Topic 1

Workshop Technology
(Electrical)
Introduction To Workshop Technology
The objective of workshop technology is to equip learners with the knowledge of electrical skills in
the field of civil, building and architectural practice. Its main aim is identification of various sources
of electrical energy, incorporate electrical installation practice in building, civil engineering and
drawings as an integral part and application of electrical energy to carry out normal duties and
safety aspects of using electrical energy.
Terms
i. Voltage (V):- This is the measure of potential differences,. Potential difference exists when
there is an electromotive force (emf)
Voltage can also be measured in various levels
1000v = 1 kilovolts
1000 kv = 1 Megavolts
= 1 millivolts
1/106 = 1 microvolts
Voltage transmitted on the national grid is 132KV
Voltage from the substations (SS) is 415V
Voltage on the domestic socket is 240v
Standard desktop computers are operated at 5v (digital)
Voltmeter is the instrument used to measure voltage. Voltmeters must be connected in shunt
when measuring voltage.
ii. Current (I):- This is the charge flowing at a point per unit time.
I = Q/T Current is measured in terms of Amperes (A)
The instrument used to measure current is the ammeter and must be connected in series

A
Appliance
V (Load)

emf

Where A= Ammeter (series to the load)

V= Voltmeter (parallel to the load)
iii. Power (P):- Electrical power is the product of the voltage and current ; P= V x I
The unit for power is Watts. Watts = ( 1 Volt x 1 Ampere)
An energy consuming bulb operates at 100watts and a voltage of 240, therefore the current
through the coil will be
P= V x I Hence I = P/V = 100/240 = 0.417 Amperes
While the energy saving bulb operating at 8 watts with 240 volts means will operate at the
current of
I =P/V = 8/240 = 33mA = 0.033A
iv. Energy (E) :- this is the product of power x time. The unit for energy is joules
1 Joule = (1 Watt x 1 second)
Electrical bills are usually calculated based on the energy consumed. I unit of electrical
energy is the equivalent of 1000 Joules.
v. Resistance (R) :- This is the ability of the materials to resist electrical energy flow. Resistance
of the material is influenced by:-
a. Length – The longer the length the higher the resistance
b. Resistivity ( ) of the material whether it’s a good conductor or bad conductor (ability to
resist the flow of electrical energy)
c. Cross-section- a conductor with small, cross section has a high resistance than a conductor
with wider cross-section
Therefore

Resistance is measured in terms of ohms.

vi. Frequency (Hz):- electrical power is either Alternating current (a.c) or Direct current (d.c) .
Ac power is accompanied with some form of frequency. Frequency is the number of cycles
made by an oscillating energy on one second.
i.e. Frequency =
Frequency is measures in Hertz (Hz)
1000 Hz = 1KHz
1000KHz = 1MHz
1000 MHz = 1GHz
For example a power denoted as 415v/ 50Hz means this is 415 volts a.c at 50Hz
 Topic 2
WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
Safety in the workshop
Safety: it is freedom from danger or harm. In the workshop safety may be achieved by not taking
any risk taking precaution much more than necessary. Before anyone can install a safe and
efficient electrical system it is essential for him or her to be familiar of risk of electricity and the
danger inherent in its use.
Electrical safety: this involves proper use .of electrical equipment and machinery to perform a
divine task safely and economically. Safe operation of machines are safety to personnel, should
be given the best consideration. When working in a circuit it must be completely isolated and tests
should be carried out to ensure that poles of the cct are dead. At the position of isolation steps
should be taken to ensure that the cct cannot be restored until required. Any isolation must be
provided with a lock position, secure fixed warning should be displayed on the isolator board.
Where fuses are removed, they should be put in a safe position where they cannot be replaced
without the knowledge of the person concerned. Ensure that no similar fuses are readily available.
The cct should be isolated as near to the work as possible so that visual check can be kept on any
attempt to restore a supply. After carrying out works always test for possible faults which may be
due to excessive current flow before restoring the supply.
Special safety requirements: when corrosive liquids are being handled by an electrician or
maintaining and installing battery the following precautions should be taken into consideration:
 Protective clothing is necessary such as rubber gloves, overall to protect body from I burns
with acids.
 In this installation good ventilation is necessary to reduce the building up of inflammable
and dangerous chemical vapours. Never allow naked flames near a battery installation.
General Workshop Rules
1. Do not meddle with switches, knobs, rivets handles e.t.c.
2. Do not lean on electric machines.
3. Do not jump or play in the-workshop.
4. Do not stare on welding arc lights without wearing guard.
5. Take care when working with hot metals use suitable glasses.
6. Do not operate electric machine before you know how to stop it.
7. Do not lubricate any moving machine.
8. Do not remove machine guard before stopping the machine.
9. Do not use faulty tools.
10. ’Never touch any moving machine.
11. Use or wear protective clothing for particular job.
12. Any loose clothing e.g. ties, shirts long hairs, should be avoided where there is a rotating
machine.
13. Obey’ all working warnings on the notice boards
14. Never switch on a machine and leave it running.
15. Avoid overworking or overcrowding a machine.
16. Use the right tool for the right work in the right way at the right time.
Accident: an accident is unexpected and undesirable occurrence resulting into injury and damage
to human beings or to properties. –
Causes of accidents
 Carelessness: familiarity of tasks sets in boredom therefore original high standard begin to
slide which leads to accidents.
 Ignorance: this is due to lack of sufficient technical knowledge to perform a task efficiently
and to leave it in a condition which is safe.
 Panic
 Laziness
 Drunkenness
Electrical hazards
They affect:-
i. Human beings: through electric shock and burns.
ii. Properties ; e.g. buildings furniture
iii. Environment; through pollution due to chemical reactions.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
It is the effect felt by the body when electric current flows through the body. This happen! when
the body acts as a link between two points of different potential. Shock is sudden ai causes
disturbance of feelings of the nervous system.
Types of electric shock
a) Hand to hand: it cuts across the chest where the vital body parts are situated and it
happens where conductors are held by both hands and is likely to result to death.
b) Hand to foot: it Occurs when the conductor is between the hand and the foot. It is usually
not serious though it may result to paralysis.
Factors determining the severity of shock:
1. Amount of current flowing through the body
2. The time of contact
3. The voltage level
4. The body resistance
FIRST AID:
It is the application of accepted principles of treatment on occurrence of any injury or inc^ of
sudden illness using facilities or materials available at that time to sustain live or to s prevent
condition from becoming worse. In every factory, workshop or construction sjte a first Aid box
containing all the necessary facilities must be provided and workers should know where to go to
obtain first Aid materials.
Order of action to safe an electrocuted victim
 Switch off the power supply then isolate the victim from the supply.
 One must be very careful not to touch the victim when the switch is on.
 The victim must be pushed or pulled away by his/her clothes or ay insulating material.
 Check for tight cloth and untie them.
 Remove the victim from the scene of crime as quickly as possible.
 Check any sign of life in the victim and start artificial respiration immediately.
 Send for a doctor or medical personnel or ambulance.
 Report the matter to the police.
NB//: never leave the victim alone.
Methods of artificial respiration
1. Holger Nielsen method:
 Place the patient face downwards the forehead resting on his hands. If the patients tongue
has been swallowed 2 or 3 firm slaps with the flat of the hand on the area between the
shoulders will bring it forward.
 The rescuer should kneel in front of the patient a knee beside the right of the head and a
foot to the left of the patient's elbow.
 The arms should slope forward so that the hands lie close together on the patient's
shoulder.
 The wrists should be over the top of the shoulder blade and then begin the movement as
follows:
a) Move forward and press down with a light pressure to drive air from the lungs.
These movements should last about 2 seconds.
b) Slide hands quickly down the patient's elbow and the movement should take a
second. Raise the elbow slightly.
c) The rescuers body should move backwards a bit low this induces air to the lungs and
shall take 2 seconds Lower the elbow and slide hands to patient's I05ck to resume
original position.
d) Repeat the above movement until the patient recovers.
2. Mouth to mouth [kiss of life]:
 Place the patient on his back and sit or kneel by the side of his head.
 The head should be held with both hands.
 One hand should press upward while the other push the jaw up and forwards this position
ensures that the patient's lungs gets maximum air.
 Close the patient's nose with one hand.
 Seal your lips round the patient's mouth.
 Blow air steadily into the patient's mouth until the swelling of lungs cause the chest to rise.
 Remove your mouth, turn your head aside and take a deep breath. Repeat this cycle six
times as quickly as possible.
 Continue at about 10 sec intervals.
3. Sylvester [revised] method
 Position the casualty on his back quickly.
 Probe up shoulder with a suitable padding e.g. a rolled jacket so that the head falls fully
backward to open up air passage.
 Kneel near the casualty's head, take his hands at the wrist then cross them and press firmly
downwards to force air out of the lungs.
 Release the downward pressure by pulling their arms upwards above his head and
backwards as far as possible.
 This helps to throw air in the lungs.
 If breathing, restart and adjust movement to coincide with his breathing speed.
ELECTRIC BURNS
 They are best seen by a first Aid expert or a doctor.
 Burned clothing should not be removed.
  Blisters should not be broken.
 Sterilized dressing may be applied if necessary.
 The patient may be given water, tea, coffee or other liquids but not alcohol.
 Keep the patient warm at all times and take him to the doctor or expertise.
HAZARD TO PROPERTY
Fire safety:
Fire prevention:
In-order to minimize the risk of fire it is advisable to make sure that:
 All appliances are switched off after use
 All are highly combustible materials are kept away from any source of heat
 Smoking and naked flames should be prohibited in some areas e.g. near batteries.
For fire to exist there are three things which must be present namely:
 Fuel [wood, paper, petrol e.t.c]
 Oxygen [combustion]
 Heat (i.e flame]
Fire detection:
i. Human detection: this is limited to an individual noticing the fire and raising the alarm
manually at a break the glass call point.
ii. Smoke detection:
iii. Heat detection:
Both ii and iii sense automatically and operates the alarm system.
Fire control:
They are divided into:
a) Manual; this by use of hand held extinguishers.
b) Automatic; this is by use of sprinklers, guns e.t.c
Both systems use the same extinguishing substances e.g. water powder foam e.t.c
Classes of fire:
Fires are divided into three classes depending on the fuel supporting it.
Class A: wood, textile, paper
Class B: petrol, oil, paints
Class C: electric current or electric equipment.
Not all fires can be extinguished by the same kind of extinguishing material each class has specific
extinguisher. It is a legal requirement that all fire extinguisher are colored red but with a block or
band, denoting the type of extinguisher.
Type of extinguisher Most suited for Class of fire Color band (Container)
Water Wood paper textile A Signal red
Carbon dioxide Petrol paint oil B Black
Foam[ H20 or co2] Petrol, paint, oil B Pale cream
Powder Wood, petrol, electric fire A,B,C French blue
Halogenated hydrocarbon Petrol, oil, electric B,C Emerald green.
gas
Some kinds of materials e.g. plastic and chemicals give off high toxic fumes when ignited.
Under such circumstances special apparatus would be needed to minimize the danger to the /
firefighter.
 Electrical Materials
There are-three types of materials i.e.
i. Conductors
ii. Insulators
iii. Semiconductors

CONDUCTORS
Its any material which allows free passage of an electric current. Conducting materials vary in the
degree to which they can conduct electricity therefore have different applications e.g. good
conductors are required for connecting leads in electric ccts for minimum current or voltage loss
while /materials with higher resistance are sometimes needed for controlling currents e.g. of
rheostats and motor control starters. Some materials used as conductors are:
a. Silver
It's the best conductor known but its too expensive for general use.
b. Copper
Its conductivity is second to silver and its widely used for the manufacture of electric wires, cables
and busbars.
c. ADV
i. Has low resistance
ii. Its ductile there4 easily formed into wires.
iii. It is readily tinned for soldering.
d. ALMINIUM
Not as good as copper but its light in weight, this is an advantage in many situations.
e. BRASS
it's used for the manufacture of terminals and various parts of electric fittings. •

ADV
i. It's harder than copper
ii. Its easily machined
iii. It can be readily cast It's easily tinned for soldering.

f. NICHROME
It's used for the manufacture of fixed and variable resistors and heating elements '
g. MANGANIN
Its' a high quality resistance wire, expensive and requires special heat to develop its good
properties and its used mainly for precision resistors as used in the laboratories
h. CARBON
Its not a metal but it’s a fairly good conductor and its physical properties make it very suitable for
use as brushes in electrical machines. Carbon can be mixed with clay and other materials for the
manufacture of carbon composition resistors which are widely used in radio and electronic
equipment.
INSULATORS
Any material which does not allow the free passage of an electric current is known as insulator.
Insulators are used to confine electric currents to the conductors in which they are intended to flow
and to prevent leakage of electricity to adjacent conducting materials which are not intended to
become 'alive'. Insulation is also needed to prevent 'short ccts’ btwn various parts of an installation.
Some insulating materials commonly used as insulators are:
a. Rubber
Widely used for covering wires and cables.
Adv
i. Good insulator
ii. Impervious to water
iii. Flexible
Disad
i. Its adversely affected by sunlight
ii. It's not fireproof

b. POLY-VINLY CHLORIDE [P.V.C]

It's a modern thermoplastic material which is often used as an alternative to rubber.
Adv
i. It resists chemical action and direct sunlight
ii. Not so inflammable
Disad
i. Has less degree of mechanical protection as rubber
ii. More expensive than rubber
iii. Cannot be used where temperatures exceeds 45°C

c. RAPER
Impregnated paper is often used to insulate the conductors in underground cables and must be
protected from the ingress of moisture.

d. MINERAL INSULATION
Magnesium oxide is used as insulation in the certain types of cables. It is extremely heat resistance
but must be protected against ingress of moisture.

Topic 3
 1. A.C /D.C Power Supply Sources
All three phase / single phase power supply apply the principle of dynamo effect in
generation of power. The prime movers are developed by alternators by:-
i. Hydro-power
ii. Geothermal power
iii. Wind power
iv. Diesel engine power
v. Tidal power
vi. A.c inverters
2. D.C Power Sources
i. Dry cells
ii. Acid accumulators
iii. Solar energy (photovoltaic cells)
iv. D.C rectification

THREE PHASE POWER SUPPLY

Three Phase Generator
When three similar coils are fixed such that they are on 120o from each other and mounted on a
common shaft to rotate in a magnetic field then in the coils three phase e.m.fs are induced with
120o phase angle between them. However each phase behaves as if it were completely
independent from others (refer to diagrams).
The aptitudes of the generated e.m.fs in coils are equal and can be represented by three sine
waves uniformly spaced at 120o from each other. The directions of the e.m.f are considered
positive when the direction is from the start to finish of the coils. This instantaneous values may be
expressed as follows eR = Em sim
ey= Em sim ( -120o) and Eb = Em sim ( -240o)
The three phases are usually color coded red, yellow and blue in that order or letter coded A,B,C
and numerically coded 1,2,3

Phase Coils Connections

Delta or mesh Connection
In this connection of the three phase coil , the end of one phase is connected to the start of the
other to form closed circuit that is a mesh.
In order to connect the phase coils into a closed circuit their instantaneous values of the total
generated e.m.fs must be equal so that no circulating current is set up within the coils, that is
eR + ey + eb = 0. This can be proved that at any instant the sum of instantaneous voltage is zero.
Therefore the algebraic sum of the generated e.m.fs at any instant is zero.
R1B

eR eB

Y1R
B1Y
eB

Stan Connection
In this connection of the three phase coils, the starts of the coils are connected together in form of
a Stan.

OR
Feeders Distributors And Service Mains

GS

11/132KV

132/33KV
(RS)

33/11
(SS)

11/45
(DS)

Consumers

Various Systems of Power Transmission

For transmission of electric power 3-phase, 3 wire a.c system is universally adopted. However
other systems can also be used for transmission under special circumstances. The different possible
systems of transmission are
D.C SYSTEM
1. Two wire d.c system with one conductor earthed

Vm

In the 2-wire d.c system one is the going or positive wire and the other is the return or
negative wire. The load is connected between the two wires.
2. Two –wire d.c system with mid-point earthed
The maximum voltage between any conductor and earth sum so that maximum voltage
between the conductors is 2 Vm

Vm

2Vm

Vm

3. Three wire d.c system

Vm

2Vm

Vm

In a 3wire d.c system there are two outers and middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
generator end. If the load is balanced the current in the neutral wire is zero,
AC SYSTEM
1. Single phase 2-wire system with one conductor earthed

Vm

Maximum voltage between conductors is Vm.

2. Single phase 2 wire system with midpoint earthed

2Vm

Vm
 The two wires possesses equal and opposite voltages to earth therefore the maximum voltage.
3. Single phase 3-wire system

Vm

2Vm

Vm

The single phased 3-wire system is identical in principle with 3-wire d.c system. The system
consists of two outers and neutral wire taken from the mid-point of the phase winding, if the
load is balanced the current through the neutral wire is zero.
4. 3-phase -3 wire system
Red

Yellow Blue

This system is almost universally adopted for transmission of electric power. The 3- phase,
3wire system may be star connected or delta connected
5. 3- Phase -4wire system
Red

Yellow

Blue

Neutral
In this case 4th or neutral wire is the taken from the neutral point. The area of cross-section of
the neutral wire is generally one-half that of the wire connector. If the loads are balanced
then current through the neutral is zero.
Advantages of polyphase system over single phase
1. Motors have a uniform torque while single phase have pulsating
2. Polyphas transmission requires less conductor materials hence less expensive
3. Three –phase induction motors are self starting and high efficiency , better power factor
4. Polyphase (three phase) can operate with machines for both single phase and three phase
5. Power rating for 3- phase is higher than single phase for the same schemes (size)
6. Parallel operating of 3-phase alternators are easier than single phase alternator
Intake points (Main switch Gears)
IEE regulations requires that every consumers electrical installations shall be adequately
controlled by specified equipments and these equipments must be readily accessible to the
consumer and it is near as possible to the supply intake cut-outs. The type and the size of the
installations and its total maximum load determine the size and type of switch gear. Therefore
any installation must be able to
i. Isolate the complete installation from the supply
ii. Protect the installation against excess current which may rise say during short circuit
iii. Cut off the current should earth fault occur say a live conduct touching earthed metal work.
Sequence of supply and control equipment in a single phase
Over head Underground
Core cable 2
Sealing box & fuse

Supply fuse & link

Meter

Meter
Main Switch

Consumer unit Distribution Board

L E N L E N
Live
Earth
Neutral
The sequence of supply control equipment in a single phase installation is shown in the above
diagram for both overhead and underground supply. The incoming cable can be underground
or overhead. The core are prepared for termination and for the overhead they are connected
in a large main fuse control and generally a neutral connector block. If the cable is connected
to a sealing box combined with a cut out unit.
The sealing box is always used with paper insulated cores and serves to seal the end of the
cable to prevent any moisture from entering into the cable and possibly in time causing
damage in the insulation. The sealing box is filled with a compound (pitch –Stan).
Cut-out:- This contains the service fuse and neutral link. The rating of the fuse should be such
that it could carry the load current continuously without overheating. Rating can either be 60A
or 80A. Fuse is either rewinable or cartilage type. The neutral link is a solid link made up of
tinned copper and is used where the neutral side of the supply is effectively earthed. If not
earthed then it can be fused like the live conductor. The cut out is completely sealed to prevent
unauthorized interference
Meter:- This one registers the amount of electrical energy used by current using items
connected to the electrical installation. This is the product of volts (V) and Amperes (I) and
Time (t) the unit is Kwh. More than one meter can be installed depending on the type of tariff.
Like the supply cable and cutout this is property of the supply authority. Again the equipment
terminals are completely sealed to prevent unauthorized interference.
Main switch or Switch fuse:- from the meter cables are taken to consumer main switch or
switch fuse. This is a double pole linked blade type which will isolate the complete installation
from supply when it is operated. If three phase and neutral then all the four poles will be
broken, the fuse is either a rewinable or cartilage type whose rating is the same as that of
service fuse. Depending on the type of tariff provided more than one switch are installed. This
equipment should be installed close to main cut out.
Consumer Unit, Distributor fuse Box:- The distribution fuse board is the item which distributes
the electricity in the various final circuits which go to make up the complete electrical
installation. Circuits are provided with individual fuses placed on the live conductor. The neutral
takes the form of a connector bar or block. Instead of a distributor board, it can be a splitter
unit. This is a combined main switch and distribution fuse board. They are suitable for small
lighting installation; main disadvantage is that all circuits have to be switched off for a fuse to
be replaced. If a distributor board does not contain fuses it can be MVB distributor boar.
Miniature Circuit breakers are used to give protection against excess current to each circuit. A
consumer unit consists of a 60A main switch box which isolates both conductors. The inclusion of
main switch means the consumer’s main fuse may be omitted though permission may be got
from supply authority. For the three phase four wire, the supply point should be as indicated
in the below diagrams.
Final Circuits
Final Circuits
Phase + 3 -4wire
Neutral DB Distribution brand
3
Distribution
Board

3 -Linked Switch
3
Isolator

Meter s
3
Meter
Supply + Link

3
Cut out

4-Core cable
A B
A final circuit can be defined as an outgoing circuit connected to a distributor board and
intended to supply electrical current using apparatus either directly or through socket outlets or
fused spur boxes.
A distributor board can be defined as assembly of parts including one or more fuses or circuit
breakers arranged for the distribution of electrical energy to final circuit or to other
distribution boards.
IEE regulations require their every final circuit connected to a separate way in a distribution
board.
For the current rating of a fuse for a final circuit shall not exceed the current rating of the
lowest rated cable in the circuit protected by the fuse.
The final circuit is grouped as follows
a. Rating not exceeding 15A
b. Rating exceeding 15A
c. Rated for 13A fused plugs
 d. Rated for feeding fluorescents and other on charge lamp circuits
e. Rated for feeding a motor
Rating not Exceeding 15A:- Circuit in this category can feed or supply a number of points as
long as total current does not exceed 15A. There should be no allowance for divering and the
current rating of the cable must not be exceeded. Lighting circuit should not be less than one so
that incase one fuses the other can be used especially where maintenance is to be concerned.
Rating Exceeding 15A:- Circuits in this category do not feed more than one point. They
include cooker and water heater circuits generally rated at 20A. However a cocker unit
combined with a socket outlet which is an exception.
Rated for 13A fused plugs:- These circuits feed 13Asocket outlets to be fitted with plugs of
the rating. Socket outlets can be connected either in radial or ring form. Number of sockets
outlets in each case should be as per requirement of IEE regulations. However this will be
determined by total peak load of the circuit. Total permissible load of either circuit of fixed
appliances fed from single final circuit must not exceed 15A.
Rated for feeding fluorescents and other discharge lamp circuits:- switching is the most
important aspect considered in this final circuit. While determining the load in these circuits the
wattage of the lamp is not only what is considered but other factors are included. This is due
to the presence of choke or indicator that increases the current taken by the circuit. IEE
regulations require that the circuit shall be capable of carrying the total steady current
multiplied by not less than 1.8. This factor is based on the assumption that a circuit is converted
to a power factor of not less than 0.85 and takes into account control gear losses. Rating of
the switches associated with these circuits should have a rating not less than twice the steady
correct of the circuit they protect.
Rated for feeding a Motor:- Most important requirement is the cables feeding the motors
which should be based on full load current of the of the motors they supply. Circuits rated at
15A can feed more than one motor as long as the motor does not exceed 15A. if the motor
current rating exceeds 15A then only one motor should be supplied by this circuit. IEE
regulations give the requirements as regard control of motors and over current protection.
 Topic 4
Cables
A cable is a length of a single conductor having one or several wires stranded together or two
or more such conductors each provided with its own insulation and laid up together. These
insulated conductors may further be covered (sheathed) to prevent mechanical damage. The
insulated conductors are referred to as cores
Parts of a cable
a) The core (conductor) to carry the current
b) Insulation (dielectric) to prevent leakage of current i.e. provide means of prevent
leakage of current to surrounding
c) External (sheath) provide protection against mechanical damage , chemical attack , fire
or other external damaging factors to the cable

Armored Cable

 For underground installation

 High voltage supply
Paper- Insulated lead covered steel wire armour PI/PL/SWA

Used for main distribution of higher voltage both underground and on the surface
H.CH.D: High Conductivity Hard Drawn
P.T.P : polyethylene terephthalate [e.g. Terylene]
E.P: Ethylene propylene
P.B.J: Paper Bituminized Jute
H.S.O.S: House Service Overhead Service
TYPES OF CABLES
Cables can be grouped according to their applications in electrical work. These groups include:
 Wiring cables; this includes switchboard wiring, farm wiring, domestic and workshop.
 Power cables: heavy cables generally, lead sheathed and armored control cables for
electrical equipment.
 Overhead cables: bare, light insulated and insulated conductor of copper, copper
cadmium and alminium.
 Communication cables: this group includes television down lead and radio relay cables
and telephone cables.
 Welding cables: these are flexible cables and heavy cords with either copper or
alminium conductors.
 Electric sign cables p.v.c and rubber insulated cables for high voltage discharge lamps.
They are able to withstand the high voltage
 Equipment wires; they are special wires for use with instruments often insulated with
special materials such as silicon, rubber and irradiated polythene.
 Appliance wiring cables: its group includes high temperature cables for electric
radiators and cookers. The insulation used includes nylon asbestos and Varnished
cambric.
 Heating cables: cables for floor warming road, soil warming, ceiling heating and
similar applications.
 Flexible cable it is a cable consisting of one or more cores each containing a group of
wires, the diameters of the wires and the construction of the cable being such as to
afford flexibility.
 Flexible cord it is a flexible cable in which the x sectional area of each conductor does
not exceed 4mm2. Flexible cables are available in many sizes and types the most
common are,
 Twin twisted; this consist of two single insulated stranded conductors twisted together
to form a two core cable. Color identification is red and black. The insulation used is
vulcanized rubber or p.v.c .the rubber is protected by a braiding of cotton, glazeci
cotton and artificial silk.
 Three core; they are similar to twin twisted but are provided with a third conductor
colored green for earthing.
 Twin circular; this flexible cord consists of two conductors twisted together with cotton
filter threads colored brown and blue, and enclosed within a protective braiding of
cotton or nylon.
  Three core circular; like twin core circular except that the third conductor is colored
green and yellow for earthing purposes.
 Four core circular; they are like core circular the colors are brown and blue.
 Parallel twin; they are two stranded conductors laid together in parallel and ;
insulated to form uniform cable with rubber or p.v.c.
 Twin - core[flat]; this consist of two stranded conductors insulated with rubber ; colored
red and black laid side by side and braided with artificial silk.
 Flexible cables; these cables are made with stranded conductors the diameters being
0.3mm 0.4mm 0.5mm 0.6mm.they are generally used for trailing cables and similar
applications where heavy currents are to be colored for instance to welding.

CABLE RATINGS AND SIZES

The current rating of a conductor is the maximum current that it can carry continuously without
undue heating. The temperature rise of a conductor depends on both the amount of current
flowing and the installation environment therefore the current rating of a particular size
conductor varies.
When selecting the size of cable to be used in a particular cct there are two IEE requirements
that should be met.
i. The cable must be able to carry the maximum current liable to flow in the cct withput
undue heating
ii. The voltage drop from consumers point to any point in the installation shall not exceed
2.5% of the declared or nominal voltage when the conductors are carrying the full load
current disregarding starting conditions.
Factors affecting the current rating of a cable;
Ambient temperature; this is the temperature in the vicinity of the cables or it's the temp of the
surrounding medium under normal conditions in which cables are or to be installed including the
effect of artificial heating used in the building and any local source of heat but not an increase
of temperature in the neighborhood of cables.
Type of excess current protection; current rating of cables insulated with p.v.c or synthetic
rubbers are determined not only by the maximum conductor temperature admissible for
continuous running but also by the temperature likely to be attained under conditions of excess
current. There are two types of excess current protection namely;
i. Close excess current protection; this is excess current protection which will operate
within four hours at 1.5 times the designed load current of the cct it protects. The
devices includes; Fuses which have fusing factor not exceeding 1.5 and m.c.bs which are
set to operate to an overload not exceeding 1.5 times the designed load cct.
ii. Coarse excess current protection; This type of excess current protection which will not
operate within four hours at 1.5 times the designed load current of the cct which it
operates. Devices offering coarse excess current protection are BS 88 fuses. Semi
enclosed [rewirable] fuses complying with BS3036.
Grouping of ccts; the no of ccts running in the same enclosure e.g. trunking, conduits cables
carrying the same current rating are bunched and when laid 2gether they add heat to one
another therefore group factor is used.
Disposition; position relative to other conductors and surfaces e.g. when cables are laid ,
together in underground the temperature around them rises.
Type of insulation and sheath; e.g. sheathed multiple cores can be considered as a no. of
cable tightly bunched together.

The current rating of various types of cables installed in particular conditions are listed in IEE
tables multiplied by an appropriate rating factor which is determined by considering the
ambient temperature.
In many cases it is unlikely that all the apparatus connected to a cct will be switched on at the
same time thus the maximum current that the conductor will actually have to carry will be less
than the total possible current which would flow if all the apparatus were switched on
simultaneously therefore the flow of current varies and we have a factor known as diversity
factor which is given by
Actual maximum current
Total current required for all apparatus combined

Or use a table for diversity.

Example I
A corridor 96m long is to be lighted by 240v 60w lamps spaced 12m apart and controlled by
one switch at the supply end. The wiring is to be single core P.V.C insulated cables enclosed in
metal conduit. Find the size of wire required.
Sol:.
No. of lamps 96/12=8
Current per lamp I = P/V =60/240 =0.25A
Maximum current = 0.25x8 =2A /
The current distribution is marked on the diagram below;

The allowable volt drop is 2.5% =240x 2.5/100 =6v

Ref to the table column 3and 4 shows that a cable 1.0mm" [1/1.13] has a v.d per ampere per
metre run of 40mVand a current rating of 11A. The cable carries 2A, the v.d will vary at each
lighting point and the calculations are as shown below;

AB' = 40x 2x 6 = 480mv =0.48v

BC= 40x 1.75x12 = 840mv = 0.84v
CD= 40x1.5x12 =720mv
DE= 40x1.25x12 =600mv
EF= 40x1.0x12 =480mv
FG= 40x0.75x12 =360mv
GH = 40x0.50x12 =240mv
HJ= 40x0.25x12 =120mv
Total =3.84v which is less than 6v therefore the cable chosen is of suitable

Example II
A room is warmed by a 2.4Kw heaters which consists of two ccts together in one conduit. The
length of the room is 23m and the supply is 240v single phase and the wiring is single cote
p.v.c insulated cables drawn in conduit. Find the required size of cable to comply with IEE
regulations. ".
Sol;
Load current = 2400/240 =10A
Allowable v.d = 6v
Ref table column 3 and 4
Cable 1.5mm2 [1/1.38] has a current rating of 13A and v.d /A/m of 27mv.
The group rating of two pairs of two pairs cable is 0.8 therefore the current rating of this
cable is 13 x 0.8 = 10.4A. This is large enough to carry current of 10A
The v.d = 27 x 10 x 23/1000 = 6.21v which is greater than the allowable v.d therefore the
next cable is. chosen which is 2.5mm2 [1/1.78] with current rating of 18A and v.d of 16mv.
The current rating with the grouping factor of 0.8 will be 18x 0.8 = 14.4A therefore the v.d =
16x10x23/1000 = 3.68v
The v.d is within the limit-of 6v thus this cable will be suitable.

Example III
A P.V.C insulated and sheathed twin cable of 20m run supplies current from the switchboard in
the domestic premises to a 6Kw 240v cooker which incorporates a s/o in the control unit. Find
the minimum size of cable to comply with the IEE regulations.
Sol;
V.d allowable = 2.5% of 240 = 6v
Load current = 6000/240 = 25A
Since it a cooking appliance diversity is allowed therefore
First- 10A of rated current = 10A
30% of the remainder = 30/100 xl5 =4.5A
For s/o = 5A
Total = 19.5
Since a twin cable is used col 7&8 are used and a cable of 2.5mm21/1.78 with a current
rating of 23A and v.d/A/m of 16mv therefore
the v.d = 16 x 19.5x 20 = 6.24v
1000
This drop is greater than 6v therefore choose the next cable which is 4mm2 with a current
rating of 30A and a v.d of l0mv /A/metre. Then the v.d is lOx 19.5 x 20 = 3.9v.
This cable is suitable since the volt drop is within the allowable limit of 6v.
Example IV
A 7kw 240v electrical load is fed from a single phase supply 38m away. The installation is
done using p.v.c sheathed twin with earth enclosed in conduit and the ambient temperature is
40° coarse excess current protection. Find the size of the cable required for the installation to
comply with IEE regulations.
Sol;
Max permissible v.d = 6v x
Load current = p/v = 7000/ 240 = 29Ar
Cablp chosen is from col 3&4 size is 6mm2 with current rating of 31A & v.d 6.8mv at 40°
current rating = 0.94
Amended current = 31 x 0.94 = 29.14A
v.d = 6.8 x29 x38
1000 = 7.4936v which is greater than 6v a more larger cable is used
Which is 10mm2 with 4mv
v.d = 4 x29x 38
1000 = 4.408. Therefore the cable is 10mm2
Example V
A conductor 40m long supplied by 240v single phase is to feed a 6kw water heater. If the
wiring is single core p.v.c insulated copper and enclosed in a conduit, the protection offered is
close excess and the ambient temperature 40°c. Calculate the appropriate cable size that is
suitable for this installation.
Max permissible voltage drop is 2.5% of 240 = 6v
Load current = l=p/v = 6000/240 = 25A
From the table the cable size is 6mm2 with a current rating of 31A and a v.d of 6.8mv Rating
factor temperature 40° is 0.87
.Protection is close 1.33
Combine rating factors = 1.33 x 0.87 = 1.571
Amended current = 31 xl.571 = 35.87A
v.d -6.8x 25x40
1000 = 6.8v which is more than the required 6v therefore the next cable is chosen
which is 10mm2 with a current rating of 42A and a v.d of lomv.
The’ v.d is 4x 25x40
1000 = 4v and its less than 6v therefore the correct cable size is 10mm2
Example VI
A conductor 30m long is to supply a 7.68kw electric motor which is single phase, the ambient
temperature is 55°c and the protection offered is coarse excess current protection The cable
for the motor is to be drawn together with other two ccts in a p.v.c. conduit. All the cables are
p.v.c insulated non armored single core copper. Find the size of the cable which will be used to
install and meet the v.d requirements.
Sok-
Permissible drop is 6v
Load current is 7.68x 1000
1000 =32A
Rating factor temp= 0.77
Grouping =0.69
Combined R.F =.77x0.69 = 0.531
From the tables cable chosen is 10mm2 with a current rating of 42A and v.d of 4mv
The amended current = 42 x 0.531 = 22.3A.
This current is less than the load current therefore the next cable is selected which is 16mm2
with a current rating of 56A and v.d of 2.6mv.
The amended current is 56x 0.531 = 29.74A.
Stilt its less than the load current therefore the next cable which is 25mm2 with a current rating
of 73A and v.d of 1.6mv.
The amended current is 73x 0.531 = 38.76A
The v.d is 1.6 x 32 x30
1000 = 1.54v which is less than 6v
The appropriate cable size is 25mm2.

Example VII
A single phase supply is used in a domestic house to supply load. The total current demand is
28A and the cable used is p.v.c non armored single core clipped directly on the surface. The
protection to be offered is close excess current protection and ambient temperature is 50° c.
the total no. of ccts in the installation is 5. Calculate the appropriate size of cable required for
the installation.
Sok
Current demand is 28A
The size chosen is 4mm2 with a current rating of 30 and v.d of l0mv
The rating factor is 1.33 x 0.71 = 0.9443 Grouping the R.F = 0.9443 x 0.59 = 0.557
The permissible drop is 6v
The amended current is 0.557 x 30 = 16.71 which is less than the load current therefore next
cable is chosen which is 6mm2 with a current rating of 38A and a v.d of 6.8mv
Amended current is 0.557x38 =21.2A which is still less than the load current therefore the
next cable which is 10mm2 with a current rating of 51A and v.d of 4mv .
The amended current is 0.557 x 51 = 28.41
v.d.is 4x28 x 1
1000 = 0.112v which is less than 6v.
The appropriate cable is therefore 10mm2.
 Topic 5
WIRING ACCESSORIES:
Ann accessory is any device other than a lighting fitting, associated with wiring and current
using appliances of an installation e.g. a switch, a plug s/o e.t.c.
Types of accessories:
Lamp holders; These are designed for quick removal and replacement of lamps. The main
types are: bayonet cap {B.C] its used for filament lamps upto 150w.
Small bayonet cap used for small discharge lamps
Edison screw [G.SJ used for filament lamps from 150 - 200w.
Goliath Edison screw [G.E.S] for filament lamps above 200w.
Lamp holders used in flexible pendants are of cord grip type. Those for mounting direct on
ceiling are known as battern type.
IEE regulations concerning lamp holders:
i. Lamp holders for filament lamps shall normally be used in low voltage only i.e. shall not
exceed 250v.
ii. Every lamp holder for a bayonet cap in any situations in which its readily be touched
by a person in contact with or standing on earth shall be
- Earthed
- Constructed of or stranded in insulating material.
iii. With Edison screw type lamp holder is connected to a source of supply having an
earthed, neutral, the live conductor should be connected to the centre terminal and the
neutral to the outer or screwed contact
Ceiling roses: it may be of two or three plate. The connections are as shown below
I EE regulations on ceiling roses:
 Ceiling rose shall not be installed in any cct operating at a voltage exceeding 250v.
 A ceiling rose shall not be used for the attachment of more than one outgoing flexible
cord, unless it is specifically for multiple pendants.
 A ceiling rose shall not be connected in a manner that one of the terminal remains live
when the associated switch Is off unless the terminal cannot be touched when the ceiling
rose is dismantled for replacement associated flexible cord.
 The earthling terminal of every ceiling rose shall be connected to the earth continuity
conductor [ECC] of the final sub cct.

Switch: it's a mechanical device used for controlling or isolating part of or a cct. It may be
.single pole [controlling only the live pole of the supply] or double pole [controlling two poles ].
Ordinary switches used for controlling light points are usually rated 5A.

Classification of switch as according construction or purpose

One way switch: this is a switch that controls a point from one position.
Lamp
N

Two way switch: this provides independent control from two positions. It has three terminals;
one is terminated from the switch feed the other two are interconnected by straps. When used
in pairs the two switches should provide complete control from two positions

Intermediate switch
It's used where control of three or more positions is required. They are normally used in
conjunction ’with two way switches. They have four terminals and are of three different kinds:
Type One
IEE REG:
1. In a two wire installation connected to source of supply having one pole connected with
earth, all fuses and single pole control device e.g. switches, cct breakers thermostats
should be connected in the live conductor only.
2. In a two wire installation connected to a source of supply having either pole to the earth
every switch, cct breaker shall be fitted in both poles.
Joint box
This is a box in which conductors of cables are jointed. They are available in various forms.
They have knock cuts for ca.ble entry and are provided with lids of screw.
Plugs and socket outlets: These are required to enable portable apparatus to the final ccts.
The s/o is the fixed portion connected to the fixed wiring and comprises of two or three
conduct tubes and terminals. The plug is connected too the apparatus by a flexible wire and
comprises of two or three contact pins to fit the contact tubes or the s/o. the plug may be
fused or not.
IEE Reg for s/o and plugs:
1. It must not be possible for any one of the pin of plug to be in live contact with the s/o
when any other pin is exposed.
2. No plug should be fit in any live contact if a s/o, other than that of the s/o for which it
is designed.
3. With exceptions every plug and s/o must be non reversible with provisions for earthing.
4. Every fuse plug is to be non reversible with no provision for a fuse in an earthed
conductor.

Distribution boards;
This is an assemblage of parts including one or more fuse of cct breakers arranged for
distribution of an electric current to final ccts or to the distribution boards. The boards are
usually metal cased or hard wood cased. The case is fitted with an earthing terminal. It
contains a fuse bank on the live side Neutral wire is connected to the neutral bar. The LEE reg
require that the neutral conductor for different currents should-be connected in the same order
as the live conductor.
Consumer Control Unit [CCU]
In a single phase installation whose current rating is not greater than 60A, the consumers' main
switch and other fuses may be combined with the distribution board as one unit. This unit is
known as consumers control unit.
Fuses and cct breakers [under protection]
 Topic 6
WIRING SYSTEMS
A wiring system is an assembly of parts used in the formation of one more electric ccts. It
consists of a conductor together with its insulation its protection against mechanical damage
[sheathing or armoring] certain wiring accessories for fixing the system, joining and terminating
the conductors.
Good workmanship; a good workman is the technician who does produce a good looking,
neat with his tools, and the result of the sound and considered application of theory.
Factors to consider when choosing the wiring system.
 Type of building; whether the installation work is for permanent or temporary
building or for extension to an existing building.
 Installation conditions; whether the installation is likely to be subjected to
mechanical damage, moisture, fumes, weather, abnormal or subnormal
temperatures, inflammable or explosive dust, gas or vapor.
 Flexibility ; whether the wiring system must be one which will allow it to be easily
extended or altered at some time in the future.
 Appearance; whether the building is such that the electrical installation must be
hidden or its appearance can be allowed e.g. in an electrical workshop surface run
conduits is not out of place but would be awkward in offices.
 Durability; whether the installation is to last for the time of the life of the building or
not.
 Cost; whether the amount of money available for the electrical installation part of
the building is restricted or not.
 Safety; depends on the installation conditions type of the supply and the earthing
arrangements available.
WIRING SYSTEM 1
This system includes all wiring which use sheath as its mechanical protection. There are several
types depending on the material used for sheathing they are;
 Tough rubber sheath [TRS] its termed as an all insulated system because the sheath is
of an insulating material. The insulation material is vulcanized rubber and the sheath is
tough rubber. The cable is available in single core, flat twin three core and twin with cct
protective conductor [cpc].
Adv: it's cheap
It's flexible
It's easy to install
Disad; rubber is weak to withstand severe mechanical damage
Rubber is affected by oil
Limited to ambient temperature [tends to harden at high temperature]
 Polyvinylchloride [PVC] its also an all insulated wiring system where both the insulation
and sheath are p.v.c. Available as single core, flat twin with earth and 3 core with
earth.
Adv; less affected by oil
, Has less insulation resistance
 Disad; p.v.c softens when warmed therefore excluded in a number of installation
applications.
 Polychloroprene sheathed [p.c.p] : The cable consist of conductors insulated with
vulcanized and sheathed with p.c.p which is a tough rubber like substance. This form of
plastic material is suitable for farm wiring where steam, ammonia fumes, lactic acidand
milk fats, sulphur fumes, direct sunlight and heat is likely to be encountered.
 LEAD ALLOY SHEATHED [LAS]: this system consists of conductors which are insulated
with vulcanized rubber, taped and sheathed with a lead alloy. The lead sheath can be
used as a cct protective conductor therefore must be continuous throughout the;
installation by soldering or bonding with clamps and also it protects against mechanical
damage.
Disad: the lead sheath is very soft material and can be damaged severely by blows
from any '• hard object.
LAS cables are liable to corrosion where they come into contact with lime in damp .
situations.
 MINERAL INSULATED METAL SHEATHED [MIMS]: these cable consists of alminium"
conductors contained in a copper or alminium sheath, the insulant is compressed mineral
magnesium oxide. The most common type is MICS which are impervious to water and oil
and immune from condensation therefore does not require further protection even
against high temperatures and fire. The conductor sheath and the insulant are inorganic
the cable is virtually ageless. During installation the ends of cable must be sealed off
against the ingress of moisture by special terminations. /
Adv: the cable has good heat resisting properties.
Has a higher current rating than P.V.C, TRS or PILC
Offers an excellent self contained CPC since the sheath is copper or
alminium. Application: for industrial and hazardous areas.
 HOUSE SERVICE OVEHEAD SYSTEM [HSOS]
The conductors of this wiring system are insulated with vulcanized rubber and tapped.
The cores of the cable are then varnished and calico tapped. The whole is braided and
coated with weather resisting compound. This type of cable is used for consumer's
distribution wiring between buildings. They are found either fixed or supported by
centenary wire between buildings

Factors affecting the choice of wiring system

1. Type of building construction, vouting ,fixing and termination
2. Flexibility of the system:- change in location of equipment , temporary
3. Installation conditions:- protection against mechanical and working height
4. Appearance of the finished installation (aesthetic) surface or sealed
5. Durability – life of the installation
6. Economic- cost
7. Safety aspect- school, domestic, farm, factor-workshop
Types of wiring system
a. Surface wiring
b. Conduit
c. Trucking
d. Special
- Bare conductors
- Calenary
- Cleated
- Overhead
- Temporary

CONDUITS
The conduits may be metallic or non metallic. In both they are of two types i.e. light and heavy
gauge. •
Metallic conduits
'Steel conduits: the light gauge conduit is produced from steel strip which is formed into a
tube. This type of conduit has an open seam and is only used for small installation at or below
250v. The light construction of the tube makes it unsuitable for bending. There are two types of
fittings which are supplied for use with this type of conduit which are: lug grip: paint is cleaned
at the end of the conduit to ensure electrical continuity and the fitting is connected to the
conduit by tightening two brass screws
Pin Strip continuity is obtained In this type by tightening hardened steel screw Into the grip
conduit at each fitting

There are two types of the heavy gauge

Heavy gauge welded: this is formed from two strips of heavy gauge sheet steel and is
welded at the seam. This is the most common type of conduit and is used in sizes from 16mm to
32mm outside diameter.
Solid drawn conduit: this is produced by a heated bar over a ram forming a heavy gauge
seamless tube. This type of conduit is more expensive than welded steel heavy gauge conduit
and is only used for flame proof condition.
The finishing's used are:
 Black enamel for internal use in dry situations.
 Silver grey finish for internal use in dry situations where the conduit is required to match
decorations.
 Hot galvanized or stainless steel for external use where the conduit will be subjected to
dampness or condensation.
Because solid drawn conduit is more expensive than the seam welded its use is generally
restricted to gas tight and explosion proof installation. Welded seam conduit is used generally
for moist wood installation.
Adv of steel conduits:
 Provides protection against mechanical damage.
 Provides earth continuity conductor ECC
 It is durable in that if properly installed it lasts for years .without maintenance.
 It can be easily extended.
 It has low fire.
Disad of steel:
 It is more expensive than p.v.c
 It is difficult to conceal
 It is reliable to corrosion.
COPPER CONDUIT
Copper conduit resists corrosion and is an excellent ECC. The system is expensive but has
extremely long life. Conduits are screwed in normal manner through connection to accessories
associated with the system. It can be soldered and bronze junction boxes are used.
ALMINIUM CONDUIT
Tho.ugh in some ways it's inferior to steel conduit but it has found its own application because
of its light weight easy in working with and suitable to tropical conditions. It is a screwed end
conduit and because its resistivity is only a little higher than that of copper it offers excellent
earth continuity facilities. It is not strong mechanically and may require further protection
where the risk of mechanical damage is high.
FLEXIBLE CONDUITS
Flexible conduits are generally used for the final connection to machinery e.g. electrical motors
and where vibrations and the need to adjust the position of equipment make a rigid conduit
connection unsatisfactory.
Flexible conduits can also be deal with the need for complicated twists and bends. It is used
for short runs where mechanical damage is less likely to occur. The conduit is not an acceptable
ECC a separate ECC must be run between the special brush adaptor used to join the flexible
conduit to the ordinary screw conduit to the ordinary screw conduit. Sizes available are from
8mm to 50mm internal diameter

Conduits: .
Plastic conduits
Light gauge: this is a flexible type which has a round cross sectional area and is supplied in
4meters length. It can be bent without tools but bending spring or sand is inserted to prevent it
from collapsing at the bends.
Heavy gauge: this type is bent carefully by use of a bending spring. It is supplied in several
lengths of 4metres and used in moulded fittings. It can withstand a fair lab treatment during
erection and service. By bending you insert a bending spring whose internal diameter is
slightly less than the internal diameter of the conduit and you bend it by putting it across the
knee.
ADV:
 Not expensive.
 It does not pose risk of earth leakage thus no shock risks.
 Its resistance to corrosion.
  Easy to erect.
 It simplifies the routing of the conduit where there are obstacles.
DISAD:
 It expands and contracts as temperature changes causing change in internal cross
sectional area.
 Its insulation resistance and mechanical strength are reduced at temperature of 120°
and above.
NB: in order to comply with IEE reg the p.v.c should have an earth wire run inside the conduit.
IEE reg
 The conduit installation must be completed b4 cables are drawn in.
 A space factor of 40%is allowed in conduit system
 The radius of bend in a circuit should not be greater than 2.5 times the outside diameter
of the conduit.
 The ends of a conduit must be filed or reamed to provide damage to the cable.
 Conduit installed in damp conditions must have a water resistance finish e.g. galvanized
 Extra low voltage and high voltage cables must not be run in the same conduit.
 Metal conduits should be kept separate from gas and water serving conduit which is
likely to come into contact with other services should be bounded to those services.
 All metal conduit must be effectively earthed and all joints must be mechanically and
electrically sound and continuous.
 Drainage points should be provided at the lowest point in a conduit installation and in
Conditions where condensed moisture is likely to collect. Drainage points are not made
in a gas tight system.
 Cable installed in explosive atmosphere must be enclosed in solid conduit unless they
are metal sheathed.
 Metal conduits not requiring earthing are: - short isolated lengths used for mechanical :
protection - short exposed length used for the mechanical protection.
 Ducting of cables - outgoing and return cables must be run in the same conduit.

TRUNKING
Trunking is available in square or rectangular sections ranging from 1.5 inches by 1.5 inch to
12 inch by 6 Inch In cross section and In length of 2m. Trunking Is a very rigid system i.e. cannot
be bent set around obstacles therefore a wide range of fittings are provided by
manufacturers to enable bends to be negotiated. Such fittings include : elbows, tees, blank
ends, bends of various radii and angles, couplers, four way boxes, fire resisting barriei s, pin
racks for vertical runs where cables are wound.
Earth straps are fixed at each section to ensure earth continuity along the trunking.
Forms of trunking
 Busbar trunking
 Flush trunking
 Multi - compartment
 Skirt trunking
 Lighting
  Cable tap trunking
 P.v.c trunking

BUS BAR TRUNKING SYSTEM

It's a wiring system which consists of copper busbars supported on insulators and enclosed in
steel trunking which is convenient for use where large currents have to be handled. Typical uses
off this type of system are:
a) Vertical raising mains: It's often employed in a multi - storeyed building to carry the
supply to each floor.
The incoming supply is connected to the bottom of the raising main and a suitable tap off
point provided at each floor level. A common type of trunking used for this purpose consists
of 300A copper busbars. Since in the event of a fire hot gases and flames would tend to
travel up the trunking, fire proof barriers are fitted at each floor level. A typical fire
barrier consists of a 2- 3 inch thick layer of glass wool supported by a hard asbestos
board sheet and completely fills the trunking

b) Overhead busbar system

This system provides a convenient method of distribution in a factory or a large workshop.
A typical system used to provide a 3<J> supply has 'plug in' tap off points at 3ft intervals
into which a fused tap off box can be fitted which makes it easy to provid-e a supply
position wherever it is required and can be readily changed if necessary, if long runs of
busbars trunking are installed, it is necessary to provide expansion joints at approximately
100ft intervals to allow for expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature. Fire
barriers must be installed at suitable intervals particularly where trunking passes through
walls or partitions to prevent the possible spread of fire along the trunking.
Flush trunking
It fits flush with walls of which it entails a lot of builders work to install.
Multi - compartment
It is provided with segregated compartments so that cables carrying different voltages can
be accommodated in the same trunking unit.
Skirt trunking
It is designed to take the normal place of the room skirting. It carries power, telephone and
lighting cables in its various compartments, s/o can be easily fitted as an integral part of
the trunking.
Lighting trunking
It is designed for use where long rows of continuous lighting are required. The steel
enclosure can carry fluorescent and or tungsten fittings, control gear and supply cables.
P.v.c trunking
Used for lighting ccts mostly in extensions of buildings bell ccts and for telephone cables.
Cable -tap trunking
It does not carry copper busbars but insulated supports which can accommodate VRI and
P.V.C cables from which supplies to machines and lighting ccts are tapped through fused
tap, off boxes.
Adv:
 It's much lighter than conduits of the same capacity
 Has fewer fixings
 Wiring is easier and quicker as cable? are laid in instead of being drawn in.
 Erection time is reduced.
 Multi - compartment trunking is available where segregation of services is required.
Disad:
 The initial cost of installation is quite high.
IEE REG:
 Where cable? are having different ratings arb installed in the same enclosure ail
cables shall be deemed to have the lowest temperature rating.
 Busbar trunking must trunking must not be installed in conditions where inflammable
vapours are present.
 Fire barriers must be installed inside the trunking when it passes through floors, walls
and partitions. Floors, walls, and partitions must be made up with an incombustible
material after the trunking has been installed.
 Allowance should be made for expansion in long sections e.g. by fitting copper
braiding between sections.
 All busbar trunking should be marked danger and voltage stated and lids must be
securely fitted.
 Spacing factor must not exceed 45%.
UNDER FLOOR DUCTS:
The ducts are made of chemically inert non metallic fibrous material impregnated with a
preservative bitumen compound.
The duct is semicircular in section with spigot and s/o laid on and sealed to sheets of
impregnated asbestos with bitumen compound. Metallic boxes are provided as draw in boxes
and junction boxes and include baffles [restraining device to control the movement of fluid or
gas] and tunnels for the crossover of the wiring. The ducts are installed in the solid concrete
floors during the erection of the building then sets are connected through surface conduits
hence to distribution boards. The various ducts are arranged to feed ceiling points for the floor
below and s/o for the floor above
Junction boxes are provided with cover plates fixed flush with the floor finish and since the
ducting is laid out in straight lines btwn j.b it always possible to locate the runs. The duct system
takes form of an intersecting grid so that every part of the floor area is within reasonable
distance of the duct.
ADV:
 The major part of the accommodation for the wiring can be conveniently installed at an
early stage during the construction of the building even though the exact positions of
the outlets may not be known at that time.
 A concealed wiring system is provided, without the need for excessive long chases in the
concrete floors.
 It is relatively easy to alter the positions of outlets if necessary e.g. in case of change of
tenancy.
IEE REG:
 The ducting system shall be sufficiently protected to prevent damage caused by the
intended use of the floor.
 The ducting system shall be run in such a position that it is not liable to damage by
contact v with the floor or the ceiling or their fixings.
 Entries into the ducts must be protected from ingress of water. All covers should be
securely ’• fixed on completion.
 A maximum space factor of 35% must be ensured.
 Where ducts pass through walls or partitions, the hole should be plugged of fire
resisting materials to the thickness of the building materials to avoid spread of fire.

WIRING SYSTEM III

SPECIAL INSTALLATIONS:
Special installations deals with wiring systems which have been developed to meet the
requirements of specific installation condition or are a combination of types of wiring system
land II or are fairly common in use but are applied only in special circumstances.
A. BARE CONDUCTORS
Bare conductors and or lightly insulated conductors are installed in buildings for the following
purposes:
 Earthing connections
 As the external conductors of earthed concentric wiring systems.
 protected rising main and busbar system
  The conductors of extra low voltage system.
As collector wires for travelling cranes and trolleys.
Bare .conductors passing through walls, floors, partitions or ceilings must be protected by
enclosing them* in a non absorbent incombustible insulating material.
B. CATENARY SYSTEMS:
The most common system of catenary wiring is that which uses a high tensile steel wire pulled
taut between buildings, the cable is then run along the catenary wire being supported the
same way. This system is also known as grid suspension system and consists of a central
galvanized steel, high tensile stranded wire surrounded by a number of p.v.c insulated
conductors and the whole is enclosed with p.v.c tape and p.v.c sheathing. Special connecting
boxes are used at tees and right angled turns.
ADV: •
 The system is completely water proof.
 Weight imposed on the building is reduced.
 Installation can be left until the building work is completed.
 Has reduced installation costs.
APPLICATIONS:
 In industrial buildings band similar installations where other types of wiring systems
would either be difficult or expensive to install.
 For overhead street lighting and in factories instead of an overhead busbar system
where amount of power required for machines is small.
C. EARTH CONCENTRIC WIRING:
This consists of one core tinned copper made up with an outer sheath of tinned copper .the
function of the outer sheath is to act both as return conductor for the cct current and as a
mechanical protection.
See reg:
Earth concentric system may only be used if its supplied by a tx and has no metallic connection
with the public supply system on multiple earthing of the neutral has been approved.
D. CLEATED WIRING:
The cleat system consists of V.R.I cable supported by plastic or porcelain cleats.
IEE REG:
The conductors in a cleated system must not touch one another or adjacent surfaces e.g. 'walls,
ceilings e.t.c
The conductors must be in view throughout their length and must be supplied with mechanical
protection when they pass through walls.
Conductors must be terminated at a non inflammable surface e.g. hard wood or block.
N8: this sys.tem is very cheap to install but is only used in conditions where it is not liable to
damage from moisture or mechanical damage.
E. OVERHEAD SYSTEM:
It's not an actual wiring system but an overhead cable which provide distribution of electrical
energy btwn points of use and btwn buildings where there is some considerable distance btwn
the main and control of supply and the point of use e.g. a farmhouse and a water pump a mile
away.
F. TEMPORARY INSTALLATIONS:
A temporary installation is an, installation with an expected period of service of three months.
Any installation beyond this period should be completely overhauled at three month intervals.
IEE REG:
 Every 'installation on a construction site, temporary installation other than in private
dwelling house, shall be in charge of a competent person who shall be fully responsible
for the safety and use of the installation and for any alteration or extension.
 The installation shall be inspected and tested at intervals of three months or less, as
necessitated by the nature of the installation. .

TYPES OF FINAL CIRCUITS

a. Lighting :- Domestic lighting circuits are usually wire in 3/0.29 in twin TRS or PVC ( Twin
1/.44in may also be used). The protecting fuse is generally 5A(35s.w.g tinned copper wire
or cartilage fused with white body), conductors in lighting final circuit (or any final circuit)
should never be interconnected with other final circuit e.g. a final circuit neutral should
never be used to feed more than one final circuit. Each neutral conductor should be
connected to its individual terminal at the neutral block, bunching is not permitted.
Circuits used in domestic installations include
i. One way switching: - In this circuit one or more lights can be controlled by one
switch.

The conductors are looped between the lamps

ii. Two way switching circuit:- This is normally used in stairs or where the room has two
entries as the diagram illustrates

iii. Intermediate switching:- this is used in very long corridors or in hospitals and schools.
This is made possible by use of two way switches as the diagram illustrates
b. Fittings:- Light switches are usually of the 5A(a.c) quick-make-slow break type, flush
mounting or surface mounting. Swatches used in fluorescents lamp circuits must be capable
of carrying twice the normal circuit current in order to withstand the inductive effects of the
choke.
Ceiling fuses:- There are two main types of ceiling fuse. These include the three plate
pattern and two plate pattern.

The Three plate ceiling fuse is used to economize wire and minimize the number of joint
boxes used in installation. Ceiling fuses must not be used on circuits operating above 250v
and no more than two flexible cords are permitted from any one ceiling fuse.
c. Circuit feeding 13A socket outlet: - There are two types of circuits. These include ring
circuit and radial circuit
Ring Circuit:-
The domestic ring circuit is defined as a final circuit in which the current carrying and earth
continuity conductors are connected in the form of a loop both ends of which are connected
to a single way in distribution fuse board or its equivalent. A spur of a ring circuit shall be
a branch cable having conductors of a cross-sectional area not smaller than that of
conductors forming the ring; IEE regulations require that.
i. Cable size – 7/.029(25mm2) twin with earth (PVC or TRS)
ii. Maximum number o sockets allowed- unlimited number in floor area under 1000ft2
but spurs may not number more than half the socket outlets on the ring circuit.
iii. Fused 13A plugs may be used at socket outlets supplying portable appliances
iv. Fixed applications must be protected by local fuse for example a fused spur box
v. A13A fuse should be used to protect the ring circuit.
The purpose of the ring circuit is
 To minimize trailing flexes
 To take the advantage of the fact that all socket outlets in domestic installation are
not operated simultaneously. This is known as divesting in installation.
Diverting factor =
The divesting factor varies for different types of installations.

Radial Circuit:-
In this circuit the conductors are taken from the consumer unit to each socket in turn, however
after the last socket the conductor are not returned to the same connection in the consumer
unit as in the ring circuit (see the diagram below). The number of sockets outlets is minimum
d. Cooker Circuit:- This consists of a cooker fed from a cooker control unit which in turn is fed
from the consumer unit. Cooker control unit consists of a double pole switch combined with
an independent 13A socket outlet. It is essential that the earth continuity conductor
supplying the unit should be connected. The cooker control unit is generally supplied from
a separate way in the consumer control unit wired with 7/.044 in (6.0mm 2) twin with earth
PVC or TRS cable. It is fused at 30A which is sufficient to protect a maximum of 9Kw(3-
plate cooker). No divesting factor is allowed with a final circuit supplying a cooker as it is
possible that all elements will be in use when the cooker is fully utilized.

e. Water Heaters:- Domestic water heaters are generally rated 3Kw and are usually supplied
from the ring circuit. However they can have a separate way in the consumer control unit.
The fuse protecting the circuit should have a rating of 15A and cable size should be
4.0mm2 terminating to water heater main switch. Asbestos-covered cables should be used
to terminate the conductors at the immersion heater since PVC and TRS cables are normally
expected to be used where the surroundings temperature (the ambient temperature) does
not exceed 86oF. The temperature range of water heaters is between 110oF and 180oF.
The thermostat in common with all other switching device must always be fitted in the phase
conductor.
Types of Water heaters
a) Fuse Outlets Water Heater:- this type sometimes known as non- pressure type.
Generally it has a cylindrical container with inlet and outlet pipes. The inlet is
connected in the waters main through the valve, the outlet is left open. A heating
element and a thermostat are located in the bottom of the container. The latter
controls the temperature in the tan. This type of heater is used to give small,
quantities of hot water in instant for washing –up duties. The tank is insulated
against the heat loss by a lagging of fiber glass or granulated cork (see the
diagram below)
 b) Pressure type Water Heater:- this type has a hot-water tank fed from a cold-water
cistern placed above it, the water supplied to the cistern is controlled by a ball
valve. Ho water outlets are thus fed, under pressure supplied by the head (vertical
height) of the cold water available. This type of water heater is available in
capacities from 5 litre upwards and with loading from 3Kw. Other variations of the
pressure type heaters are the local storage and the central storage type; the latter
is used in conjunction with a solid fuel boiler.

c) Instantaneous Water heaters:- These heater do not depend on water storage but
are activated by water pressure. When the tap is turned on the pressure operates
the electricity supply switch at the same time water is split into droplets which flow
over the heating element. Instantaneous heaters are also suitable for use in local
positions where hot water is required.
NB: Since instantaneous water heaters involve no hot water storage; they are economical
to use because the water is in contact with the live element and the heaters are connected
to metal work; they require special earthling and bonding.
Temperature Control Devices
These are obtainable in various forms to meet the requirements of a particular situation but
all operate on the principle of the expansion of gas (air) , liquid or solid with increase IN
temperature. The movement will cause the opening or closing of the circuit contacts or in
some cases the tilting of the mercury type switch.
a. Thermostat:- This use a bimetallic strip which when heated disconnects the circuit
from the supply. The bimetallic strip consists of two metals having different
coefficient linear expansion e.g. brass and invar.

To reduce the time delay between the temperature change and the operation of the
bimetallic strip which can cause large fluctuations in temperature a mall heater in
the form o a resistor is fitted close to the bimetallic strip.
b. Simmerstat:- Where heating elements of ovens, hot plates and wash boilers are
connected as one circuit the simmerstat is used to regulate the temperature. It
operates by regulating the current flow in ON-OFF steps thereby controlling the
amount of energy and hence the amount of heat being generated. When the
contacts are closed some current flows in the heating element of the bimetallic strip
 which after sometime causes it to bend and open the supply to the appliance. At
the same time it disconnects the bimetallic strip supply so that it begins to cool and
eventually returns to its ON/position and connects again flows. The duration of
ON/OFF period is controlled by the setting of valuable resistance. On some type
the control setting simply varies the distance which the bimetallic strip has to move.
c. Three Heat Switch:- This is used where heating element of the appliance are
divided into two circuit for low level of heat the two are connected in series across
supply. For a medium level one element is connected to the supply. For a high
(maximum) level of heat the flow are connected in parallel across the supply.

Three heat
L N Switch

OFF LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Switch contact position

 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

Filament Luminaries

Twin fluorescent fittings

Single fluorescent fittings

Oneway switch (one pole)

Double pole Switch

Cord Operated Switch

2-way Switch

Intermediate Switch

Dimmer Switch

Dimmer with Pilor

Socket Outlet

Twin Socket Switch Outlet

Switched socket outlet

Electric bell

Electric Buzzer

Fuse

Neutral Link
 Main Switch

Consumer unit

Distribution Board

Energy Meter

3 3- Phase socket outer

Transformer

Push Button

Indicator Board

Relay

Siren