CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains an overview of the related literature

and studies on the efficacy of self-defense training in reducing

victimization among female criminology students.

Related Literature

Self-defense training has been recognized as a potential

tool to empower women and reduce their vulnerability to

victimization. The most frequent reason for violence reported by

women was for self-defense. (Saunder, 1986; Gillis 2020) Thus,

according to the result of Rani, et. al, (2019), teaching women

protection skills similar to self-defense remarkably enhance the

status of self-efficacy related to the internal capability to

tackle forceful attack or rape. Similar to the result of the

literature cited by Anderson, et. al. (2019), wherein teaching

females’ assertive resistance to unsexual advances can reduce the

risk of sexual victimization. (McDonald, et. al., 2019)

However, self-defense training may vary depending on factors

such as the characteristics of the participants, specifically in

terms of age. In the experiment conducted by Chen (2023), the

results have shown that college level, both female and male, have

a high level of confidence in defending themselves against

attacks from male. While, in the experiment conducted by Nur Alif

& Muhtar (2019) where the respondents were the 4th, 5th and 6th

grade students of an elementary school in Sumedang, it has shown

that female students from the group has low to moderate self-

efficacy. They have also concluded that age seems to be a

determinant factor in gaining self-efficacy in self-defense

training.

Despite the mixed findings, women perceived self-defense

training as an outcome associated with confidence, self-esteem

and self-efficacy eliminates fear and builds empowerment. (Follo,

2022; Brecklin, 2008; Hollander, 2010)

According to Anitha et. al. (2020) it is concluded that

self-defense training program is an effective program to increase

the knowledge regarding self-defense among students. The article

of Hollander (2023) have also supported the implementation of

Empowerment self-defense (ESD) not only as a sexual violence

primary prevention but also as a program to promote gender

justice.
Related Studies

In recent years, concerns about safety and security of

female students have prompted studies into the efficacy of self-

defense training as a preventive measure against victimization.

Through the interview conducted by Kamath et. al. (2021) in their

qualitative research study entitled “A Qualitative Study on

Significance of Self-Defense Training among Teenage Girls”, the

respondents expressed their perspective on the different

situations they observed, in which twenty-two (22) out of twenty-

five (25) respondents have said that it is difficult for them to

walk alone during night in the streets. However, not only the

unfamiliar isolated places were perceived as a space of fear and

victimization, but also with unsocial gathering were recognized

as a fear-escape for women. (Fear of Victimization and Women

Fearscapes: An Exploratory Study of Varanasi City, India; Dr. Rai

& Rai, 2019)

In connection to this, the findings in the study of Holmes

et. al. (2021) highlights the value of self-defense training in

improving the health of women, including post-traumatic stress

symptoms and interpersonal functioning. (Rape Aggression Defense

Course: Physical, Psychological, and Interpersonal Benefits

among Women ith and without Interpersonal Victimization

Histories; Holmes, et. al., 2021) Similar to the study of

Parveen, et. al., (2019) entitled “Perception about Self-Defense

and Women Training for Self Protection” –women who have undergone

self-defense training have increased their confidence, self-

efficacy and reduces the chances of victimization. Self-defense

empowerment programs have emerged in the United States, in hopes

of reducing the incidences of assault through national

conversations about gender-based violence. (Rape, Abuse, & Incest

National Network, n.d.; Employing Research to Understand

Violence against Women, Starheim, 2019) While, risk perception

significantly affects intention to engage in self-protective

behaviors, the more risk people feel, the more likely they intend

to take self-protective actions. (Xu & Wu, 2022) Correspondingly,

according to Thompson (2019), Women who have had self-defense

training and are later attacked often says that their bodies knew

what to do.

Thus, Barata (2019) have examined eight hundred and ninety-

three (893) women from the universities that are substantial risk

for sexual assault, primarily by male acquaintances in Canada.

Through the experiment conducted, it is therefore concluded that

a stringent designed and implemented sexual assault resistance

program was successful in decreasing the occurrence of rape,

attempted rape, and other form of victimization among university

women. (Efficacy of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for

University Women)