WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment seeks to correct the excesses and inadequacies of the raw water to bring it into
compliance with the drinking water standards practiced in an area. The treatment methods
employed therefore are related to the source of the raw water. one will bear in mind the six basic
requirements of water entering into distribution discussed earlier. Treatment will seek to address:

 pathogen load
 concentration of toxic minerals and compounds
 presence and causes of salinity
 colour and and turbidity
 encrustation and staining
 taste and odour

1. SEDIMENTATION
The removal of the relatively large particles of suspended matter from water is achieved
in sedimentation tanks, which take very many different forms, but all of which act on the
principle of slowing up the flow of water so that substances held up by the turbulence of
fast moving water can fall gravitationally to the bottom of a tank. Periodically the
accumulations of debris are scraped away. For floating substances screens of various
kinds are used and these too must be continuously cleaned.

The purpose of sedimentation is to permit settleable matter floe to be deposited and thus
reduce the concentration of suspended solids that must be removed by the filters.

Principles

The intent is to provide conditions in which the flow is as uniform as possible for a
period long enough to permit the greatest practicable amount of the settleable solids to be
deposited before the water reaches the effluent end of the basins.

The factors that influence sedimentation are:

a) Viscocity and hence temperature of the water

b) Effective average period available for sedimentation
c) Effective depth of the basins
d) Area of the basins
e) Surface overflow rate or tank loading
g) Velocity of flow and
h) Inlet and outlet design
The denser the floc or suspended solids, the easier and effective the sedimentation. The viscosity
of water has a marked influence on the rate of sedimentation for instance; this rate at 30 oC is 2.3
times that at 0 oC.The detention period provides a measure of the “flowing-through period” of a
basin, that is, the average effective period, in fact the efficiency of a basin is determined by a
ratio of the observed flowing through period and the theoretical detention period, a ration known
as the “efficiency of displacement.”

Efficiency of displacement = flowing through period x100%

Detention period
This efficiency should be ≥30%

The depth and area of a basin determine its capacity and hence its detention period. Depth,
however, is much less important than area. The depth is important in providing an adequate
volume of sludge deposits so that the sludge is not removed too often. Depths of the tanks vary
between 2 to 5 m with values from 3 to 4 m being most common.

The ratio between length and depth being between 20:40 and the ratio between length and width
is commonly between 2 to 4: with such dimensions, a further improvement is settling efficiency
can be obtained by the use of baffles, either in a horizontal or vertical plane. Area of the basin is
related to the performance in terms of the rate of flow of water through it as expressed by surface
overflow or surface leading, which is depended solely on area and the rate of flow as given
below.

f) Surface overflow (or loading); so = Q = Q

BL A

Where So is the surface loading Q = rate of flow; B – width of the tank

and L is length of the settling zone. The surface overflow rates commonly
applied for sedimentation vary from 0.1 to over 1m/h depending on the
particle size of suspended matter.

2. Coagulation

Chemical coagulation is an important process applied extensively in water treatment

practice, particularly where surface supplies are involved. During the chemical
coagulation process, colour, turbidity, PH, carbon dioxide and alkalinity measurements
are undertaken to determine the effectiveness of the process and the influence of PH.

Purpose of Chemical Coagulation

Chemical coagulation of water is performed for several reasons. The major ones are
removal of:
 i) Turbidity

ii) Colour

iii) Harmful bacteria and other pathogens

iv) Algae and other plankton organisms

v) Taste and odour – producing substances, and

vi) Phosphates, which serve as nutrients for the growth of algae.

Removal of these materials produces water that is aesthetically acceptable and that can be
disinfected properly. In addition the load on sand filters is reduced and longer filter runs can be
achieved. Much of the suspended matter in water is colloidal in nature. This is particularly true
of substances that cause colour and turbidity. The colloidal materials are negatively charged, and
for this reason salts of trivalent metals, usually aluminium and iron, are used to coagulate them.

Fundamental reactions involved in chemical coagulation

The reactions involved in chemicals coagulations are essentially the same for both ferric and
aluminium sulfates. Usually, aluminium sulfate, also known as filter alum, (A1 2 (SO4)3. 14H2O
is most commonly used.

Flash mix

When aluminium sulfate solutions are added to water the molecules dissociate to yield SO 4 =
A1+++ and various aluminium hydrolysis complexes such as A1(OH)++, A1(OH)3. Some of the
hydrolysis products also combine to form long-chains of aluminium hydroxide species of higher
charge. The various positive species which are formed may combine with negatively charged
colloids.

Certain anions such as phosphates or sulfates can also form complexes with aluminium ions and
can change both the effectiveness of coagulation and the optimum PH at which it occurs.
Although many of these reactions are purely chemical in nature, the over-all coagulation process
is quite complex, and the absorption of ions and colloids is also of great importance. For this
reason, it is important that the aluminium sulfate be distributed throughout the mass of water in
order that contact can be made with all the colloidal particles. This distribution is accomplished
by means of a flash mix which is designed to give good distribution of coagulant and should be
accomplished as rapidly as possible, in a period not exceeding 10 seconds.
Flocculation

During flocculation period which usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes, agglomeration of colloidal

material is completed, and they become in corporate in the mass of precipitated floe. During the
sedimentation period, the floe settles to leave a clarified liquid.

Chemistry

The changes occur with regard to PH, alkalinity can be best illustrated by considering certain
simplified equations. When aluminium sulfate is added to water, it can be considered to
combine with the hydroxyl ions of water to form poorly ionized A1 2(OH)3, and hydrogen and
sulfate ions.

A12(SO4)3 + 6H2O = 2A1(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO4

The hydrogen ions depress the PH to such an extent that further formation of A1 (OH)3 is
prevented unless they are removed from the solution. The biocarbonates present in natural
waters serve as buffers and act in this capacity as follows:

HCO3 + H+ H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

Above equations in molecular form are as follows:

A12(SO4)3 + 6H2O 2A1(OH)3 + 3H2SO4

3Ca(HCO3)2 = 3H2SO4 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 6H2O

A12(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2A1(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2

These changes from coagulant addition result in a decrease in water PH, and calcium bicarbonate
is changed to calcium sulfate.

Optimum pH for chemical coagulation

The PH of a water is of great importance in governing both the nature of the coagulant metal
hydrolysis product, and charge of the colloidal impurities. The optimum PH for coagulation will
be determined by laboratory test during the jar test process. However, the optimum PH for
removal of negative colloids varies with the nature of the water but usually falls in the range of
PH 5 to 6.5.

Indicators

Certain dyes are capable of changing their colour in a definite manner and degree according to
the acidity or alkalinity (PH) of the solutions.
These dyes are referred to as “Indicators” and only both those which have short range are used.
The short range indicators used change colour in steps of 0.2. Those selected have also an
overlap with those immediately below and above.

Thymol Blue (acid range) 1.2 – 2.8

Chlorophenol red 4.8 – 6.4
Brom. Tymol blue 6.0 – 7.6
Cresol red 7.2 – 8.8
Thymol Blue (alkaline range) 8.0 – 9.6
Phenol phenopthalein changes at 8.3
Methyl orange 4.0

JAR TEST AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Before it is possible to treat water with the necessary chemicals it is required to ascertain both
the quantity and the PH at which it reacts.

This information is obtained by carrying out the “Jar Test.” The methods used in the test should
be the same as those to be used at the plant, and the test must be carried out as near as is possible
to the conditions in the basin.

Equipment

2 x 50 ml Burettes
9 x 100 ml tall beakers
2 x 250 ml glass sloppered bottles
1 PH meter
Glass rod
Indicators Bromthymol Blue
Cresol red

TEST SOLUTIONS

Alum and Soda Ash.

Make this up separately by dissolving 1 gram (weight) each of powdered alum and soda ash in
250 ml of distilled water. 1 ml of this solution is equal to 16 PPm (16mg/1) of chemical when
introduced to 250 ml of raw water to be treated.

The Test

Into each of 8 beakers measure 250 ml of the water to be tested using a measuring cylinder.

The beaker should be numbered from 1 to 8 consecutively. Introduce from the burette the
chemical in the proportions shown in the following tables.
Test No. Beaker No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mg/1 per ml 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128
1 Soda Ash - - - - - - - -
Alum 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Soda Ash - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Alum - 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 Soda - - 2 2 2 2 2 2
Alum - - 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 Soda Ash - - - 3 3 3 3 3
Alum - - - 4 5 6 7 8
5 Soda Ash - - - - 4 4 4 4
Alum - - - - 5 6 7 8
6 Soda Ash - - - - - 5 5 5
Alum - - - - - 6 7 8

NOTE:

In each case the number on the beaker indicates the number ml of alum in that particular beaker.
This reduces the possibility of errors.

After adding the required solutions singly or combined, (soda ash should be added first and
thoroughly mixed before adding alum), to the first beaker only. Decant this rapidly 12 times
using the spare beaker or stir vigorously using glass rod. This should be done with each sample,
immediately proceeding to the next beaker.

After mixing the contents of each beaker thoroughly, the beaker is then gently agitated or stirred
while the reminders of the eight beakers are dealt with. The gentle stirring should continue 20
minutes. At the end of this time allow the beakers to stand still for 30 minutes and after that
observe the character and amount of floes still in suspension in each beaker.

The one which is clearest and has the least amount of floes can be considered to give the best
result. Siphon the clarified water into clean containers and analyse for PH, colour turbidity
alkalinity, CO2 and other information that is pertinent. The beaker that gives the best result gives
also the amount of chemical to use and th PH at which the reaction between the alum and
alkalinity and the natural colloids takes place. Any deviation from this PH will result in
inefficient coagulation.

RAPID SAND FILTERS

Types of filters

a) Open gravity

b) Closed gravity (on special use e.g. for ground water – removal of ion)
c) Pressure filters

1. Open gravity filters:

They are preferred because:

i. They are very flexible

ii. Easy of observation
iii. They occupy very little space in comparison to slow and sand filters
iv. They are more suitable for full treatment
v. They are faster than slow sand filters (50 times faster)
vi. They are less affected by temperature changes

Uses

The rapid sand filters may be used in different ways, as sole treatment, as preliminary
treatment to lighten the load on slow sand filters; as final treatment to remove the last
traces of impurities which have escaped the precoling process of coagulations and
sedimentation.

In drinking water practice, clarification by filtration (sole treatment) alone is quite

common for the deferrisation and demanganisation of deep ground water which is safe in
hygienic respect by virtue of their origin. Fairly coarse grains/sand and high filtration
rates may be used in this case. When rapid filters are used as a sole treatment the average
turbidity of raw water should be in the range of 10 to 20 mg/l.

Construction

There are various designs but the most commonly used is rectangular and circular shapes.
The filters are encased in a box with a depth of 2 to 4 m, total depth of the structure; and
are in most cases constructed of reinforced or mass concrete. To facilitate the easier
construction of the filter bottom a rectangular plan is strongly recommended.

An under drain system is provided on top of which coarse then graded gravel is placed
and on which again graded sand is placed to a depth of 0.75 m minimum to 1.25 m. The
sand grading must conform to specification laid down for the particular filter. Filtered
area should be 12-20 m2 minimum to 100-150 m2 maximum and the minimum number of
filters should be 2 or 4 for large plant.

Filter bed and filter material

This consists of carefully selected and graded, clean and durable material. The material
should be free of clay, loam, dust, dirt or organic matter and able to resist mechanical,
chemical or biological attack.
FILTRATION
Definition

Filtration is the process by which water is separated from suspended and colloidal impurities it
contains, the number of bacteria is materially reduced and changes in chemical characteristics of
the water are brought about by passing the water through a porous material. In most cases the
porous material used is sand.

Slow Sand Filters

Slow sand filters are an open basin, 2.4 to 4 m deep, usually rectangular in shape and varying in
area from a few hundred to few thousand sq. metres. The filter is constructed of a mass, or
reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. This box is filled with not less than 0.75 to 1.25 m thick
sand layer, on top of which the water to be treated is presently to a depth of mostly 1 to 1.5 m.
At the lower end, the sand bed is supported by a system of drainage, the so called filter bottom
which at the same time allows the passage of the filtered water.

The filtering material for this type of filter is un graded sand which should have a coefficient of
uniformity = 2, preferably 1.7 but a value less than 1.5 offers little advantage. The coefficient of
uniformity is a ratio of the sieve size passing 10% of it.

In slow sand filtration the water is passed by gravity downward through a layer of fine sand at
low velocities of 0.1 to 0.4 m/h(m3/m2/h) and is so small that only after an extended period of
service, a few weeks to a few months cleaning is necessary. The important parameter for
operation then is the filtration rate and the length of filter run. The length of filter run is defined
as the interval between two successive cleanings and is usually expressed in days. As the
suspended and colloidal matter accumulates on the filter surface the filter clongs thus rendering
higher and higher resistance to filtration. When this resistance has reached the allowable
maximum, as can be indicated by the filter controls, the filter is then taken out of service and
cleaned. The water to be filtered should not have turbidity exceeding 50 mg/l maximum.

Cleaning of slow sand filter is commonly exacted by scrapping off the upper layer of a depth
varying from 1 to 2 cm; depending on the amount of penetration. Before scraping the filter bed
is drained to a depth of 0.2 m below sand surface. The scrapping is either done manually or by
special machines. Re-sanding of the filter is necessary when the minimum allowable sand depth
(0.75 m) is reached.

After cleaning the filter is taken back into service by recharging it from below with portable
water to a level of about 0.1 m above the top of the sand bed, allowing all air accumulated in the
pores to escape. The remaining depth then is filled with raw water to the normal operating level.
In the next 12 to 24 hours the filtrate is run to waste and water samples are taken to check the
normal water standards. When this condition is satisfied the filtrate is then connected to the
consumer.

Due to the high construction cost, large land areas required and large unskilled labour required
for manual cleaning the use of slow sand filters is normally limited to small water supplies.
Where they offer the enormous advantage of being safe, stable, simple and reliable, requiring a
minimum of operational and maintenance skill. Furthermore their effluent is more uniform in
quality and they give effective bacterial removal.

When considering the composition of filter bed there are three factors which have to be taken
into account: namely filter bed thickness, grain size distribution and the kind of filtering material.
The filter bed thickness is determined with the construction cost and filter troubles in mind.

The grain size distribution of the filtering material should be chosen as uniform as can be
possible with a coefficient of uniformity under all circumstances below 1.5 and preferably
between 1.2 and 1.3. Requirements to the grading of filter sand are best given as maximum and
minimum allowable percentages of material passing through various standard sieves.

Uniformity Coefficient

This is the ratio of the sieve size. Passing 60% of the sand to the sieve size passing 10% of it.

Effective size

Is the size of grain such that 10% of the grains by weight are smaller and 90% are larger as
determined by test. For rapid sand filters the effective size of the sand used is usually between
0.6 to 1.2 mm.

HOW THE FILTER WORKS (MECHANICS OF FILTRATION)

The overall removal of impurities associated with the process of filtration is brought about by a
combination of different phenomena. The most important of which are mechanical straining,
sedimentation, adsorption, chemical and biological activity.

a) Mechanical Straining is the purifying process most easy to grasp, removing the particles
of suspended matter that are too large to pass through the openings between the sand
grains. As such it takes place at the surface of the filter and is independent of the
filtration rate.

b) Sedimentation removes particulate suspended matter of finer sizes of the pore openings
by precipitation upon the surface of the sand grains in exactly the same way as in
ordinary settling tank. The deposits are formed on the surface area of filter grains. The
particles removed are those with the velocity greater than the overflow rate. Smaller and
lighter particles are only partly removed, although flocculation occupying downward
water movement will increase sedimentation efficiency with depth.
c) Adsorption has many faces, the simplest of which is interception after the particle has
been brought to a distance less than half its size from the grain surface and subsequent
adherence to the sticky gelatinous coating colloidal matter. Much more important in the
meanwhile is the active promotion of this adsorption by the physical attraction between
two particles of matter and the electrostatical attraction between opposite electrical
changes. By the nature of its crystalline structure, clean quartz sand has a negative
charge and is thus able to adsorb positively charged particles in the form of suspended or
colloidal matter such as floes or carbonates, iron or aluminium hydroxide etc. This
process is more complicated with the change of charges as the sand grains are coated
with particles having those charges until the process leads to oversaturation of one charge
and thus lowering the filtration efficiency and ultimately requiring back-washing.

d) Chemical activity is the process by which dissolved impurities are either broken down
into simpler harmless substances, or converted into insoluble compounds after which
straining, sedimentation and adsorption may remove them from the flowing water. In the
presence of oxygen, organic matter is degraded aerobically. There are no pure chemical
reactions but a chain of reactions some which require the catalytic action of previously
formed reaction products and intervention of bacteria.

It means that the chemical or bio-chemical reactions only take place on the surface or the
filter grains, where the catalytic agent is present and the necessary bacteria is bound.
Adsorption is thus a prerequisite for these removal mechanisms.

e) Biological activity finally is the action if micro-organisms, living on and in the filter bed.
During the breaking in period bacteria naturally present in the raw water are adsorbed on
the filter grains, where they multiply selectively, using as food the inorganic or organic
matter deposited here. This food is partly oxidized to provide the energy these bacteria
needs and partly converted into cell material for their growth, thus transforming colloidal,
and molecular dissolved impurities into living particulate matter. In this way, the organic
matter is gradually broken down (e.g. ammonia – Nitrate) and finally converted into
innocent inorganic substances such as water, CO2 Nitrates, Phosphates etc
(mineralization) mostly to be discharged with the filter effluent.

Back Washing

Two methods are practical but both require reversing the flow at high rates through the filter
bottom, gravel layers and through the sand bed. One method is using only water (portable water)
and the second one is using both water and air. Both methods must be carried out very
efficiently or otherwise filter failure will eventually develop.

Preparation

1. Close the inflow valve from the raw water source or from the pre-treatment plant.
2. Lower the water level in the filter by:

a) Allowing the water to filter out to the clear water samp or tank as much as
possible then

b) Close the effluent valve and open the wash water valve and lower the remaining
water in the filter to the upper level of the wash water troughs, into a gulley from
where it is carried out to waste.

3. Now slowly open the wash water valve and start the washing.

Procedure 1: Washing with water only

The filter washing now starts with slowly and gradually increasing the washing rate until the
required sand expansion of about 20 – 30% is reached. The wash water rates which can give
much sand expansion is in the range of 45 to 60 m/h. The upward flow of wash water as it
expands the sand it also scours the filter grains and takes the accumulated impurities with it to
the troughs and out to waste. The cleaning lasts for 5 minutes.

a) Copper: The dissolving power of water for copper is mainly dependent on the PH. At
PH values lower than 7 too much copper is dissolved; not only from hygienic point of
view but also in view of corrosion. At PH values >7 copper dissolving is negligible, so in
this case water stabilization can be realized by increasing the PH.

b) Asbestos cement and concrete

Water containing excessive carbon dioxide can affect asbestos cement and concrete
structures by dissolving the calcium carbonate present in them, and thus corroding the
pipes. So conditions can be realized by removing some of carbon dioxide.

c) Steel and Iron

In this case there are two possibilities:

i) Water is oxygen free

ii) Water contains oxygen

 In the first case iron is dissolved by carbonic acid.

Fe + 2H2O + CO2 Fe(HCO3)2 + H2

Ferrous bicarbonate

When so much CO2 is consumed that the point of CO2-CaCO3 equilibrium is

passed a deposit of CaCO3 is formed. However, this CaCO3 deposit is porous and
gives no protection against further corrosion.

iii) When the water contains oxygen Fe(HCO3)2 is converted into Fe2O3.nH2O

2Fe(HCO3)2 + 4H2O 2Fe(OH)2 + 4H2CO3

2Fe(OH)2 + O + (n-1) H2O Fe2O3.nH2O

With a precipitation of CaCO3 and the above reaction taking place, Fe 2O3.nH2O,
and CaCO3 both crystallize together as the mineral geothit forming a protective
layer on the pipe surface. So further corrosion is prevented.

As it has been shown above corrosion of different materials depends on the

dissolved carbon dioxide. The water can be stabilized by complete or partial
removal of CO2. This can be achieved by different, methods e.g. aeration or
dosage of lime. Aeration is more effective, but the process introduces oxygen to
the water which will increase the corrosiveness of the water to an extent that it
more than counteracts the benefit of the lower carbon dioxide content it produces.
So the use of lime Ca(OH)2 is preferred.

Soft waters containing low concentrations of bicarbonates or carbon dioxide will

not react with lime to produce the required concentration of calcium carbonate, in
such a case the lime dose must be supplemented with soda ash.

WATER SOFTENING

Softening of water has two basic purposes: first hardness producing compounds
of calcium and magnesium are reduced or removed by softening process to
prevent the scaling of boilers, water heaters and to reduce the amount of soap
needed to produce lather in home and textile mills etc.

Secondly, minerals are removed from black waters, brines and soa water in areas
where fresh water is limited.

The total hardness of water consists of temporary and permanent hardness.

Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling while permanent is not.
The most acceptable water as far as hardness is concerned is moderately soft.
(50-100 ppm) or slightly hard (100-150 ppm as CaCO 3).

Boiling is not practicable in removing temporary hardness in water works. So the

removal of both types of hardness is effected by chemical additions so that
calcium and magnesium takes their insoluble forms and precipitates out to be
removed by the use of filters.

The insoluble forms of calcium and magnesium are:

Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 (partially soluble)

Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH2)

The chemical dosages for removal of the various kinds of hardness can be
determined from the following reactions.

To remove calcium temporary hardness add lime.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 – CaCO3 + H2O

Calcium biocarbonate + Lime = Calcium carbonate + water

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2CaCO3 + H2O

iii) To remove Magnesium temporary hardiness add lime + lime

Stage I Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O

Magnesium bicarbonate + Lime = Carbonates + Water

Magnesium carbonates does not precipitate.

Stage II MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3

Magnesium hydroxide + Calcium Carbonate

To remove calcium permanent hardness add soda ash.

CaSO4 + NaCO3 = CaCO3 + NaSO4

Calcium sulphate + soda ash = Sodium sulphate + calcium carbonate

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Calcium sulphate + soda ash = Sodium sulphate + calcium carbonate

CaCl2 + NaCO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl

 Sodium chloride

To remove Magnesium permanent hardness add lime + soda ash.

Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2

“ sulphate (MgSO4) CaSO4

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl

CaSO4 + NaCO3 = CaCO3 Na2SO4

NOTE:

a) Carbon dioxide is not hardness-forming but it is removed by lime and hence the lime
dose is influenced accordingly.

b) The magnesium carbonate in reaction III is not sufficiently insoluble for effective
removal and so must be changed by additional lime to precipitate as Mg(OH) 2.

POST TREATMENT
Sterilization

The aim is to destroy disease carrying bacteria or pathogens. (bacteria carrying water borne
diseases e.g. typhoid, dysently)

Sterilization can be achieved by:

a) Heating

Bacteria are killed at 80 oC but boiling is a better method not for large scale water
treatment works.

b) Ultraviolet Light

Has been used at a few installations. The water to be sterilized must be kept clean at all
the times and concentrations of iron should be almost nil. The equipment is costly.

c) Ozone

In addition to its sterilization effect ozone is also very effective in the removal of tastes
and odours from water. Ozone has to be generated as needed by passing filtered and
 dried air through tubes or between plates where high-voltage electric discharge occurs,
changing part of oxygen of the air to ozone. (O2 to O3). Its cost is greater than when
purchased chemicals are manufactured on a wholesale basis as with chlorine.

d) Chlorination

By the use of chlorine either in the gas form or hypochlorite solutions. Chloride of lime
is mainly used and has 35% available chlorine. For 1 ppm solution requires 1 gram per
172.52 litres or 5.796 grams per 1000 litres.

Chlorine gas is also used but its use is restricted to large supplies.

The problem of effective chlorination is to ensure:

a) Uniform application of chlorine to all portions of the water being treated.

b) Uninterrupted application of chlorine

c) Selection of the dose of chlorine to meet the current needs of the specific water
being treated.

d) Control of chlorination so as to produce a safe potable water that is in the same

time of a attractive character.

Chlorination can be influenced by the following:

1. Suspended solids which may shield bacteria from the action of chlorine

2. Organic matter reacts with chlorine reducing its disinfecting properties.

3. Ammonia reacts with free chlorine, form chloramines or combined residual

chlorine having much lower disinfecting qualities than free residual chlorine.

4. Water of low alkalinity and PH value of lose than about 7.2 are more easily
disinfected than those having PH above 7.6.

5. Nitrates react with and remove chlorine.

6. Iron when present also reacts with free chlorine and hence add to the amount of
chlorine required for disinfecting purposes.

7. Temperature: Chlorination is more effective with higher water temperatures. On

the other hand, chlorine is more stable in cold water for a longer period of time,
thus compensating to some extent for the lower rate of disinfection in cold water.

8. Period of contact: The minimum contact period should be 10-15 minutes and
preferably several hours so that effective disinfection may be ensured without
 undesirably high concentration of residual chlorine in water reaching the
consumer.

The requirements for effective chlorination are met when the chlorine does is sufficient to
react with the organic matter, ammonia, iron, manganese and other reduced substances
and at the same time leave sufficient excess or residual (of 0.2 m/l as minimum) for
disinfecting purposes, and when the concentration of residual chlorine is selected so as to
compensate for the influence of any prevailing high alkalinity, low water temperature or
short period of contact.

Chlorination method

a) Application of the gas form – used for the very large supplies only

b) Simple chlorination using hypochlorite solution

c) Chloramine – combination of ammonia and chlorine

d) Break-point chlorination or free residual chlorination

e) Supper-chlorination with final dechlorination (by sulphur dioxide)

Simple chlorination

The addition of chlorine in regular controlled quantities with retention period of about 1
hour and have a free residual of between 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.

Chloramine

NH2Cl; NHCl2

(Monochloramine) (Dichloramine together in total are known as

combined available chlorine)

This treatment process is intended to give a more persistent type of residual chlorine with
a less tendency to produce chlorinous tastes. The reaction between chlorine and
ammonia produces residuals in the form of chloramines, which are mild disinfectants
because they are less active chemically. The ammonia can deliberately be added to water
if the water does not contain enough of it for such treatment. This form of treatment has
some advantages.

a) Objectionable tastes which arise from the use of chlorine alone are sometimes
avoided when ammonia is added.
b) Chloramines persists in the water for a longer time than free chlorine and hence
can be used for water contained in storage tanks.

The disadvantage is that it is less active as a germicidal agent than chlorine.

Break-point Chlorination or Free Residual Chlorine

HOCl and OCl are together known as free residual chlorine

The break-point chlorination applies to water containing ammonia (or organic matter).
Addition of chlorine first causes the formation of chloramines until the ratio of chlorine
to ammonia compounds reaches about 5 to 1. At this point, the addition of further (more)
chlorine reduces the chloramines and organic matter, because of their oxidation by the
excess chlorine. When this reaction has been completed the addition of more chlorine
results in the formation of free chlorine only. The point at which this chlorine begins to
form is called the “break-point” for the water.

The advantages of break-point chlorination are:

a) Taste and odour production is less

b) The free chlorine produced gives a more effective and quick sterilization of water.

c) The free chlorine produced will prevent reduction of sulfides that will produce
tastes and odours in dead ends of mains. In this case the free residual chlorine
should be maintained throughout the system.

d) The free chlorine will prevent after growth in pipelines and will remove colour
from water.

The process requires a reasonable degree of careful control for, if chlorine dosage should
drop at any time below the break-point level tastes and odours may be suddenly
intensified.

Taste Troubles

It is difficult to taste chlorine in water even at large doses up to 1ppm. Tastes are caused
by reaction of chlorine with compounds in the water. They arise from very small
quantities of oils or organic matter, or phenols in the water for example, one part of
phenol in 500 million parts of water can give rise to a detectable taste in the presence of
chlorine. Algae may give rise to oils causing the taste reaction.

Point of application of chlorine

It is more convenient to inject chlorine into water where the pressure is not too high, but
the primary requirements is that any point of application must be such that it gives
adequate time of contact. For preference, the point of application should be just upstream
of a weir or a venturi tube or some other similar point where turbulence of the water will
ensure thorough mixing of chlorine with water.