformations are given in Next Table.
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Table. Block Diagram Transformations
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Example [Using the equivalence transformations of previous Table]
Consider the following feedback control system:
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Now, eliminate the inner loop using Rule 6 of Table again:
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Cramer’s Rule
If Ax B is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns such
that det A 0, then
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Lecture ( 8 & 9)
Industrial temperature measurement
Temperature Sensors & Pressure sensor
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Industrial temperature measurement
Basics and practice
Introduction
Automation is a growing, worldwide fundamental technology. The
driving force for its growth are the variety of distinct economical and
environmental requirements of the basic food and energy supply for an
efficient, low emission utilization of natural resources and energy and
the increased productivity in all manufacturing and distribution
processes.
As a result of the enormous growth of the markets in certain regions of
the world and the increasing integration between them, new
requirements and unexpected opportunities have arisen.
The interaction between the actual measurement technology and the
processes is continually becoming tighter. The transfer of information
and quality evaluations have traditionally been a key requirement and a
fundamental strength of the ABB-Engineers for worldwide optimization
through automation.
Temperature, for many processes in the most varied applications, is the
primary measurement value. The wide spectrum of applications in which
the measurement locations are usually directly in the fluid medium,
often pose difficult requirements on the process technician.
With this Handbook for industrial temperature measurements we are
attempting to provide the technician with solutions to his wide variety of
responsibilities. At the same time, it provides for those new to the field,
insight into the basics of the most important measurement principles and
their application limits in a clear and descriptive manner.
The basic themes include material science and measurement technology,
applications, signal processing and fieldbus communication. A practice
oriented selection of appropriate temperature sensor designs for the
process field is presented as well as the required communication
capability of the meter locations.
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The factory at Alzenau, Germany, a part of ABB, is the Global Center of
Competence for Temperature, with numerous local experts on hand in
the most important industrial sectors, is responsible for activities
worldwide in this sector. 125 years of temperature measurement
technology equates to experience and competence. At the same time, it
forms an important basis for continued innovation. In close cooperation
with our customers and users, our application engineers create concepts
to meet the measurement requirements. Our Sector-Teams support the
customer, planner and user in the preparation of professional solutions.
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statistical principles. Thus the laws of Thermodynamics only apply
when a sufficiently large number of molecules are present.
In modern Thermodynamics the temperature of a body is described as a
type of heat potential, with the property to add or remove heat (heat
sources and heat sinks). So the temperature gradient (the direction of the
greatest temperature difference) defines the direction of the greatest heat
effect within a body. The direction of the heat effect is always from the
higher to the lower temperature.
Although this statement may appear trivial, it is of fundamental
importance when using contacting thermometers.
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The Seebeck-Effect together with the Peltier and Thomson Effect
belongs to a group
of thermoelectrical effects. Its discovery has been attributed to T. J.
Seebeck. In the year 1822 he published the observation that a current can
be recognized in an electrical circuit comprising two dissimilar metal
conductors, when each of the two connection points of the conductors is
at a different temperature level. The cause of this thermal current is the
generation of a thermal voltage (thermal force) whose magnitude is
proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends
and additionally is a function of the applied material combination.
As early as 1826 A. Becquerel recommended a Platinum-Palladium
thermocouple for temperature measurement.
Theory of the Thermoelectric Effect
The temperature dependence of the electron potentials, which cause a
charge shift in an electrical conductor when it is placed in a
nonhomogeneous temperature field, is considered today as the origin of
the thermoelectrical effects.
Simply stated: the free charge carriers (electrons) in a one side warmed
conductor distribute themselves in a nonhomogeneous manner so that a
potential difference (thermal voltage) is generated. At the cold end more
electrons accumulate while at the hot end, the electron quantity is
decreasing. Therefore it is plausible that even in a single electrical
conductor in a temperature field a thermal voltage is generated.
This thermal voltage can only be measured if a second conductor is
added (thermocouple), provided that the temperature dependence of this
effect is different in the second conductor from that in the first conductor
(see Next Figure).
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Generation of a thermal voltage
If the thermal voltage effects in both conductors are the same (e.g. for
identical conductor materials), then the effects cancel each other and no
thermal voltage can be measured. It is important that this thermal
voltage effect is the result of a volume diffusion effect of the charge
carriers and not a contact voltage phenomenon between the two
materials. Therefore it is understandable that the thermal voltage is
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produced along the entire length of the thermocouple and not only at the
“hot“ connection between the two legs.
Principles
The Law of Linear Superposition (Superposition Principle) applies to
thermocouples, if one visualizes a thermocouple as a series circuit
consisting of a (infinite) number of individual elements. The thermal
voltage generated in the thermocouple is the same as the sum of the
thermal voltages generated in the individual elements. An additional hot
zone added between the hot and the cold end therefore has no effect on
the resultant thermal voltage, since the additional added thermal voltages
cancel each other.
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The Law of Homogeneous Temperature states that the thermal voltage
in a conductor in a homogeneous temperature field is equal to zero.
Therefore the thermal voltages in a thermal circuit (series circuit) made
up of any number of different material combinations is also equal to
zero, if all the components are at the same temperature. For practical
application this means that even nonhomogeneous thermocouple wires
or plug connections of different materials have no effect as long as no
temperature difference exists at that location. Therefore design care must
be exercised, especially in the area of plug connections. E.g. a massive
thermal insulation (isothermal block) may be used to achieve a
homogeneous temperature.
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Derived Fundamental Conclusions for the Use of Thermocouples:
• In a homogeneous temperature field no thermal voltage is generated.
• In a homogeneous conductor the magnitude of the thermal voltage is
only a function of the temperature difference between the ends of the
conductor.
• The junction of a thermocouple does not generate any thermal
voltages.
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If one substitutes for α the average temperature coefficient between 0 °C
and 100 °C, the equation gives a linear relationship between the
resistance Rt and the temperature tp, in which tp not only agrees at 0 °C
but also at 100 °C with the actual temperature t. For all other
temperatures the calculated value of tp differs from the true temperature
t. By introducing a second constant δ, the differences between the true
temperature t and the Platinum temperature tp are taken into account:
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coefficients. It is relatively simple to convert the constants A, B, C into
a, d and b.
For years the formulation of Callendar-van Dusen enjoyed great
popularity because of the simplicity by which the constants can be
determined directly by calibrating at different temperatures (0 °C, 100
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Temperature Sensors – Types,
Working & Operation
Temperature is the most often-measured environmental quantity. This might
be expected since most physical, electronic, chemical, mechanical, and
biological systems are affected by temperature. Certain chemical reactions,
biological processes, and even electronic circuits perform best within limited
temperature ranges. Temperature is one of the most commonly measured
variables and it is therefore not surprising that there are many ways of sensing
it. Temperature sensing can be done either through direct contact with the
heating source or remotely, without direct contact with the source using
radiated energy instead. There are a wide variety of temperature sensors on
the market today, including Thermocouples, Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs), Thermistors, Infrared, and Semiconductor Sensors.
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Thermocouple
The RTD is a temperature-sensing device whose resistance changes with
temperature. Typically built from platinum, though devices made from nickel
or copper are not uncommon, RTDs can take many different shapes like
wire wound, thin film. To measure the resistance across an RTD, apply a
constant current, measure the resulting voltage, and determine the RTD
resistance. RTDs exhibit fairly linear resistance to temperature curves over their
operating regions and any nonlinearity is highly predictable and repeatable.
The PT100 RTD evaluation board uses surface mount RTD to measure
temperature. An external 2, 3, or 4-wire PT100 can also be associated with
measure temperature in remote areas. The RTDs are biased using a
constant current source. To reduce self-heat due to power dissipation, the
current magnitude is moderately low. The circuit shown in the figure is the
constant current source uses a reference voltage, one amplifier, and a PNP
transistor.
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are made from semiconductor materials. Resistance is determined in the
same manner as the RTD, but thermistors exhibit a highly nonlinear
resistance vs. temperature curve. Thus, in the thermistors operating range,
we can see a large resistance change for a very small temperature change.
This makes for a highly sensitive device, ideal for set-point applications.
Semiconductor sensors: They are classified into different types like
Voltage output, Current output, Digital output, Resistance output silicon,
and Diode temperature sensors. Modern semiconductor temperature
sensors offer high accuracy and high linearity over an operating range of
about 55°C to +150°C. Internal amplifiers can scale the output to
convenient values, such as 10mV/°C. They are also useful in cold-junction
compensation circuits for wide temperature range thermocouples. Brief
details about this type of temperature sensor are given below.
Sensor ICs
There is a wide variety of temperature sensor ICs that are available to simplify
the broadest possible range of temperature monitoring challenges. These
silicon temperature sensors differ significantly from the above-mentioned
types in a couple of important ways. The first is the operating temperature
range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal IC temperature
range of -55°C to +150°C. The second major difference is functionality.
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monitoring in microprocessor-based systems.
Temperature Sensor
The above temperature sensor has three terminals and required Maximum of
5.5 V supply. This type of sensor consists of a material that operates
according to temperature to vary the resistance. This change of resistance is
sensed by the circuit and it calculates the temperature. When the voltage
increases then the temperature also rises. We can see this operation by using
a diode.
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Rated for full l −55˚ to +150˚C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Low self-heating,
±1/4˚C of typical nonlinearity
Operation of LM35:
The LM35 can be connected easily in the same way as other integrated-
circuit temperature sensors. It can be stuck or established to a surface
and its temperature will be within around the range of 0.01˚C of the surface
temperature.
This presumes that the ambient air temperature is just about the same as
the surface temperature; if the air temperature were much higher or lower
than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the LM35 die would
be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and
the air temperature.
Features DS1621:
1. No external components are required.
2. The temperature range of -55⁰C to +125⁰C in 0.5⁰ intervals is measured.
3. Gives temperature value as a 9-bit reading.
4. Wide power supply range (2.7V to 5.5V).
5. Converts temperature to digital word in less than one second.
6. Thermostatic settings are user-definable and Nonvolatile.
7. It is an 8-pin DIP.
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Pin Description:
SDA – 2-Wire Serial Data Input/ Output.
SCL – 2-Wire Serial Clock.
GND – Ground.
TOUT – Thermostat Output Signal.
A0 – Chip Address Input.
A1 – Chip Address Input.
A2 – Chip Address Input.
VDD – Power Supply Voltage.
Working of DS1621:
When the temperature of the device exceeds a user-defined temperature
HIGH then the output TOUT is active. The output will remain active until the
temperature drops below the user-defined temperature LOW.
User-defined temperature settings are saved in non-volatile memory so it
may be programmed before insertion in a system.
The temperature reading is provided in a 9-bit, two’s complement reading
by issuing the READ TEMPERATURE command in the programming.
A 2 wire serial interface is used for input to the DS16121 for the
temperature settings and output of temperature reading from the DS1621
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Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.
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manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure
fluctuation (weather) is reflected as an error in the measurement result.
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Pressure-sensing technology
There are two basic categories of analog pressure sensors, Force
collector types These types of electronic pressure sensors generally use
a force collector (such a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or bellows) to
measure strain (or deflection) due to applied force over an area
(pressure).
Capacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to
detect strain due to applied pressure, capacitance decreasing as pressure
deforms the diaphragm. Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and
silicon diaphragms.
Electromagnetic
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Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes
in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy
current principle.
Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to
measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure. This
technology is commonly employed for the measurement of highly
dynamic pressures. As the basic principle is dynamic no static pressures
can be measured with piezoelectric sensors.
Strain-Gauge
Strain gauge based pressure sensors also use a pressure sensitive element
where metal strain gauges are glued on or thin film gauges are applied
on by sputtering. This measuring element can either be a diaphragm or
for metal foil gauges measuring bodies in can-type can also be used. The
big advantages of this monolithic can-type design are an improved
rigidity and the capability to measure highest pressures of up to 15,000
bar. The electrical connection is normally done via a Wheatstone bridge
which allows for a good amplification of the signal and precise and
constant measuring results.[2]
Optical
Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to
detect strain due to applied pressure. A common example of this type
utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is employed in
challenging applications where the measurement may be highly remote,
under high temperature, or may benefit from technologies inherently
immune to electromagnetic interference. Another analogous technique
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utilizes an elastic film constructed in layers that can change reflected
wavelengths according to the applied pressure (strain).
Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the
strain caused by applied pressure.
Force balancing
Force-balanced fused quartz bourdon tubes use a spiral bourdon tube to
exert force on a pivoting armature containing a mirror, the reflection of a
beam of light from the mirror senses the angular displacement and
current is applied to electromagnets on the armature to balance the force
from the tube and bring the angular displacement to zero, the current that
is applied to the coils is used as the measurement. Due to the extremely
stable and repeatable mechanical and thermal properties of fused quartz
and the force balancing which eliminates most non-linear effects these
sensors can be accurate to around 1PPM of full scale. Due to the
extremely fine fused quartz structures which are made by hand and
require expert skill to construct these sensors are generally limited to
scientific and calibration purposes. Non force-balancing sensors have
lower accuracy and reading the angular displacement cannot be done
with the same precision as a force-balancing measurement, although
easier to construct due to the larger size these are no longer used.
Other types
These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as
density) to infer pressure of a gas, or liquid.
Resonant
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Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to
measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.
This technology may be used in conjunction with a force collector, such
as those in the category above. Alternatively, resonant technology may
be employed by exposing the resonating element itself to the media,
whereby the resonant frequency is dependent upon the density of the
media. Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire, vibrating
cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS. Generally, this technology is
considered to provide very stable readings over time.
A pressure sensor, a resonant quartz crystal strain gauge with a bourdon
tube force collector is the critical sensor of DART. DART
detects tsunami waves from the bottom of the open ocean. It has a
pressure resolution of approximately 1mm of water when measuring
pressure at a depth of several kilometers.[6]
Thermal
Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes
to measure pressure. A common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.
Ionization
Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to
density changes to measure pressure. Common examples are the Hot and
Cold Cathode gauges.
Applications
There are many applications for pressure sensors:
Pressure sensing
This is where the measurement of interest is pressure, expressed as
a force per unit area. This is useful in weather instrumentation, aircraft,
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automobiles, and any other machinery that has pressure functionality
implemented.
Altitude sensing
This is useful in aircraft, rockets, satellites, weather balloons, and many
other applications. All these applications make use of the relationship
between changes in pressure relative to the altitude. This relationship is
governed by the following equation:
Flow sensing
This is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction with the venturi
effect to measure flow. Differential pressure is measured between two
segments of a venturi tube that have a different aperture. The pressure
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difference between the two segments is directly proportional to the flow
rate through the venturi tube. A low pressure sensor is almost always
required as the pressure difference is relatively small.
P = ρgh
where P = pressure, ρ = density of the fluid, g = standard gravity,
h = height of fluid column above pressure sensor
Leak testing
A pressure sensor may be used to sense the decay of pressure due to a
system leak. This is commonly done by either comparison to a known
leak using differential pressure, or by means of utilizing the pressure
sensor to measure pressure change over time.
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that they can withstand arduous conditions and thus use stringent quality
standards.
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Lecture ( 10 & 11 )
Sensors
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What is a Sensor? Different Types of Sensors and their Applications
All these and many other automation tasks are possible because of
Sensors. Before going in to the details of What is a Sensor, What are the
Different Types of Sensors and Applications of these different types of
Sensors, we will first take a look at a simple example of an automated
system, which is possible because of Sensors (and many other
components as well).
What is a Sensor?
Classification of Sensors
Different Types of Sensors
o Temperature Sensor
o Proximity Sensors
o Ultrasonic Sensor
o Light Sensor
o Alcohol Sensor
o Touch Sensor
o Color Sensor
o Humidity Sensor
o Tilt Sensor
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The example we are talking about here is the Autopilot System in
aircrafts. Almost all civilian and military aircrafts have the feature of
Automatic Flight Control system or sometimes called as Autopilot.
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All the parameters i.e., the Sensors (which give inputs to the
Computers), the Computers (the brains of the system) and the mechanics
(the outputs of the system like engines and motors) are equally important
in building a successful automated system.
What is a Sensor?
The term “input device” in the definition of a Sensor means that it is part
of a bigger system which provides input to a main control system (like a
Processor or a Microcontroller).
We can connect this LDR in a voltage divider (along with other resistor)
and check the voltage drop across the LDR. This voltage can be
calibrated to the amount of light falling on the LDR. Hence, a Light
Sensor.
Now that we have seen what a sensor is, we will proceed further with the
classification of Sensors.
Classification of Sensors
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In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and
Passive. Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation
signal or a power signal.
Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power
signal and directly generates output response.
The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors.
Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal
(usually voltage but sometimes other quantities like Resistance etc.) with
respect to the quantity being measured.
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1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. Accelerometer
4. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
5. Pressure Sensor
6. Light Sensor
7. Ultrasonic Sensor
8. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
9. Touch Sensor
10. Color Sensor
11. Humidity Sensor
12. Position Sensor
13. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
14. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
15. Tilt Sensor
16. Flow and Level Sensor
17. PIR Sensor
18. Touch Sensor
19. Strain and Weight Sensor
20. We will see about few of the above-mentioned sensors in
brief. More information about the sensors will be added
subsequently. A list of projects using the above sensors is given at
the end of the page.
21. .
Temperature Sensor
One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature
Sensor. A Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the
temperature i.e., it measures the changes in the temperature.
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There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature
Sensor ICs (like LM35, DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD
(Resistive Temperature Devices), etc.
Proximity Sensors
A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the
presence of an object. Proximity Sensors can be implemented using
different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or Laser), Sound
(Ultrasonic), Magnetic (Hall Effect), Capacitive, etc.
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Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)
IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in
various applications like Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are
used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile phones.
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The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the
transmitter and the detector are positioned adjacent to each other facing
the object. When an object comes in front of the sensor, the infrared
light from the IR Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected
by the IR Receiver and thus the sensor detects the object.
Ultrasonic Sensor
An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to
measure distance as well as velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor
works based on the properties of the sound waves with frequency greater
than that of the human audible range
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Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can
measure the distance of the object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler
Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the velocity of an
object.
Light Sensor
Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the
important sensors. A simple Light Sensor available today is the Light
Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of LDR is that its resistance is
inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when the
intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.
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There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which
can calculate intensity of light and provide a digital equivalent value.
Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and
industries. They can detect different gases like LPG, Propane,
Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas)
are also installed in most homes as a safety measure.
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The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting
CO, CO2, CH4, Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these
sensors to build your own Smoke Sensor Application.
Alcohol Sensor
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Touch Sensor
We do not give much importance to touch sensors but they became an
integral part of our life. Whether you know or not, all touch screen
devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have touch sensors in
them. Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our
laptops.
If you want to build an application with Touch Sensor, then there are
low-cost modules available and using those touch sensors, you can
build TOUCH DIMMER SWITCH CIRCUIT USING ARDUINO.
Color Sensor
A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications
in the field of image processing, color identification, industrial object
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tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple Color Sensor, which can detect
any color and output a square wave proportional to the wavelength of
the detected color.
Humidity Sensor
If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature
as well as humidity data. So, measuring humidity is an important task in
many applications and Humidity Sensors help us in achieving this.
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Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type
and Thermal Conductive Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the
frequently used Humidity Sensors in DIY Community (the former is a
resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).
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Tilt Sensor
Often used to detect inclination or orientation, Tilt Sensors are one of the
simplest and inexpensive sensors out there. Previously, tilt sensors are
made up of Mercury (and hence they are sometimes called as Mercury
Switches) but most modern tilt sensors contain a roller ball.
In this article, we have seen about What is a Sensor, what are the
classification of sensors and Different Types of Sensors along with their
practical applications. In the future, I will update this article with more
sensors and their applications.
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Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.
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Sensors
• Displacement Measurement
• Resistive Sensors
• Whetstone Bridge Circuits
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• Temperature Measurement
• Temperature Sensors
• Optical Measurements
• Solid-State Sensors
• MEMS Sensors
• Sensor Calibration
Transducers
a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
• take form of a sensor or an actuator
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Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
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Example Electronic Sensor Systems
Components vary with application
• digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller
• signal timing
• data storage
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Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
• thermocouple: temperature difference
• compass (magnetic): direction
•Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
• photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
• piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
• microaccelerometers: vibration, Δ-velocity (car crash)
• chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
• DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
Displacement Measurements
• Many biomedical parameters rely on measurements of size, shape, and
position of organs, tissue, etc.
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• require displacement sensors
• Examples
• (direct) diameter of blood vessel
Potentiometer
• Potentiometers produce output potential (voltage) change in
response to input (e.g., displacement) changes
• typically formed with resistive elements e.g. carbon/metal film
• V=I R
• produce linear output in response to displacement
• Example potentiometric displacement sensors
• Translational: small (~mm) linear displacements
• vo increases as xi increases
• Single-Turn: small (10-50º) rotational displacements
• vo increases as i increases
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Strain Gage: Basics
• Consider: strain (stretch) a thin wire (~25 m)
• its length increases and its diameter decreases
• results in increasing resistance of the wire
• Can be used to measure extremely small displacements, on
the order of nanometers
• For a rectangular wire
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Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials
Note:
• G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals
• due to stronger piezoresistive effect
• semiconductors have much higher TCR
• requires temperature compensation in strain gage
Strain Gage
• Unbonded strain gage: end points are anchored but material
between end points is unbonded
• Bonded strain gage: material is cemented to strained surface
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• Bonded strain gage
(a) resistive wire (b) foil type (c) helical wire
• temperature compensation
• unbonded ‘dummy’ strain gage
• direction of max sensitivity ?
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• Wheatstone bridge is a configuration variable and fixed
elements used to monitor small variations in the elements (and
optionally compensate for temperature effects)
• Consider first: resistive voltage divider
• Vout varies as RT changes
• readout method for 1 element sensor
1 variable/sensor element bridge configuration
• R3 is sensor element
• R4 set to match nominal value of R3
• If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
• Vout varies as R3 changes
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Wheatstone Bridge
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Semiconductor Strain Gage
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Inductive Displacement Sensors
Capacitive Sensors
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Piezoelectric Sensors
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Temperature Sensor Options
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Lecture ( 11 )
Simple Process Models. PID Control
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Introduction to control system Engineering
System:
A system is a collection of components which interact with each other
and with the environment (by information or energy links) from which
the system is separated by a notational boundary.
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Input:
• The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control
system.
• Typically from external energy source, usually in order to produce a
specified response from the control system.
Output:
• The output is the actual response obtained from a control system.
• It may or may not be equal to specified response implied by the input.
Control Engineering:
Control engineering or Control systems engineering is based on the
foundations of feedback theory and linear system analysis, and it
integrates the concepts of network theory and communication theory.
It is the engineering discipline that applies control theory to design
systems with predictable behaviors. The practice uses sensors to
measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a
vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the
input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance.
When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs
for correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for
regulating a car's speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems
engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems
mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.
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Why control is important (for production process / in
plant)?
(1) Safety:
Prevent injury to plant personnel, protect the environment by
preventing emission and minimizing waste and prevent damage
to the process equipment.
(2) Maintain product quality (composition, purity, color, etc.) on a
continuous basis and with minimum cost.
(3) Maintain plant production rate at minimum cost.
So, we can say that the reasons for automation of process plants are to
provide safety and at same time maintain desired product quality, high
plant throughput, and reduce demand on human labor.
Control system:
A control system is a system capable of monitoring and regulating the
operation of a process or a plant. The study of control system is
essentially a study of an important aspect of systems engineering and its
applications.
A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants)
assembled for the purpose of controlling the outputs of the process. For
example, a furnace produces heat as a result of the flow of fuel. In this
process, flow of fuel in the input, and heat to be controlled is the output.
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There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations
and combinations: logic or sequential controls, and feedback or linear
controls. There is also fuzzy logic, which attempts to combine some of
the design simplicity of logic with the utility of linear control. Some
devices or systems are inherently not controllable.
Controls are classified with respect to:
• technique involved to perform control (i.e. human/machines):
manual/automatic control
• Time dependence of output variable (i.e. constant/changing):
regulator/servo, (also known as regulating/tracking control)
• fundamental structure of the control (i.e. the information used for
computing the control): Open-loop/feedback control, (also known as
open-loop/closed-loop control)
Manual/Automatic Controls - Examples
A system that involves:
• a person controlling a machine is called manual control. Ex: Driving a car
• machines only is called a automatic control. Ex: Central AC
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In a closed loop control the system includes a sensor to measure the output and
uses feedback of the sensed value to influence the control input variable.
Examples of Open-Loop & Feedback Controls
Block Diagram
• It represents the structure of a control system.
• It helps to organize the variables and equations representing the control system.
• It is composed of:
– boxes, that represents the components of the system including their causality;
– Lines with arrows that represents the actual dynamic variables, such as speed,
pressure, velocity, etc.
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Generic Component
141
Block Diagram of an Elementary FEEDBACK Control •
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• Control input = external variable (signal/action) applied to the plant
• Controller = computes the desired control input variable
• Sensor = measures the actual output variable
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System configurations - open and closed loop systems
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Computer Controlled Systems
In modern systems, the controller (or compensator) is a digital
computer. The advantage of using a computer is that many loops can
be controlled or compensated by the same computer through time
sharing. Furthermore, any adjustments of the compensator parameters
required to yield a desired response can be made by changes in
software rather than hardware.
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Some definitions related to control systems:
Command input:
The motivating input signal to the system, which is independent of the
output of the system and exercises complete control over it (if the
system is completely controllable).
The unit that establishes the value of the reference input. The
reference selector is calibrated in terms of the desired value of the
system output.
Reference input.
The reference signal produced by the reference selector, i.e., the
command expressed in a form directly usable by the system. It is the
actual signal input to the control system.
Disturbance input.
An external disturbance input signal to the system that has an unwanted
effect on the system output.
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Output (controlled variable).
The quantity that must be maintained at a prescribed value, i.e.,
following the command input without respond-ing the disturbance
inputs.
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Lecture ( 12 )
Speed Control of DC Motors
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Lecture (13 )
FLOW-CONTROL VALVES
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FLOW-CONTROL VALVES
1.1 Introduction
Flow-control valves, as the name suggests, control the rate of flow of a fluid
through a hydraulic circuit. Flow-control valves accurately limit the fluid
volume rate from fixed displacement pump to or from branch circuits. Their
function is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed control of
rotary actuators. Typical application include regulating cutting tool speeds,
spindle speeds, surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically
supported loads moved upward and downward by forklifts, and dump lifts.
Flow-control valves also allow one fixed displacement pump to supply two or
more branch circuits fluid at different flow rates on a priority basis. Typically,
fixed displacement pumps are sized to supply maximum system volume flow
rate demands. For industrial applications feeding two or more branch circuits
from one pressurized manifold source, an oversupply of fluid in any circuit
operated by itself is virtually assured. Mobile applications that supply branch
circuits, such as the power steering and front end loader from one pump pose
a similar situation. If left unrestricted, branch circuits receiving an oversupply
of fluid would operate at greater than specified velocity, increasing the
likelihood of damage to work, hydraulic system and operator.
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2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the
flow to them:
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Thus, the law that governs the flow rate across a given orifice can be
approximately defined as:
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1.1.2.1 Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system
pressure is relatively constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The
operating principle behind these valves is that the flow through an orifice
remains constant if the pressure drop across it remains the same. In other
words, the rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure drop across
it.
The disadvantage of these valves is discussed below. The inlet pressure is the
pressure from the pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in
pressure occurs at the outlet that is defined by the work load. This implies that
the flow rate depends on the work load. Hence, the speed of the piston cannot
be defined accurately using non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves
when the working load varies. This is an extremely important problem to be
addressed in hydraulic circuits where the load and pressure vary constantly.
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control
valve is shown in Next Figure. It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It
consists of a screw (and needle) inside a tube-like structure. It has an
adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit. The size of
the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the
needle. For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice.
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Usually, charts are available that allow quick determination of the controlled
flow rate for given valve settings and pressure drops.
Sometimes needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling
the flow in one direction only.
The check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction without any
restrictions. As shown in Next Figure, only the flow from A to B is controlled
using the needle. In the other direction (B to A), the check valve permits
unrestricted fluid flow.
1.1.2.2Pressure-Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valvesovercome the difficulty causedby
non-pressure-compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in
relation to the changes in the system pressure. This is accomplished through a
spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of the orifice when
pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator acts
to keep the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback
mechanism from the outlet pressure. This keeps the flow through the orifice
nearly constant. Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control
valve is shown in Next Figure,
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and its graphical symbol in Next Figure. A pressure-compensated flow-control
valve consists of a main spool and a compensator spool. The adjustment knob
controls the main spool’s position, which controls the orifice size at the outlet.
The upstream pressure is delivered to the valve by the pilot line A.
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Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to the right side of the
compensator spool through the pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the
spool so that it tends toward the fully open position. If the pressure drop
across the valve increases, that is, the upstream pressure increases relative to
the downstream pressure, the compensator spool moves to the right against the
force of the spring. This reduces the flow that in turn reduces the pressure
drop and tries to attain an equilibrium position as far as the flow is concerned.
In the static condition, the hydraulic forces hold the compensator spool in
balance, but the bias spring forces it to the far right, thus holding the
compensator orifice fully open. In the flow condition, any pressure drop less
than the bias spring force does not affect the fully open compensator orifice,
but any pressure drop greater than the bias spring force reduces the
compensator orifice. Any change in pressure on either side of the control
orifice, without a corresponding pressure change on the opposite side of the
control orifice, moves the compensator spool. Thus, a fixed differential across
the control orifice is maintained at all times. It blocks all flow in excess of the
throttle setting. As a result, flow exceeding the preset amount can be used by
other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via a pressure-relief valve.
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Pressure- and temperature-compensated flow-control valve.
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1.2.1 Meter-In Circuit
Next Figure shows a meter-in circuit with control of extend stroke. The inlet
flow into the cylinder is controlled using a flow-control valve. In the return
stroke, however, the fluid can bypass the needle valve and flow through the
check valve and hence the return speed is not controlled. This implies that the
extending speed of the cylinder is controlled whereas the retracing speed is
not.
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1.2.2 Meter-Out Circuit
Next Figure shows a meter-out circuit for flow control during the extend
stroke. When the cylinder extends, the flow coming from the pump into the
cylinder is not controlled directly. However, the flow out of the cylinder is
controlled using the flow-control valve (metering orifice). On the other hand,
when the cylinder retracts, the flow passes through the check valve
unopposed, bypassing the needle valve. Thus, only the speed during the
extend stroke is controlled.
Both the meter-in and meter-out
circuits mentioned above
perform the same operation
(control the speed of the
extending stroke of the piston),
even though the processes are
exactly opposite to one another.
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1.2.3 Bleed-Off Circuit
Compared to meter-in and meter-out circuits, a bleed-off circuit is less
commonly used. Figure 1.10 shows a bleed-off circuit with extend stroke
control. In this type of flow control, an additional line is run through a flow-
control valve back to the tank. To slow down the actuator, some of the flow is
bledoff through the flow-control valve into the tank before it reaches the
actuator. This reduces the flow into the actuator, thereby reducing the speed of
the extend stroke.
The main difference between a bleed-off circuit and a meter-in/meter-out
circuit is that in a bleed-off circuit, opening the flow-control valve decreases
the speed of the actuator, whereas in the case of a meter-in/meter-out circuit, it
is the other way around.
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Solved Example 1
A 55-mm diameter sharp-edged orifice is placed in a pipeline to measure the
flow rate. If the measured pressure drop is 300 kPa and the fluid specific
gravity is 0.90, find the flow rate in units of . m3 /s
Solution: For a sharp-edged orifice, we can write
where Q is the volume flow rate in LPM, Cv is the capacity coefficient = 0.80
for the sharp-edge orifice, c = 0.6 for a square-edged orifice, A is the area of
orifice opening in mm2, Δp is the pressure drop across the orifice (kPa) and
SG is the specific gravity of the flowing fluid = 0.9. Now,
Solved Example 2
For a given orifice and fluid, a graph can be generated showing Δp versus Q
relationship. For the orifice and fluid in Example 1, plot the curves and check
the answers obtained mathematically. What advantage does the graph have
over the equation? What is the disadvantage of the graph?
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Solution: From Example 1, we have
From the graph, corresponding to Δp = 300 kPa, we get Q = 2950 LPM which
is close to 2953.3 LPM. A graph is quicker to use but is not as accurate as the
equation. A pressure gauge can be calibrated (according to this relationship)
to read Q directly rather than Δp
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Solved Example 3
The system shown in Next Figure has a hydraulic cylinder with a suspended
load W. The cylinder piston and rod diameters are 50.8 and 25.4 mm,
respectively. The pressure-relief valve setting is 5150 kPa.
Determine the pressure p2 for a constant cylinder speed:
(a) W = 8890 N
(b) W = 0 ( load is removed)
(c) Determine the cylinder speeds for parts (a) and (b) if the flow-control
valve has a capacity coefficient of 0.72 LPM√ kPa . The fluid is hydraulic oil
with a specific gravity of 0.090.
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Lecture ( 14 )
Mechatronics Examples of control systems
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Mechatronics Examples of control systems
Historical Perspective
Attempts to construct automated mechanical systems have a fascinating
history. The term “automation” was not popularized until the 1940s
when it was coined by the Ford Motor Company to denote a process in
which a machine transferred a subassembly item from one station to
another and then positioned the item precisely for additional assembly
operations. But successful development of automated mechanical
systems occurred long before then. For example, early applications of
automatic control systems appeared in Greece from 300 to 1 BC, with
the development of float regulator mechanisms.
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Further evolution in automation was enabled by advancements in control
theory traced back to the Watt flyball governor of 1769. The flyball
governor, was used to control the speed of a steam engine . Employing a
measurement of the speed of the output shaft and utilizing the motion of
the flyball to control the valve, the amount of steam entering the engine
is controlled. As the speed of the engine increases, the metal spheres on
the governor apparatus rise and extend away from the shaft axis, thereby
closing the valve. This is an example of a feedback control system where
the feedback signal and the control actuation are completely coupled in
the mechanical hardware.
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expanding in capability from automation to increasingly higher levels of
autonomy in the twenty-first century.
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References
1- Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement systems, fifth edition
David G. Alciatore Copyright c 2019 by McGraw-Hill