International Journal of Coal Geology, 13 (1989) 413-435 413

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

C o a l i f i c a t i o n t r e n d s in I n d i a n coals

D. CHANDRA 1and N.C. CHAKRABARTI2

1Department o[ Applied Geology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India
2Department of Applied Geology, Geological Survey of India, 27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road,
Calcutta 700 016, India
(Received March 1, 1988; revised and accepted November 23, 1988)

ABSTRACT

Chandra, D. and Chakrabarti, N.C., 1989. Coalification trends in Indian coals. In: P.C. Lyons and
B. Alpern (Editors), Coal: Classification, Coalification, Mineralogy, Trace-element Chemistry,
and Oil and Gas Potential. Int. J. Coal Geol., 13: 413-435.

A study of the coalification trends of Indian coals, covering a wide range of geological age (Per-
mian, Eocene to Pleistocene ), shows a progressive transition in physico-chemical and optical
properties from peat to semianthracite. The relation between the maximum reflectance in oil of
huminite/vitrinite and volatile matter (or fixed carbon) has been found to be similar to that of
the normally coalified British Carboniferous coals.
Also the coalification trend of Indian coals, measured in terms of elemental carbon and hydro-
gen, appears to follow Seyler's band, and is similar to the normally coalified British Carboniferous
coals. Although coals of the two hemispheres follow the same normal coalification course, their
physical, chemical and petrographical characters differ depending on the petrographic composi-
tion, i.e., the macerals, microlithotype and mineral-matter contents. The petrographic composi-
tion of a coal appears to be essentially controlled by the nature of the peat, paleodepth, paleotem-
perature and paleoheating in the coal basins.

INTRODUCTION

Coalification denotes an orderly increase in rank from peat to meta-anthra-

cite. Diagenesis and catagenesis, in that order of intensity of coalification, are
the two major processes that bring about the changes during coalification of
bituminous and lower-rank coals. There is a wide variation in the processes
responsible for coalification. A number of factors, like paleodepositional en-
vironment, lithostatic pressure due to depth of burial, temperature, duration
of heating, and post-tectonic transformation, mainly by intrusives, have played
important roles in influencing the properties of coal. These changes left im-
prints that are now indicated by the chemical properties, reflectance, maceral
and microlithotype composition, and fluorescence characters of the coal. These
parameters reveal clues to the genesis of coal.

0166-5162/89/$03.50 © 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

414

To establish the coalification trend, these parameters have to be measured

and interpreted. The sequential events are mainly controlled by pressure, time,
and temperature in a basin and result in a progressive increase in rank, but it
is very difficult to know the interplay of these factors during coalification.
However, the systematic changes occurring during different stages of coalifi-
cation are established (Teichmfiller et al., 1975).
Coal is the end product of chemical processes whereby peat underwent
changes in terms of the loss or degradation of cellulose, lignin and protein, and
other organic compounds. In the initial stages of coalification, biochemical
processes played a vital role. Later, geochemical processes transformed the
biochemical products into the present-day coal.
The purpose of the present investigation is to examine the factors control-
ling the coalification trends in Indian coals. In the process, the variations in
chemical composition, paleodepositional environments, rank and petro-
graphic make-up of the different coal seams of India are critically examined.

GEOLOGIC SETTING

India was a part of Gondwanaland. Ninety-nine percent of the commercial

coals in India are Gondwana coals of Permian age. The remainder is Tertiary
coals and lignites. The geok gical distribution of coal in India is shown in Table
1. The occurrences of different coalfields in India are shown in Figure 1.

Physico-chemical characters of Indian coals

Peat occurs in many places in India, including the outskirts of the city of
Calcutta. Here the peat is amorphous (Pleistocene to Holocene), moist to the
touch, sooty black, sometimes brownish and easily splittable. Humified, dark,
soft unconsolidated layers, 5-10 mm thick and freely admixed with clastic de-
tritus, are easily available in the buried channel system. Low moisture content
(12.3%, air dried), high ash (51.5%) and volatile matter (74.9%, d.m.f.) con-
tents characterize the Calcutta peat. As the ash content is greater than 50%,
technically Calcutta peat is peaty clay (see Cameron et al., 1989).
Lignites of Palana, Barmer and Neyveli (Fig. 1 ) contain moisture 6.9-15.8%
(air dried) and volatile matter 52.2-64.3% (d.m.f.). These lignites are brown
to dark brown in colour.
In Assam, the Tertiary coals are intermediate in rank between lignite and
bituminous coal. They differ from those occurring in the other parts of the
country because of their greater compactness with conspicuous banding, black
colour, lower moisture (0.9-1.2%, air dried), and variable volatile-matter (42.9-
47.9%, d.m.f.) contents. These are lignitous coal according to Seyler's classi-
fication (Seyler, 1938).
Indian bituminous coals of Permian age are brightly banded. The vitrain
 415

TABLE 1

Geological distribution of coal in India

Coalfields Geological horizons Localities

Early Pleistocene to Lignites in the Karewa formations of Kashmir Valley
Upper Pliocene
Miocene Lignites in the Cuddalore Series of South Arcot,
Tamil Nadu, and Varkala and Quilon in Kerala.
Tertiary Oligocene to Upper Lignites in the Barail Series, in Jaipur, Nazira, and
coalfields Eocene Makum coalfields of Upper Assam; Namchik and
Namphuk coalfields of Arunachal Pradesh
Middle Eocene Lignites of Palana, Rajasthan; lignites of Kutch.
Lower Eocene Coals in the Jaintia Series of Cherrapunji, Mawlong
and Shillong in the Khasi and Jaintia hills; Garo and
Mikir hills, Assam; coalfields of Western Assam
Daranggiri, Rongrenggiri in the Garo hills; Jammu
coalfields - Kalakot, Metka, Mahogala, Chakar,
Dhanswal Sawalkot.

Upper Upper Jurassic Chikiala and Kota in the Kota Stage in Maharashtra;
Gondwana Satpura region, in Jabalpur Stage, Madhya Pradesh;
coalfields and Ghuneri in Kutch below the Umia Stage.

Upper Permian Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro and Karanpura coalfields of

the Damodar Valley in West Bengal and Bihar.
Lower Lower Permian All Lower Gondwana coalfields of the Indian
Gondwana Peninsula, including Damodar Valley, Mahanadi
coalfields Valley, Brahmani Valley, Sone Valley, Pench-Kanhan
Valley, Pranhita-Godavari Valley and Wardha Valley;
coalfields of the Eastern Himalayas; Darjeeling
district of West Bengal; Ranjit Valley in Sikkim. Abor,
Daphla and Aka hills of Assam.

bands are of variable thickness (generally 1-5 mm). Coal seams are usually
thick and interbanded with distinct partings that contribute to the high ash
contents of Indian coals.
The physico-chemical alteration in the initial stage of coalification (i.e., dia-
genesis) involves reduction in moisture and volatile-matter contents with in-
creasing depth. This is mainly caused by compaction and decomposition and
alteration of plant matter during burial. The different stages of coalification
directly relate to the hydrogen, carbon and volatile-matter contents of the coals.
The relation between the maximum reflectance in oil of vitrinite (Ro max)
and volatile-matter contents of Indian coals (Fig. 2 ) indicates a gradual change
in volatile-matter contents from the lowest-rank peat (Calcutta "peat", Fig.
416

SCALE

~-~ 52" "" -- 53

I I . AUmU,IGA ~3. U~RIA

12 HUTAR 34. EORAR
13. OALTON6$~J 35. PENCH" K~qHAN
14. R&JMAHAL 36. TAWA VALLEY
tS. DEOGARH ~,7. IB RIVER
~E. GIRIDIH 38. TALCHER
ii R MAORJcS 17 TATAPANI 39. W&RDHA VALLEY
18. RAbIKOLA 40, KAMPTEE
19. SINGRAULI 41. UMRER
20 BiSRAMP~UR 42 BANOER
21 .JHILIMILI 43 600AVARY VALLEY
22. SONHAT 44. HIMALAYAN FIELDS
TERTIARY COALFIELDS
........... ,o . . . . . . . .
4(I. MAKUM . OARRANGIRI
47. OILLI-JEYPORE 52. $1JU
4e. NAZIRA 5:5. CHERRAPUNJI
49. LAKHUNt S4. KALAKOT
TERTIARY LIGNITE FIELDS
55. NEYVELI 57. PALANA
56, UMARSAR]LAKHPAT 58. NICHAHOM

;," ~ .'o" ~"

I I

Fig. 1. Permian and Tertiary coalfields of India.

2) to the semianthracite of Metka and Kalakot coalfields of J a m m u (Fig. 2),

under normal conditions of coalification. The mean curve is obtained by plot-
ting Ro max against volatile-matter contents of the normal British Carbonifer-
ous coals by Chandra (1965a) as shown in Figure 2, which is a normal coali-
fication curve. It will be observed that Indian coals of different geological ages
(Table 1) follow the same curve (Fig. 2).
The relationship between the Ro m~ and fixed-carbon contents of Indian
coals is shown in Figure 3. For comparison, the mean curve for normal British
 417
80

I /~ Peat Calcuttaj West Bengal

• Lignite Palana, Ra]asthon
75- A
Neyveli~ Tamil Nodu
Sarmer ~ Rajasthan
® Coal Makum~ Assam
70-
EE~ Kofhagudam~ Andhra Pradeeh
[] - Srahmani, Orissa
[] - Ib-RiverjOrissa
65-
~ ,, TaLcher~ Orissa

~AX Rajmahat ~ Bihar

L Upper Balkudra seamjSouth Karanpura~Sihar
60- Rajna(Jar'~Sohogpur coalfield j Madhya Pradesh
Bijurij SohocJpurcoalfieidj Madhyo Prodesh
(I) ~J Sohorjuri~Deo0arh coalf eld~B bar
55- Rakhikol seam T ~Pench ~ Kanhan coalfieldj M. P.
m

~X Kargoli seamj Bokaro ¢oalfield~ Bihar J

tD " Domagorio seam~ Roniganj coal field,West Bengal
~ 50- 01~" Jharia ~X'ffand T seamsjJhar[a coolfield~Sihar
Seam I ~Sohag pur ( Baheraband ), Modhyo Prodesh
Rajaroh~ Daitonganj c¢alfield,Bihar
Metka~ Kalakot coalfields~Jammu
~ 45-

.2

•.. 40-

\
35

30 \
®~\\0
\
25
\
\
\
~20 \
\
",¢
15-

\
\
I0-
\
\

5-

O i i I I t i i
0 '0!51 II 1"5 2"0 2 !5 3!0 3!5 4!0 4!5 5'0

(Romax) ~,~
Fig. 2. Relationship between volatile matter (wt.% d.m.f.) and Ro m~x of huminite/vitrinite at
different stages of coalification in India.
418

Carboniferous coals as obtained by Chandra (1962, 1965b) is drawn in Figure

3. It is to be noticed that the relationship between R . . . . and fixed-carbon
contents of Indian coals of various geological ages (Table 1 ) follows the same
normal curve for the British Carboniferous coals.
The relationship between the elemental carbon and hydrogen contents of
Indian coals is shown in Seyler's diagram (Fig. 4). It will be observed that the
plots of elemental carbon and hydrogen contents of Indian coals follow Seyler's
band, which was originally constructed by plotting carbon and hydrogen of
normal regionally coalified, brightly banded British Carboniferous coals (Sey-
ler, 1938). The Seyler's band is, therefore, indicative of the path of normal
coalification.
It may be observed from Figure 4 that some of the plots of Indian coals,
belonging to the lignitous group of Seyler, are scattered above and below Sey-
ler's band. The scattered plots are linearly disposed parallel to Seyler's band
(Fig. 4). The maximum deviation is +0.3% hydrogen above the upper limit
and -0.3% hydrogen below the lower limit of Seyler's band. It is significant
that the scatter of the plots (0.3% hydrogen) is symmetrically distributed above
and below Seyler's band.
It is to be noticed that beyond 84% carbon, i.e., with the onset of Bituminous
coal rank of Seyler's classification, the plots of elemental carbon and hydrogen
of Indian coals tend to follow Seyler's band almost exactly (Fig. 4).
The best type of Carboniferous coking coals of Great Britain are of ortho-
and meta-bituminous coal rank of Seyler (Fig. 4) (Seyler, 1948). It is remark-
able that Indian prime coking coals of Permian age also fall exactly within the

40
i
3"5

E
3'0

\
~ 25
E
x
~ 2"0 x
\

"~
0 15
.E
~ ro

~ 0'5
--[~" . . . . . "~-~I . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ....
I I t I I , , , ~ I , t i , I S I , , I I I I i I I I I I I , I I I I ' I I I
95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55

Carbon wt. Z (d.m.f.)

Fig. 3. Relationship between elemental carbon (d.m.f.) and R .... of vitrinite/huminite macerals
in Indian coals.
 419
7"0

A 1
- - ~,=,~, ~6t~-~- - - ' ~ -
6'0
^ para mete C)~,c~-
;~ r;lortho

E ..o ~,~ - - -

""50
I _ l__

or bono ¢eou$ -~.~,

t,-
0 4"0
-Semianthraci~
P nthrocit e / ~ / / 7 ~
g r ° u P ~ / ~ S e y l e r ' s coGlificationband
I 3o

IIi
2"0 I I I I I I
I00 95 90 85 80 75 70 65

Carbon wt. 7. (d.m.f.)

Fig. 4. Relationship between elemental carbon (wt.% d.m.f.) and hydrogen (wt.% d.m.f.) contents
of Indian coals.

ortho- and meta-bituminous coal range of Seyler's classification (Mukherjee

et al., 1982; Kumar, 1984; Chatterjee, 1985).
In Great Britain, hard foundry cokes are obtained from the meta-bituminous
coals of South Wales and Durham (Seyler, 1948). Similarly, the meta-bitu-
minous Permian coals of the Jharia coalfield in India also are hard foundry
cokes.
The Tertiary coals of J a m m u (Metka, Kalakot and Mahogala coalfields)
vary from semi-bituminous to carbonaceous rank of Seyler (Fig. 4). Petro-
graphically, they show semi-anthracitic characters.
The absence of anthracite in Indian coals indicates that the coalification
conditions (particularly temperature and pressure) were not high enough to
produce anthracite in India.

DEPOSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICSOF INDIAN COALS

The biochemical and geochemical changes during diagenesis and metamor-

phism control the entire process of coalification. The influence of temperature,
pressure, and duration of heating during burial gradually transforms peat to
coal.
The burial history of peat differs in temperature and in tropical zones. The
accumulation rate of tropical peat is 3-4 mm per year (see also Cameron et al.,
1989 ) in contrast to lower values of 1-1.3 m m per year in the subtropical areas,
and 0.5-1 m m per year in the temperate regions (Anderson, 1964). The im-
portant process during the peatification is the formation of humic substances
that are mainly controlled by the oxygen supply, temperature, and alkalinity
420

of the peat swamp. Peatification embraces microbial and chemical changes

during peat formation (Teichmiiller et al., 1975). Climate, ecology, and Eh
value (redox potential) have a pronounced influence on the bacterial activity
during peatification. Humic acid is released from the lignite due to oxidation,
and huminite becomes a typical coalification product. The degree of humifi-
cation depends not only on the depth, but also on the facies. The peat and soft
brown coal (lignite) boundary is placed at a depth of 200-400 m (Teichmiiller
et al., 1975). At this depth, gradual degradational diagenetic changes bring
about a progressive increase in carbon and a decrease in moisture content of
the peat. In fact, moisture and elemental carbon contents are the two main
parameters for the distinction between peat and soft brown coal (lignite). The
optimum temperatures needed for cellulose-destroying peat bacteria in tropi-
cal areas are between 35 and 40 ° C; in the temperate zone they fall to 24-28 ° C.
Calcutta "peat", which occurs in a tropical climate, is supposed to have ex-
perienced higher temperatures, greater depth of burial and more acidic condi-
tions. The resultant end-product has lower moisture (12.3 %, air dried) and a
high volatile-matter content (74.9%, d.m.f.). The high ash content (51.5%) is
from stream-deposited detritus that makes it a peaty clay.
Differences in physico-chemical characters between Indian lignite and those
of the Ruhr Basin, Federal Republic of Germany, suggest an entirely different
paleodepositional history. The compositional differences in moisture (6.9-
26.6% ), ash (3.8-40.7%), volatile matter (39.4-64.3%), hydrogen (4.5-5.4%)
and total sulphur (0.9-3.7%) observed in Indian lignites of Eocene to Pleis-
tocene age (Table 1 ) are due to different processes of biochemical coalification,
perhaps, due to variable depth of peat burial which restricted the access of free
oxygen and, thus, retarded the decaying action of aerobic bacteria.
The following are the several requisites necessary for the biochemical changes
to produce lignite from peat:
(1) periodic wetness and dryness of the peat;
(2) a moderate degree of aeration;
(3) preferably an alkaline (pH 8-8.5) and low acidic medium (pH 5-6);
(4) presence of microorganisms during accumulation and degradation.
Lignite usually becomes darker if it contains a high proportion of humic
substances that are severely biochemically gelified and shows increase in re-
flectance values of huminite macerals. Abundance of pyrite of both framboidal
and microcrystalline forms in lignite from Palana (Rajasthan), Barmer (Ra-
jasthan) and Lakhpat (Gujarat), and in Tertiary lignitous coals of Assam
(Makum coals) have generated a number of opinions on the origin of pyrite
and related paleodepositional environments. The earliest formed pyrite is usu-
ally preserved as framboids and associated microcrystalline forms that are fol-
lowed by non-framboidal granular to massive aggregates (Chaudhuri et al.,
1982). These forms are all pre-compactional forms, whereas massive pyrite
occurs as small irregular epigenetic veins within other textures and is consid-
 421

ered to be of postcompactional origin (Love et al., 1983). This pre-compac-

tional pyrite is related to the influx of marine aqueous sulphate after deposition
of the peat (Lyons et al., 1989). Primary siderite (FeCO3) formed before ma-
rine transgression can also be transformed to pyrite by ascending or descend-
ing H2S in solution (Smyth, 1966). The impregnation of pyrite in coal con-
stituents (in huminite and fusinite) may occur during coalification or after
coalification. Recent studies on the distribution of sulphur in peat-forming
environments of southern Florida by Cohen et al. (1984) have established that
marine to brackish peat contains more pyrite (and total sulphur) than the
fresh-water type. The foregoing observations are in agreement with the ma-
rine-influenced lignite, especially Tertiary lignite from Rajastha11, Gujarat and
lignitous coals of Assam.
Lignite from Neyveli (Fig. 1), perhaps, has undergone a lower degree of
decomposition which resulted in the preservation of woody tissues (Chandra,
1958). The moisture content up to 14.7 (air dried), lower sulphur (less than
1.0), and lower rank of huminite (Ro max 0.30% ), of this lignite indicates their
shallower depth of burial in a deltaic to near-shore backswamp paleoenviron-
ment (Sidhanta, 1986). It shows more affinity to peat than woody lignite noted
elsewhere.
Mackowsky (1953) suggested that the mode of formation of soft brown coal
(lignite) is different from that of hard brown coal (lignite), and that there is
no transition from one to the other. It is also noticed that soft brown coal
resembles mature peat in composition and most properties. In fact, peat can
be converted to hard coals by the application of temperature and pressure
(Francis, 1961 ). In India, Fox (1931) confirmed that Eocene lignite of Palana
(Fig. 1 ) had formed from the peat initially deposited under marine conditions.
Later the peat was exposed to the air due to the regression of sea. According to
Fox (1931), as a result of this exposure of the peat to the air due to the regres-
sion of sea, the process of coal formation was totally arrested. As such, further
enhancement of rank could not take place. There was partial conversion of
cellulose, lignin and protein to humus or humic acid under low-temperature
oxidation conditions. Paucity of resins, tannin, pigments, and wax in cell walls
in Indian lignites suggests very slow processes of biochemical coalification,
which inhibited the development of fluorescent characters.
The Oligocene coals of the Makum coalfield, Assam, were also marine-influ-
enced during deposition. Dynamic folding and heating during the Himalayan
orogeny enhanced their rank from lignite to lignitous coal, according to Sey-
ler's classification.
The physico-chemical characters of the bituminous ~ a l s of India vary lat-
erally and vertically in coal seams in the major Gondwana Permian basins.
The degree of coalification as indicated by volatile matter and R . . . . shows a
normal increase with depth (Table 2). The coal seams from depths of 900 m
and above in the Jharia and East Bokaro coalfields indicate changes in rank
422

TABLE2

Variation in volatile matter and vitrinite Ro maxwith depth in a few borehole sections of Gondwana
coalfields (Permian) of India

Coalfields and borehole Depth range V.M. range Reflectance

(m) (wt. % d.m.f. ) range
(R . . . . )

Saharjuri (SJ-2) 270.7- 395.7 41.2-32.9 0.62-0.66

Jharia (JKP-5) 213.8- 991.9 29.5-18.7 1.40-1.80
East Bokaro (EB-38) 954.5-1212.3 29.8-22.0 0.79-1.70
South Karanpura (SKP-2/1) 366.8- 739.5 39.1-36.5 0.66-0.84
Sohagpur (SBJ-31) 209.5- 426.2 34.5-26.2 0.89-1.01

TERRESTRIAL
B
lO0~

C too~,/ \too% A+D

_ \FOREST MOOR

\O E OOR/
/ A = Duroclorite
~ / B = Vitri nertite I + Fusite
~ / C = Vitrite + Clorife+Vitrinertite V
V O = Durite + Clorodunte
tO0
D
LIMNIC
Fig. 5. Microlithotype composition of a few major Gondwana coal seams of India plotted on a
facies diagram (after Hacquebard and Donaldson, 1969).
 423

and morpho-physical characters and petrographic composition mainly due to

variation of temperature and pressure with depth (Fig. 1; Chakrabarti and
Bardhan, 1986). But it is yet to be ascertained how the paleodepositional en-
vironments differed during coal sedimentation. A study of certain coal seams
of Gondwana basins of India suggests contrasting paleodepositional environ-
mental patterns that resulted in compositional (both maceral and microlith-
otype ) variation in the seams. Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969) have shown
that different paleoenvironments of coal deposition are related to the depth of
water in the peat swamps which affected both the types of vegetation developed
and mode of preservation of petrographic entities. The characteristics of dif-
ferent microlithotypes of various moor environments are accordingly identi-
fied. These are Forest Terrestrial Moor (FTR), Reed Moor (RM) and Forest
Moor (FM) and Open Moor (OM). A four-component peat facies diagram is
developed following the work of Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969). It is based
on microlithotype composition of the Indian coal seams as represented in a
diagram (Fig. 5 ) with four apices showing duroclarite (A); vitrinertite I (where
inertinite > vitrinite ) and fusite (B); vitrite + c larite + vitrinertite V (where
vitrinite > inertinite) (C); and durite + clarodurite (D). These are the domi-
nant microlithotypes that occur in Indian coals. Figure 5 suggests that most of
the deposition of Indian coals was in Forest Terrestrial Moor to Forest Moor.
These have resulted from deposition under dry conditions above the water
table and also from periodic submergence of the peat swamp due to rise in
water level, thus inundating the entire swamp area in some parts of the basin
(Chakrabarti, 1985). This accounts for fusain-rich or vitrain-poor seams in
the basins. The paleoecological pattern suggests deposition in telmatic to limno-
telmatic water-table conditions which explain the compositional variation in
the coal seams in the Indian coalfields from east to west (Fig. 7 ). Paleodepths
of 1800-4000 m involving paleotemperatures of 80-220°C (Fig. 7) probably
controlled the formation of the major coal seams in the Indian basins. It is
apparent that low-aquatic to subaquatic depositional conditions evolved to dry
terrestrial deposition conditions along with the progressive shallowing of the
basins, which was accompanied by intensive oxidation from east to west. Vi-
trite + clarite in the seams of the Raniganj and Jharia coalfields in the east,
gives way to "intermediate" and durite + fusite composition in the coalfields
of the west (Fig. 7). The changing diagenetic conditions due to variations of
depth, temperature and heating were instrumental in affecting the coalifica-
tion trends.

RANK STUDY, PALEOTEMPERATURE AND PALEODEPTH OF COAL BASINS IN

INDIA

The determination of rank in assessing the degree of maturity of organic

matter and establishment of coalification trends are of immense importance.
424

Several parameters are taken into consideration of rank determinations, such

as, volatile matter, elemental carbon, hydrogen and reflectance in oil of hu-
minite/vitrinite. The reflectance values of vitrinite and reflectance anisotropy
have been successfully applied for estimating temperature and pressure con-
ditions in coal basins (Chandra, 1964, 1965c; Bostick, 1974; Hower and Davis,
1981).
The rank enhancement in a coal seam is pressure-temperature and time
oriented (Chandra, 1965d). Several factors are responsible for determining
rank of a coal in a basin. These are: (1) exposure of the strata to high temper-
ature for brief duration due to igneous intrusions; (2) high heat flow from the
basement; (3) depth of burial and depth of basement and thermal conductivity
of rock enclosing the coal seams; and (4) tectonic shearing of coal-bearing
strata with or without high heat generation (Chandra, 1965c; Strauss et al.,
1976; Bustin, 1984).
It is now imperative to know the intensity of heat flow that prevailed during
coalification in the basins that preserve the coal sequences in India. A close
perusal of reflectance-temperature-time nomograms by Middleton (1982, fig.
2 ) for the Sydney basin, Australia, shows how at a given time, the reflectance
of vitrinite varies in different basins. The paleogeothermal gradient recon-
structed following the work of Huck and Karweil (1953) shows two distinct
trends of paleogeothermal gradient in the coal basins of I o cia. The first is 4 °C
per 100 m and another above 5 ° C per 100 m which, in fact, demarcate the field
of high and low rank coal regimes (Fig. 6).
The level of coalification also depends on the thermal history of the strata.
The slow and gradual rise of paleogeothermal gradient over a prolonged period
of time causes a gradual increase in reflectance. The sudden rise in temperature
due to basic intrusives within coal seams also enhances the rank, but much
more rapidly. This leads to thermally metamorphosed coals. In this case, the
chemical composition of the thermally metamorphosed coals follows a line
joining the original composition (elemental carbon and hydrogen) with 100%
carbon plotted on a Seyler's diagram (Chandra, 1963, 1965c ). The relationship
between R . . . . and volatile matter of thermally metamorphosed coals deviates
from that of normal coal. For the same carbon content, thermally metamor-
phosed coal shows a higher reflectance (Ro max) than normal coal (Chatterjee
et al., 1964).
The paleotemperatures determined from a nomogram after Middleton (1982)
indicate that the temperatures between 80 and 120 °C control the coalification
for attainment of rank between Ro max0.40 and 0.60% in the Indian basins. The
higher-rank coals of the Raniganj, Jharia, East Bokaro, Baheraband (Sohag-
pur) and Rakhikol-Seam I (Pench-Kanhan valley coalfield) (Fig. 1) are in-
dicated by higher R . . . . values greater than 0.90% due to temperatures at-
tained between 160 and 220 ° C. The corresponding paleodepth is estimated to
be from 1600 m to 4000 m (Bostick, 1974). The progressive decrease in the
 425

• Q

O
500
High ronk coat

IOOC

E
1500
J~
G
E3 INDEX
0 dharia (JKP)
2000
Bokaro ( E B )
C) Sohagpur (SBJ)
Sahorjuri ( S J )
IR SouthKoronpuro (SKP)
2500

0 I0 20 30 40
Volatile matter wt. ,~ (d.m.f.)

Fig. 6. Estimatedcourseof coalificationand paleogeothermalgradientsfor a fewboreholesections

in India (after Huckand Karweil, 1953).

rank, vitrite and clarite constituents, paleotemperature, paleodepth and in-

crease in durite + fusite constituents from east to west in the coal seams is
shown in Figure 7. It is concluded that shallowing of the basin in general influ-
enced the maturity of coal in the basins of India.
The rank can also be evaluated by another parameter, namely, anisotropic
character of the vitrinite. The normal increase in rank in the borehole profiles
due to increase in temperature is quite evident, but the effect of pressure on
coal metamorphism is least understood. A distinction has been made between
chemical and physico-structural changes in coalification (Dulhunty, 1954;
Teichmilller et al., 1975) and is reflected in optical anisotropy. Vitrinite re-
flectance anisotropy is indicative of a pressure effect, as pressure promotes the
optical anisotropy which is apparent from the bireflectance (Chandra, 1965c;
Goodarzi, 1985). Vitrinite in bituminous coal is known to be optically aniso-
tropic (Chandra, 1965c, d). As the rank increases, volatile matter is decreased
or fixed carbon increased with a concomitant rise in anisotropy through pro-
gressive adjustment of predominantly aromatic lamellae in the bedding plane
due to increasing load or other pressure. This anisotropy appears in vitrinite
in Indian coal at Ro max 0.45% and is more pronounced above 0.90%. A pro-
gressive increase in rank and the rise in overburden pressure have the effect of
producing a degree of orientation in the aromatic lamellae which results in a
 .,,.,.~
")% "'2 :T)
;' < 30-
,t.f '/ ~ j , ,/"%. - - VITRITE
- • + CLARITE
'~,PI£NC.HANO"~"~, f" %' /2 \.~~..~c~--~ ~ ) 1
~KANHAN JHAR~,~ t 60--
VALLEY • • "~ .,'~" MJ ~ VITRINERT,TE-I AND V~
e, IINTERMEDIATES ~'
;>-
40--
%WAe0MA /
I,- m pURWE+ FUSITE
20-
U

WARDHA VALLEY :~ENCH AND KANHAN JHARIA RANIGANJ FEMPERATURE(°C)

SEAMS SEAMS SEAMS SEAMS
"~ 1500 m-'- IWARD HA VALLEY ( NOT TO SCALE) X
E O
o R 0 mox 0'5 ~ 0 " 7 ~ E
rr 80°C
~" 2000 m- [
~z c )Z
VOLUME % E
I--

f
o }ENCH AND KANHAN Q.
I RANIGANJ
< ~ 3ooom- Ro max 0 " 8 - - r 0 2
"E" Ro max 0"7--1'5 % ,oo°c
oILl
JHARIA t .160=C >
3500m- VOLUME % O ~o7, ~ooZ
R o max 1'1~1"6~
VOLUME Z

_220°C
q.OOOm soX ,ooX
WEST ( N O T TO SCALE) VOLUME 7. :AST
)
1SANYAL AND SUBRAMANIAN, 1977 "BOSTICK ~ 1 9 7 4 3 MIDDLETON, 1982

?ig. 7. E s t i m a t e d course of coalification assuming various t e m p e r a t u r e paleogradients in a few borehole sections.

 427

gradual increase in the bireflectance of the coal [(Ro m~-Ro mean)/Romax]

(Hower et al., 1981; Levine and Davis, 1989).
It has been shown that by plotting Ro m~ (maximum reflectance in oil) against
Ro r, in (minimum reflectance in oil) in a diagram (Fig. 2, Chandra, 1963) nor-
mal coals can be distinguished from thermally metamorphosed coals. Also a
distinction can be made between coals thermally metamorphosed under nor-
mal atmospheric pressure (referred to as without excess pressure) and under
pressure (mentioned as with pressure).
Indian coals have been thermally metamorphosed mostly by mica peridotite
dykes and sills and rarely by dolerite dykes. By studying anisotropy, all the
Indian coals have so far been found to be thermally metamorphosed without
excess pressure.
It has been observed that the volatile displacement of thermally metamor-
phosed coals, like that of the carbonized coals, exceeds + 2.5% (Chandra, 1988;
Chandra and Srivastava, 1980). Volatile displacement is the difference be-
tween experimentally determined V.M. (volatile matter) and calculated V.M.,
i.e., V.M. (experimental) - V.M. (calculated).
The calculated V.M. can be obtained from the following equation:
V.M. (calculated) = 10.61 H - 1.24 C +84.15
where H and C are elemental hydrogen and carbon contents.
Seyler (1938, 1948) introduced the concept of volatile displacement. Ac-
cording to him, bright coals (the plots of carbon and hydrogen of which follow
Seyler's band, i.e., follow the normal coalification trend) show volatile dis-
placement values between +2.5%. Volatile displacement, therefore, can be
taken as a measure of normality of coal. If volatile displacement of any coal
exceeds + 2.5%, then the coal may be said to be "abnormal" (Chandra, 1985 ).
In other words, the interrelationship among volatile matter and elemental car-
bon and hydrogen holds up for normally metamorphosed coals within limits of
volatile displacement of + 2.5%, whereas the same relationship does not hold
good for thermally metamorphosed coals (Chandra, unpub, data), weathered/
oxidized coals (Chandra, 1962), burnt coals (Chandra et al., 1984), or dull
coals (Seyler, 1938, 1948).
In this context, it may be mentioned that although, so far, the interrelation-
ship between volatile matter, carbon and hydrogen is known, the relationships
among temperature, pressure, and degree of metamorphism of normally me-
tamorphosed coals are still an unresolved problem.

PETROGRAPHIC MAKE-UP

Calcutta peat, showing partly decomposed plant materials, has not under-
gone extensive lignification, suberinitization (alteration of cell walls of cortex)
or cutinization (alteration of cutinite). Amorphous humic particles and un-
428

decomposed detritus, such as t h a t comprising rootlets and tracheids (Fig. 8 A,

B ) suggest the initiation of biochemical processes in a "peatigenic" layer. Re-
sultant humic detritus of these cell walls do not show fluorescence of waxy
components.
M a k u m coals of Assam cannot be considered as lignite in view of their ab-
normal chemical characters (Chandra et al., 1984 ). These coals may include a
substantial percentage of inertinite components, up to 11% by volume (Sanyal
and Chakrabarti, 1987 ) which are almost absent in lignite of Palana, Barmer,
Lakhpat and Neyveli (Fig. 8 C, D). The M a k u m coals are entirely composed
of vitrinite with varying proportions of resinite, bituminite, cutinite and spor-
inite (fungal spores). Pyrite is quite abundant in the Tertiary coals of India,
except for Neyveli lignite, which contains a low percentage of pyrite. This casts
doubt about its marine origin.
There is, however, very little dispute on the origin and petrographic com-
position of Lower Gondwana coals of India. The petrographic composition,
both maceral and microlithotype composition, reveals regional variations
among the seams in the different coalfields examined in the present study (Fig.
7).
The total reactive or fusible constituents i.e. vitrinite, liptinite and semifu-
sinite transitory to vitrinite (Chakrabarti, 1986) or semivitrinite (Chaudhuri
and Ghosh, 1978) show a gradual decrease from the Raniganj coalfield to the
Wardha valley coalfield and a concomitant rise in inertinite and mineral-mat-
ter contents. Similarly, the total vitrinite ÷ clarite gradually diminishes with
corresponding increase in durite ÷ fusite (Fig. 7).
This compositional variation has a distinct link with the paleodepositional
and paleoecological environments that prevailed during the biochemical coal-
ification within these coalfields. E n h a n c e m e n t in carbon content in a coal can
be effected both by biochemical and geochemical processes, but the maceral
types and their relative abundance are fixed mainly at the biochemical stage
only and are very little influenced by later geochemical action (Sanyal and
Subramanian, 1977). The inertinite constituents show the high carbon con-
tent compared to other maceral constituents because they are the result of

Fig. 8. A, B. Deep brown huminitized tissues in a peat with partly decomposedplant fibers ap-
pearing opaque. The circular body represents a rootlet in which a cell cavity is filledwith mineral
matter; Calcutta peat (transmitted light).
C, D. Pair of photomicrographsunder plane incident light (C) and fluorescence(D). Bright pyrite
framboids impregnated in light grey huminite appearing nonfluorescingunder reflected light,
whereaselongatecutinite (yellowish)and bright resinite droplets(yellow)are recognizableunder
fluorescence.Tertiary lignite, Lakhpat, Gujarat;
E. Resin-filledyellowishtracheid preserved in vitrinite. Tertiary coal, Makum coalfield,Assam
(transmitted light),
F. Sporinite and oval-shapedresin bodies embeddedin vitrinite. Tertiary coal, Makum coalfield,
Assam (transmitted light).
e.D
430

intensive oxidation under aerobic conditions. The profuse fungal activity and
their subsequent preservation in coals are quite evident in some inertinite-rich
seams (Fig. 9 A, B, C, D ) in the Pench-Kanhan and Jharia coalfields (Fig. 1 ).
The variation in rank and petrographic composition may also be correlated
with the evolutionary history of the coal basins, particularly those of intra-
cratonic graben types that are characterized by tensional faults, which perhaps
caused intermittent oscillation of the water table that exposed the seams to
varied basement heat (Laskar, 1977). The regional variation in environment
and coalification conditions in the coal seams of India suggest faster sinking
rate of the easterly basins than their westerly lying counterparts. This had
tremendous impact on coalification in these basins. In fact, besides Jharia,
Raniganj and East Bokaro, a widespread lateral continuity of non-coking coals
are found in other basins, except for a few sporadic occurrences of coking coal
pockets (e.g., Baheraband in Sohagpur, Rakhikol Seam I in Kanhan valley
coalfields. Madhya Pradesh, Fig. 1 ). The basic difference between coking and
non-coking coals, perhaps lies in the fact that the type and proportion of vi-
trinite preserved in a seam vary from one seam to another. Vitrinite (A or
telocollinite type) with Ro m a x greater than 0.80% is considered to have devel-
oped coking properties in Indian Gondwana coals. Vitrinite at this reflectance
level develops fluorescent properties that are due to absorption by vitrinite of
bituminous substances formed during coalification (Wolf et al., 1983 ). Whether
this enhances coking potential of vitrinite is to be ascertained. Telinite is known
to possess greater coking power than collinite. The optimum quantity of iner-
tinite required in a coking coal is yet to be precisely determined. However, it is
noticed that "intermediates" that comprise vitrinertite V (vitrin-
ite > inertinite ) or vitrinertite I (inertinite > vitrinite ) contribute a significant
percentage in the coking coals of India (in Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Sohagpur
and Pench-Kanhan coalfields (Fig. 10 A, B ). Petrographically, an Indian cok-
ing coal contains > 50% vitrinite with Ro maxbetween 0.80% and 1.40%. Chem-
ically, it is found to contain less than 2% moisture, 20-30% volatile matter and
elemental carbon between 85 and 91%.
In view of the recent development of fluorescence microscopy, it has been
easier to diagnose and quantify liptinite constituents present in a coal. Bitu-
minite, fluorinite, alginite, resinite in high volatile bituminous coals, and sec-
ondary resin in cell lumens of fusinite and semifusinite are frequently noticed
in medium to low volatile bituminous coals in India. Fluorescent inertinite (or
fusible/reactive inertinite) corresponds closely to "reactive" fractions deter-
mined by coking experiments in Australian coals (Diessel, 1985). As such,
their presence is likely to increase the coking character of a coal. The fluores-
cent colour of sporinite diminishes from bright yellow to faint reddish brown
colour with increasing rank. The reduction in fluorescence with increasing rank
has been related to the destruction of cellulose and other primary vegetal tis-
sues during coalification (Wolf et al., 1983). As observed in Indian coals, this
 431

Fig. 9. A, B. Aggregates of sclerotinites, partly deformed showing vacuoles, slits and without in-
ternal structures. Permian coal, Rakhikol, Seam I, Pench-Kanhan coalfield, Madhya Pradesh
(reflected light).
C. Sclerotinites show the collapse of cell lumens, Permian coal, Jharia Seam XII, Bihar (reflected
light).
D. Radial cracks developed in vitrinite around sclerotinite. Permian coal, Ekhehra, Seam I Pench-
Kanhan coalfield, Madhya Pradesh.
432

Fig. 10. A. High-rank vitrinite includes microfragmental bits of fusinite. Permian coal, Kargali
seam, Kathara Mines, Bokaro coalfield, Bihar {reflectedlight).
B. Duroclarite grading into vitrinertite I, Permian coal, Kargali seam, Kathara Mines, Bokaro
coalfield, Bihar (reflected light).

reduction in fluorescence corresponds to a change from 70% to 89% C of ele-

mental carbon during coaliflcation.

CONCLUSIONS

The synthesis of the observations made by chemical, petrographic, reflec-

tance and fluorescence studies reveals several aspects of the coalification trends
in Indian coals. The petrographic characters of the peat to bituminous coal to
semianthracite examined, covering the entire Gondwana and Tertiary basins
in India, show a gradual change in morpho-physical character of macerals,
reflectance values (Ro max) of huminite/vitrinite, and fluorescent colour and
intensity with increasing rank. The trends of coaliflcation of Indian coals have
been found to follow the same trend as those of normally coalifled British
Carboniferous coals.
"In this connection, although the coals of two countries may have the same
normal coalification trend, the physical and chemical properties differ widely.
This is because the properties of a coal depend, not only on rank, but also on
the type of coal. Type of a coal depends on the maceral or microlithotype com-
position, along with the mineral-matter composition.
The amount of maceral constituents or microlithotypes and mineral matter
 433

of a coal depends on the nature and origin of coal. The original composition of
the peat, the nature of its accumulation, and consequent alteration, by bio-
chemical and geochemical agencies, and a host of other factors play an impor-
t a n t role in the composition of different macerals, microlithotypes and mineral
matter of coal. As such, there is always a difference, say for example, between
an Indian Permian coal and a British Carboniferous coal of the same rank.
Essentially there is a difference in the properties, both physical and chemical,
due to high inertinite and high ash contents of Indian coal. Characteristically,
Indian Permian coals contain a high percentage of inertinite, as compared to
the British Carboniferous coals, due mainly to seasonal variations, i.e., alter-
nation of dry and wet conditions, during the formation of Indian coals. Also
the high ash contents in Indian Permian coals are due to the allochthonous
origin of t h e i n d i a n peats (coals), in contrast to the in-situ origin of the British
Carboniferous coals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The contents of this paper are partly drawn from the findings of a research
programme being pursued by the junior author for a doctoral thesis for which
permission has been granted by the Director General, Geological Survey of
India. Borehole data referred to in the paper are taken from the unpublished
reports of the Coal Wing, Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.

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