GGH2603

Lesson 2
Lesson 2: Dealing with spatial problems, part 2
2.1 An overview of this lesson
Solving spatial problems
From the previous lesson, you would have gathered that representations of reality are rarely
entirely accurate. This lesson takes a closer look at the representation of reality. Read the text
below, which tells you more.
Lesson 1 was an introductory unit that dealt with spatiality and gave you an introduction in using a
GIS to solve a problem. By now, you should be familiar with what makes problems and data spatial,
and you should be able to define some of the key concepts relating to spatiality.
After completing this module, you should be able to obtain data and information from maps, aerial
photographs and satellite imagery in order to help you make decisions relating to spatial problems.
You should also be able to communicate spatial information using a GIS and maps.
Thus far we have covered the introductory concepts of spatiality, data and mapping. You know
what maps, aerial photographs and satellite images are. But in order to extract data and
information from these data sources, you have to understand them in some detail and be aware
of the distortions and misrepresentations that are inherently associated with them.
In Lesson 1, I introduced you to some of the data sources that we can use to represent reality.
However, mapping is not as straightforward as it may seem as you may have experienced in the
little GIS exercise we did. When trying to represent reality on a map, we are faced with a number
of issues.
In this lesson, we will cover the use of a GIS and maps in greater depth, to enable you to gain
insight into the complexities of representing the complex shape of the earth. In the activities I have
set for this lesson, you will explore the problems related to representing reality on a flat surface,
and some of the solutions to these problems.
2.2 Learning strategy
Learning about spatiality
In this lesson, you will be expected to

• read various internet resources

• search the internet for resources dealing with maps, projections, and coordinate systems
• complete activities and participate in the forums

The activities in this lesson will introduce you to various resources that form part of your learning
material. Please complete all the activities in this lesson before going on to the next lesson.
This lesson and its activities also contain information relevant to the assignments and
examinations.
2.3 Representing reality
Where things are
In lesson 1, you learned that the representation of reality is one of the key features
of a map. To represent reality, we need to know where things are, so that we are
able to represent them in their appropriate locations. Maps show where features are,
but how do we relate their position on the earth to their position on a map?
To put it simply: How do we know where things are?
In the previous lesson, I spoke to you about absolute and relative location.
Relative location is easy to provide, since we are able to use units of measurement
– we could say, "By car, I am 40 minutes west of you", or "Walk 20 minutes in a
northerly direction".
But how do we determine the exact location of something? How do we determine the
exact location of something on the earth's surface in such a way that we can refer to
precisely the same location on a representation of the earth's surface? In lesson
1, I provided an example of absolute location by giving you the coordinate pair of the
Unisa Science campus in Florida, but how does a coordinate system of this kind
work? Complete the activity below to learn more about the geographical coordinate
system used to determine absolute location.

Activity 2.1: The geographical coordinate system

1. Mapping places
You need to give the location of a place in such a way that someone else is able
to find the exact location that you are referring to.
Use any resource that you can find to provide the location of at least three places
of your choice.
You may provide the location of these places in any way or format that you choose,
but your classmates should be able to find these locations.

Go the forum titled "Lesson 2 – Forum", and in the topic titled "Locating places",
post the following:

• the names of the places that you have selected

• a brief description of the places

• the locations of the places

Go to any of your classmates' posts and try to locate the places that they have listed
on Google Maps. Were you able to do this easily? Which format for providing location
made the most sense?

2. Exploring the geographical coordinate system

There are different ways in which to describe the locations of places. One of
these is to use geographical coordinates. This coordinate system allows you to
provide the absolute location of a place in units that everyone is familiar with. You
probably already know something about the geographical coordinate system. You
need to understand coordinate systems well because this is the Geography in
geographical information systems. Explore the resources below to find out more
about it and how it works.

• http://geography.about.com/od/locateplacesworldwide/a/latitude.htm

• http://geography.about.com/cs/latitudelongitude/a/latlong.htm
• Saylor Academy (2012) Essentials of Geographic Information systems.
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_essentials-of-geographic-information-
systems/index.html Please see Section 2.2 (this link gives a very good overview
of coordinate systems and map projections as it is used in a GIS)

• https://www.gislounge.com/common-map-projections/ (this link gives a very

good overview of coordinate systems and map projections as it is used in a
GIS) – other links:

o https://www.esri.com/arcgis-blog/products/arcgis-
pro/mapping/gcs_vs_pcs/
o https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-
app/latest/help/mapping/properties/coordinate-systems-and-
projections.htm
o https://www.gislounge.com/projections-and-coordinate-systems/

• Also have a look at GGH2603 Lesson 2 Activity 2_1 and 2_2.pdf

Please note: These links are important in order to answer some of the
online assessment questions.

After exploring these resources, make sure that you are familiar with the following:

• the direction of lines of longitude

• the direction of lines of latitude

• the real-world distance of a one-degree square

• the number of minutes in one degree and the number of seconds in one minute

• the convention and symbols used to indicate absolute location

• how these are applicable in a GIS

Here we will give a small demonstration how we use degrees, minutes and seconds
(DMS) and decimal degrees to indicate a location. The GIS uses decimal degrees
to indicate a location. Figure 29 shows the flight path from Cape Town International
Airport in Cape Town, South Africa to Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in
Mumbai, India.

Figure 29: From Cape Town to Mumbai by airplane

 Now for the coordinates (tables 2 and 3):

Table 2: Cape Town International Airport

Degrees, minutes, seconds (DMS) Decimal degrees (DDD.dd)
33°51' 17.08” S –33.854744
18°36' 07.43” E 18.602064

Table 3: Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport

Degrees, minutes, seconds (DMS) Decimal degrees (DDD.dd)
19°05' 40.61” N 19.094614
72°52' 27.93” E 72.874425

What did you notice when you looked at the decimal degrees notation for both
airports? Look closely again.1

Thus, there is an additional convention when using decimal degrees and it applies
specifically to a GIS, namely we use positive and negative signs to indicate in which
earth quadrant we find ourselves as illustrated in figure 30. Remember: no minus (–)
sign in front of the numbers means that the value is positive. With a minus (–) sign
the value is negative.

Figure 30: Decimal degrees' conventions (long = longitude and lat = latitude)

Small GIS activity to illustrate figure 30.

• Step 1: Open QGIS.

1 You guessed it correctly, when looking at the latitudes you realised that south is designated by a minus (–)
sign and north does not have a minus sign, meaning it is a positive value. Go back and continue reading.
• Step 2: Add the following two shapefiles using “Add Vector Layer” button in QGIS:
o cntry00.shp
o Quadrants.shp

You should have something similar as illustrated in figure 31.

Figure 31: QGIS coordinate example

At the bottom of the QGIS screen you will find the coordinates (see arrow in figure
31). Move the cursor around stopping at various countries in each quadrant and see
how the values in the coordinate window change as you move about. Once you have
finished it, save it as a project called “World coordinates” since we are going to use it
again a bit later in this lesson.

For a recap, please read https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_degrees (some of the

information may end up in an assignment).

In general, six (6) decimal places have sufficient accuracy.

2.3.1 Reducing reality

No small issue
The first step in representing reality is knowing where things are. If we represent
the location of things, we should be able to describe where they are. For this, we use
a specific coordinate system. This is an essential part of using a map and a GIS.
Another essential part of a map or GIS is the reduction of reality. Even though we
are able to represent things on a map or in a GIS at their correct location (absolute
or relative), we nevertheless have to reduce those phenomena (make them smaller)
in order to show them on a map or in a GIS.
The reason for this is a very simple one: We cannot fit real-life phenomena
on a piece of paper or in a computer.
However, while reducing reality is necessary to make a map or to create a spatial
data set in a GIS, we can also use this reduction as a tool to emphasise certain
phenomena and to get our intended message across.
Complete this activity to familiarise yourself with scale.

Activity 2.2: Map scale

You are probably familiar with the concept of scale, as you would already have seen
both small and large maps representing the earth's surface. Explore the following
resources to learn more about map scale:

• Map scale – measuring distance on a map:

http://geography.about.com/cs/maps/a/mapscale.htm

• What is map scale?

(http://www.ga.gov.au/topographic-mapping/basics/what-is-map-scale.html)

About scale in a GIS:

• http://gif.berkeley.edu/documents/Scale_in_GIS.pdf

• http://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/~brian/Course.Notes/gisscale.html

If you are interested in the science behind map projections and scale, you can visit
this page: http://wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/Scale_(map)

These resources will have shown you how important it is to be able to convert
between different units of measurement when working with map scale. The
following resource deals with how to convert between different units of measurement:
• Metric and imperial units and converting between them: https://www.metric-
conversions.org/converter.htm

Some South African examples. Please read also the green “Read more: ….” Buttons
on the page. http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/what-we-do/maps-and-geospatial-
information

Please note: These links are important in order to answer some of the
online assessment questions.

There are several online converters that will convert between different units of
measurement for you. However, you need to understand how these conversions
work when you are working with maps, and so I would like you to try to do all these
conversions yourself.

To make sure that you are familiar with map scale, answer the following questions:

• What is the real-world distance if the map scale is 1:10 000 and the
measurement on the map is 20 mm?

• The boundary of a farm is 6 km long. How long would this boundary be on a 1:50
000 topographical map?

• If the distance between two points is 2 cm on a 1:100 000 map, what would
that distance be on a 1:5 000 map?

Paying attention to detail

As you have seen when exploring map scale, the scale of a map can be
manipulated to show the person reading the map only what you want them to
see. The scale can determine that the reader sees only a small portion of the earth's
surface, for example, the province of Gauteng, or a bigger portion, such as the whole
of South Africa. When making a map or working within a GIS, careful consideration
of the scale is really important, as this will determine what the reader or GIS user will
focus on.
However, the scale of the map or spatial data set used in a GIS does not determine
only the area that the person reading the map will focus on. Since the scale of the
map directly affects the size of the area that is represented on the map, the scale of
the map also determines the number of things we can include on the map. To see
this for yourself, do the exercise below.

Search for images of a world map or find a world map using Google or Bing.
Consider the amount of information that is provided on it. Carefully examine at least
five different world maps, and see which of the following have been represented:

• the names of countries

• the capital cities of countries

• other cities and towns

• roads

• rivers

• places of interest
Now, type "large scale map" in your search engine and look for images of large-scale
maps. Do you notice the difference in the amount of detail shown? Consider
which of the above have been included in one of the large-scale maps. Are you
able to find a map that includes all these things?
From the exercise above, you would have noticed that some maps show more
detail than others. Typically, maps showing a very large area (small-scale maps)
cannot depict as much detail as maps showing a very small area (large-scale maps).
This is perfectly logical if you think about it. As a cartographer, you have only a
limited amount of space to work on. If you represent a large area, you cannot show
all the detail of that area – there simply is not enough space. Conversely, if you
show a very small area, there is space for a lot of detail. The same applies to using
a GIS.

The detail associated with data is called the level of resolution. Very detailed data
has a high level of resolution, and data that is not very detailed has a low level of
resolution.
As you saw in the examples above, the resolution of data and the map scale are
related. Small-scale maps cannot show a large amount of detail, and therefore have
a low resolution.
But does that mean that all large-scale maps have a high level of
resolution?
The resolution of data is not necessarily the amount of detail shown on the map,
but rather the amount of detail captured when the data was collected. Here is an
example:
As part of Unisa's registration process, you are required to provide some of your
personal information, such as your name, surname, ID number, age, cell phone
number, home telephone number and address.
Now, imagine that Unisa would like to map the locations of all of its South African
students. Obviously not all the data collected will be relevant to this map. In fact, only
students' addresses are necessary in this case. Can you see how the resolution of
a map can be linked to the scale of the map, but that it is not always dependent on
the scale of the map? When making a map, I can decide on the level of
generalisation that I will apply to the data I use.
Let us demonstrate this concept in a GIS. Use the same project “World coordinates”
and remove the “Quadrant” layer by right-clicking on the layer and then click on
“Remove”. It will ask you a question on removing the layer and click on “OK”. Save
the project as “Scales”. You must have something similar as illustrated in figure 32.
 Figure 32: World map in QGIS project “World coordinates”

Is this a large-scale or a small-scale map?2

We are going to play a bit with scales to illustrate that when the scale gets larger, you
can add more details. We are only going to look at countries and rivers. First you
need to add the following shapefiles:

• dams and lakes.shp

• drainage.shp
• PR_SA_2011.shp
• rivers order 1.shp
• rivers order 2.shp
• rivers order 3.shp
• sadc_ict_poly.shp
• saf_urban_point.shp
• saf_wtr1.shp

Once you have added the layers you need to do the following:
1. Right-click on “cntry00” and select “Properties” (figure 33).

2 Small-scale map.
Figure 33: Selecting “Properties”
2. When you click on “Properties” the next window appears (figure 34):

Figure 34: Properties window

Go to “Rendering” and select “Scale dependent visibility” and enter the values as
listed in table 4 below as illustrated in figure 35 below:

Figure 35: Inserting the scale ranges as listed in table 4

Click “Apply” and the click “OK”.

Complete the process for each layer listed in table 4.

Table 4: Scale ranges for each layer (shapefile)
Shapefile (layer) Scale range
cntry00.shp 1:300 000 000 (min) to 1:50 000 000 (max)
dams and lakes.shp 1:5 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
drainage.shp 1:300 000 000 (min) to 1:50 000 000 (max)
PR_SA_2011.shp 1:5 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
rivers order 1.shp 1:5 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
rivers order 2.shp 1:5 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
rivers order 3.shp 1:5 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
sadc_ict_poly.shp 1:50 000 000 (min) to 1:5 000 000 (max)
saf_wtr1.shp 1:50 000 000 (min) to 1:5 000 000 (max)
Saf_urban_point.shp 1:50 000 000 (min) to 1:100 000 (max)
Once you have finished, make sure that the layers are in the following order (figure
36):

Figure 36: Order of layers for the scale exercise

Then zoom in and out using the small-scale window at the bottom of the QGIS
workspace. Another way to zoom in and out is to use your mouse wheel.
What do you observe? Post your observations on the forum for lesson 2.

Activity 2.3: Understanding degree of detail – data

resolution
You need to know what data resolution means. Study the examples below and
answer the questions that follow in order to test your understanding of this concept:

• Consider the data collected by means of the national census.

o Do you think the degree of detail of census data is high or low?
o Explain whether the degree of detail of the census data will remain unchanged
or not when used in compiling a map of South Africa showing the average
income of South Africans (based on the census data).
o Explain how the data resolution on your map would differ if you were compiling
a map showing the average income of people in Gauteng.

• Pretend that you need to investigate the average age of students in South Africa.
To conduct the study, you collect data about the ages of 10 000 students at each
of the universities in South Africa. Since you are only interested in the average
 age of students, you collect only information about students' age and the
university they attend.
o Reflect on the resolution of the data that you have collected. Compare the
resolution of this data with the resolution of the national census.
o Describe the data resolution of a map that shows the average age of students
at universities in Johannesburg.
o Explain whether it would be possible to create a map with a high degree of
detail from the data that you have gathered.
Write down your answers to the questions above. Then go to the forum titled
"Lesson 2 – Forum". Compare your answers with those of some of your classmates
to see whether their opinions on the resolution of these datasets differ from yours,
and if so, in what respect.

Did this discussion help you to realise that map scale is not quite as simple as you
first thought? While the definition of map scale refers to how many times reality has
been reduced in order to represent it on a page, further reflection enables us to
realise that scale is something that can be used to focus the map reader's
attention and that it affects the amount of detail that we can see on a map.
There is another aspect that is also affected by map scale – the dimensionality of
data. If you paid attention in the previous activity, you may have noticed it. Before I
explain the dimensionality of data, do the following:

• Search for a world map or go to Google Maps and zoom out until you can
see a large portion of the world. If you use Google Maps, make sure that you
can still see cities within the borders of countries. Determine how (by means of
what shape) any three cities have been represented. This is similar to your GIS
activity in activity 2.2.

• Search for a map of South Africa, or zoom to South Africa on Google Maps. Are
any of the South African cities represented differently from the cities on a world
map?

• Search for a map that shows the full extent of Gauteng. (Again, you could
go to Google Maps and zoom to show the full the extent of Gauteng.) How are
the cities of Johannesburg or Pretoria in Gauteng represented on this map? How
does this representation differ from that of any of the cities on the other map
scales you have viewed?

All spatial data has a dimensional component, which is determined by the amount
of space the features they relate to take up on the earth's surface. And when
representing those features, we need to determine how to represent them. For
example, will a tree be represented by means of a point or an area?
Just as the map scale dictates the degree of detail on a map, it also represents the
dimensionality of features on the map. For this reason, cities on a world map are
represented by means of points (the map scale is simply too small to show areas).

Please have a look at GGH2603 Lesson 2 Activity 2_3 to 2_6.pdf

Activity 2.4: Dimensionality of data
We need to be aware of the dimensionality of real-world phenomena before we
attempt to map them. Once we are familiar with their real-world dimensionality, we
need to decide whether we are going to map these features as points, lines or areas.
In this activity we will focus on the dimensionality of features on maps.

Go to Google Maps, and set the extent to Johannesburg. Search for the following
places/features on Google Maps and write down how they are represented:

• Johannesburg
• the M1 freeway
• the Carlton Centre
• Emmarentia Dam
• Saint John's College
• Boepakitso Primary School

Now, view the 1:50 000 topographic map 2930CB Pietermaritzburg

(2930CB_2000_ED4_GEO.TIF). You can open the TIF by double clicking on it and
will open in your picture viewer. Zoom in and pan around until you find the listed
places and write down how they are represented:

• the R103
• Ashburton railway station
• Pietermaritzburg

You can also open it in QGIS, then you need to download

2930CB_2000_ED4_GEO.TIF and 2930CB_2000_ED4_GEO.tfw files. Once you
opened it in QGIS, you can zoom in and pan around and look at the listed features
above.

Go to the forum titled “Lesson 2 – Forum" and post your observations. Compare
your answers with those supplied by your classmates.

This activity should have helped you become more familiar with the dimensionality
of spatial data. Answer the following guiding questions to make sure that you
understand dimensionality:

• How can spatial phenomena be represented?

• What is the difference between zero-dimensional, one-dimensional and two-
dimensional features?
• What is the relationship between dimensionality and scale?

I want to leave you with one last thought about the dimensionality of data on maps.
Did you notice how the dimensionality of features represented on maps is "static",
meaning that you cannot zoom in, or change the dimensionality of a feature on a
map? Now, compare that with the changing dimensionality of spatial data on Google
Maps or Google Earth. Go back to the forum titled "Lesson 2 – Forum" and tell us
why you think this may be the case.
2.3.2 Distorting reality

Making the world flat

You have noticed that the scale and resolution level change from map to map. Some
maps are intended to show a large area (think of a world map like the ones we so
often see mounted as wall maps or the GIS activity in activity 2.2), while others focus
on a very small portion of the earth's surface with a very specific purpose. It is
therefore very important that we should be aware of the coordinate system and
determine which map scale would be appropriate when making a map.
Go to figure 37 (old world view of Google Maps based on the Mercator projection) to
see the entire world and study this representation of the world. Consider the
following:

• the size of continents such as Antarctica, Greenland and Australia

• the number of continents that you can see without scrolling
• the direction between two places on the earth's surface

Now, go to Google Maps (also see figure 38) and/or Google Earth and zoom to the
same extent (so that you see a map showing the whole earth). Consider the
following:

• the size of continents such as North and South America, Antarctica, Greenland
and Australia
• the number of continents that you can see without scrolling
Figure 37: Google Maps using the Mercator projection

Figure 38: Virtual globe of Google Maps

On the Google Maps representation in figure 37, we are able to see the entire earth,
while when we look at the earth from an enormous distance in Google Earth, we can
see only a limited portion of it.
Obviously, this has to do with the fact that the earth is spherical (as represented
by Google Maps – figure 38, and Google Earth, which are at this level acting as a
virtual globe), but we map it as a flat surface.
But why does the size of certain continents appear to differ, depending on whether
we view them in Google Maps or Google Earth? Is one of these representations (or
perhaps both) a misrepresentation of reality?

Complete the activity below to learn more about mapping the earth's curved
surface on a flat piece of paper.

Activity 2.5: Problems associated with a flat world

1. What is the shape of the earth?
A map is a reduced representation of the earth's surface (or a portion of it) on a flat
surface as we saw in the aforementioned activities.
But exactly what shape are we representing?
A globe or virtual globe (figure 38) represents the earth as being a sphere similar to
a soccer ball. But is this accurate? Search the internet for resources dealing with the
shape of the earth.
The complex nature of the earth's surface makes it extremely difficult to represent
accurately. To see this for yourself, do the following:

• Take an A4 sheet of paper and draw a grid on the page, the lines 2 cm apart.
• Now, try to wrap the page around a spherical shape, such as a tennis ball or
soccer ball. Try to make the page as flat as possible.
• Notice how the grid lines are no longer parallel.

This little exercise shows us how the transition between a flat surface and a
sphere leads to several distortions.
I did the same exercise using A3 paper with lines 3 cm apart and a globe. The process
is shown in figure 39.

Figure 39: Trying to fit a flat piece of paper unto a globe (not very successful
)
 2. Solutions to making flat maps
As you saw from the exercise you have just done, a sphere cannot be represented
on a flat piece of paper without the scale along the parallels and meridians "shrinking"
or "stretching", or without the parallels and meridians "bending" towards or away from
one another.

In order to minimise the distortions that occur when we represent the earth's surface
on a flat surface, we use map projections. Explore the following resources to learn
more:

• About.geography – "Map projection":

http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/2a.html
• https://egsc.usgs.gov/isb//pubs/MapProjections/projections.pdf

• http://geokov.com/education/map-projection.aspx

Please note: These links are important in order to answer some of the
online assessment questions.

In this module, it is essential that you understand which of the properties are
preserved by which of the map projections. You need to take the properties and
characteristics into consideration when making a map or working in a GIS. If you apply
the wrong projection, your map may be inaccurate. Answer the following guiding
questions to make sure that you are familiar with map projections:

• What is the difference between equivalence, equidistance and conformal

properties of maps?
• Which projections preserve equivalence?
• Which projections preserve equidistance?
• What are some common projections for world maps?
• What is a loxodrome?
• Which projection shows the shortest distance between Johannesburg and New
York as a straight line?

Some bonus material

While searching for resources for this and other modules, I came across this article
(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2161488/Secret-corpse-flights-pizza-boy-
delivery-routes-daily-commute-Stunning-aerial-images-reveal-seen-America.html) in
the Daily Mail. If you follow the link, you will very quickly see why this article captured
my attention. The images in this article (note that I refer to these as images, and
not as maps – we will discuss this in more depth at a later stage) not only show a
number of incredibly interesting spatial distributions, but they also do so in a
spectacular way.
These images are from an episode of the television programme "America Revealed"
– they represent a screen capture of the episode and are therefore not the final
product. Because of the fascinating way in which they show everyday data, the Daily
Mail published these screen captures. These images alone do not, however, tell the
full story, and can be seen as misrepresenting data or reality. Why is that? What is
the difference between the way in which these images are represented on video,
and the way in which they are represented in the article?

You can see this difference quite easily in the image showing the number o f
job losses in the United States. Look at this image carefully – why do I say that it
misrepresents reality?

Go to the forum titled "Lesson 2 – Forum" and post your observations. Once you
have discussed the question with your fellow students, I will participate in the
discussion and provide you with an answer.

2.3.3 Remotely capturing reality

Do the same types of problems apply to remotely sensed

sources?
We have been focusing on some of the issues relating to the accurate representation
of the real world on flat surfaces. Since you are probably more familiar with maps,
we have focused on the nature of geographical data and how this affects
representation on maps. We have also dealt with map projections and how they
allow us to preserve some of the properties of reality on maps. But do the same
issues apply in the case of aerial photographs and satellite images?
Do remotely sensed images (including aerial photographs) have a scale? Are they
affected by the resolution of data? How do they deal with projections?
Remotely sensed images are also representations of the earth's surface, and
therefore also need to have a scale. Complete the activity below, which will give you
the opportunity to explore the scale and resolution of remotely sensed images.

Activity 2.6: Projections for photographs and images

The scale of an image works in the same way as the scale of a map. There
is a slight difference, however, between the resolution of data on a map and the
resolution of a remotely sensed image. Read the following source:
Understanding image scale and resolution: See
ScaleAndResolution_Final.pdf available in myUNISA and the Google Drive.

From your reading you will have seen that remotely sensed images also have scale
and resolution (although they differ slightly from what you have encountered so far).
Aerial photographs and satellite images are also representations of the earth's
surface on a flat piece of paper (or on a computer screen).
So why is it important to consider the projection of remotely sensed images?
Explore the link Projections do Matter
(http://eijournal.com/2011/beware%E2%80%94map- projections-do-matter) and
then complete the task below.

Please note: These links are important in order to answer some of the
online assessment questions.

Search the internet for similar examples as the one described in the link above. After
completing your search, share your findings with your classmates in the forum titled
"Lesson 2 – Forum"

2.3.4 Concluding thoughts

Representing reality: recapping some of the issues

After your introduction to spatial problems and spatiality in lesson 1, lesson 2 dealt
more specifically with the representation of reality on maps and working with reality
in a GIS.
When we represent something in the form of a map or as spatial data in a GIS, there
are a number of key issues and concepts that we need to be aware of. These relate
to how easily we could misrepresent reality, but they also provide us with tools to
help us communicate the message or purpose of our map (provided we use them
correctly).
In this lesson, we discussed map scale and scale in a GIS – a very important aspect,
since all maps and spatial data are reduced representations of the earth's surface.
We also covered two other aspects that are very closely related to map scale and
scale in a GIS. Firstly, you were introduced to data resolution and to how scale
affects the degree of detail that can be shown on a map or in a GIS, and secondly,
you were introduced to dimensionality, which simply stated, deals with how we
represent features and phenomena. Dimensionality deals with questions such as:
"How will we represent trees – by means of points or areas?" or "Will I represent a
river as an area or a line?" Our discussion of dimensionality should also have made
you aware that map scale affects the dimensionality of features on a map. The same
dimensionality, namely points, lines and polygons are used in a GIS.
When communicating information on a map or in a GIS, we therefore need to
consider scale, resolution and dimensionality. For instance, I cannot communicate
any information about the city of Johannesburg to you if I use a small scale and a
point to represent Johannesburg.
You also saw that scale, resolution and dimensionality are not the only things that
need to be considered when representing reality.
One of the greatest challenges associated with representing reality is representing
the world as if it were flat: when we try to represent the actual shape of the earth on
a flat surface, distortions necessarily occur.
To overcome this problem, we use projections to try and minimise the distortions.
However, it is extremely important to use a projection that preserves the correct
properties. Knowing which projection to use for which type of map or GIS application
is key.
While the focus of this lesson has been on maps and spatial data in a GIS, you need
to remember that aerial photographs and satellite imagery are also representations
of reality. Map scale, resolution and projections are therefore equally relevant when
you are working with these sources of spatial data. We will revisit aerial photographs,
satellite imagery and their uses in a GIS in lesson 6.
In the next lesson, I will ask you to compile your own map using QGIS in order to
learn about communicating spatial information.